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never flown. In the late 1990s, aerocapture was considered for the Mars
Odyssey mission (then referred to as Mars 2001 Surveyor), but was later dropped in favor of aerobraking due to cost reasons and heritage with other Mars missions. In the early 2000s, aerocapture was identified as the focus area by the NASA In-Space Propulsion Technology (ISPT) program. A multi-center Aerocapture Systems Analysis Team (ASAT) was put together under this project to define reference aerocapture missions at various Solar System destinations and identify any technology gaps to be closed before implementation on a flight project. The ASAT team led by Mary Kae Lockwood at the NASA Langley Research Center studied in substantial detail aerocapture mission concepts to Venus, Mars, Titan, and Neptune. Since 2016, there is renewed interest in aerocapture particularly with respect to small satellite orbit insertion at Venus and Mars, and Flagship-class missions to Uranus and Neptune in the upcoming decade.
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a rigid nosepiece and an inflated, attached decelerator to increase the drag area. Just prior to entering the atmosphere, the inflatable aeroshell extends from a rigid nose-cap and provides a larger surface area to slow the spacecraft down. Made of thin-film material and reinforced with a ceramic cloth, the inflatable aeroshell design could offer many of the same advantages and functionality as trailing ballute designs. While not as large as the trailing ballute, the inflatable aeroshell is roughly three times larger than the rigid aeroshell system and performs the aerocapture maneuver higher in the atmosphere, reducing heating loads. Because the system is inflatable, the spacecraft is not enclosed during launch and cruise, which allows more flexibility during spacecraft design and operations.
20:
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rigid aeroshell design, such as not constraining the spacecraft size and shape, and subjecting the vehicle to much lower aerodynamic and thermal loads. Because the trailing ballute is much larger than the spacecraft, aerocapture occurs high in the atmosphere where much less heat is generated. The ballute incurs most of the aerodynamic forces and heat, allowing the use of minimal thermal protection around the spacecraft. One of the primary advantages of the ballute configuration is mass. Where the rigid aeroshell may account for 30–40% of the mass of a spacecraft, the ballute mass fraction could be as little as 8–12%, saving mass for more science payload.
205:. The module was used for six uncrewed space flights from February 1966 to April 1968 and eleven crewed missions from Apollo 7 in October 1968 through the final crewed Apollo 17 lunar mission in December 1972. Because of its extensive heritage, the aeroshell system design is well understood. Adaptation of the aeroshell from atmospheric entry to aerocapture requires mission-specific customization of the thermal protection material to accommodate the different heating environments of aerocapture. Also, higher-temperature adhesives and lightweight, high temperature structures are desired to minimize the mass of the aerocapture system.
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inflatable heat shield, known as the inflatable aeroshell design or a mechanically deployed drag skirt. The third major design option is of an inflatable, trailing ballute—a combination balloon and parachute made of thin, durable material towed behind the vehicle after deployment in the vacuum of space.
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NASA technologists are developing ways to place robotic space vehicles into long-duration scientific orbits around distant Solar System destinations without the need for the heavy fuel loads that have historically limited vehicle performance, mission duration, and mass available for science payloads.
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The deployable or inflatable aeroshell design looks much like the aeroshell or blunt body design. But unlike the lifting aeroshell, the deployable or inflatable systems produce no lift. The only control variable is the drag area. The inflatable aeroshell is often referred to as a hybrid system, with
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Aerocapture technology has also been evaluated for use in crewed Mars missions and found to offer significant mass benefits. For this application, however, the trajectory must be constrained to avoid excessive deceleration loads on the crew. Although there are similar constraints on trajectories for
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Aerocapture has been studied for planetary missions since the early 1960s. London's pioneering article on using aerodynamic maneuvering to change the plane of a satellite in Earth orbit, instead of using a propulsive maneuver is considered a precursor for the concept of aerocapture. The aerocapture
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using existing entry vehicles and thermal protection system materials. Until recently, mid-L/D (lift-to-drag) vehicles were considered essential for aerocapture at Uranus and
Neptune, due to the large uncertainties in entry state and atmospheric density profiles. However, advances in interplanetary
45:
generated as the vehicle descends into the atmosphere slows the spacecraft. After the spacecraft slows enough to be captured by the planet, it exits the atmosphere and executes a small propulsive burn at the first apoapsis to raise the periapsis outside the atmosphere. Additional small burns may be
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material. The ballute is much larger than the spacecraft and is towed behind the craft, much like a parachute, to slow the vehicle down. The "trailing" design also allows for easy detachment after the aerocapture maneuver is complete. The trailing ballute design has performance advantages over the
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In the late 1980s, the
Aeroassist Flight Experiment (AFE) was conceived to use a Shuttle-launched payload to demonstrate aerocapture at Earth. The project resulted in a number of significant developments including guidance flight software, but was eventually cancelled due to cost overruns and was
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The aerocapture maneuver can be accomplished with three basic types of systems. The spacecraft can be enclosed by a structure covered with thermal protection material also known as the rigid aeroshell design. Similarly another option is for the vehicle to deploy an aerocapture device, such as an
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upon lunar return were aerocapture maneuvers, since they turned a hyperbolic orbit into an elliptical orbit. On these missions, since there was no attempt to raise the perigee after the aerocapture, the resulting orbit still intersected the atmosphere, and re-entry occurred at the next perigee.
152:) would allow for a significant increase in scientific payload for missions ranging from Venus (79% increase) to Titan (280% increase) and Neptune (832% increase). Additionally, the study showed that using aerocapture technology could enable scientifically useful missions to Jupiter and Saturn.
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To perform aerocapture, the vehicle must enter the atmosphere within the aerocapture theoretical entry corridor. Entering too steep will result in the vehicle failing to exit the atmosphere. Entering too shallow will result in the vehicle exiting the atmosphere without depleting enough energy.
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system encases a spacecraft in a protective shell. This shell acts as an aerodynamic surface, providing lift and drag, and provides protection from the intense heating experienced during high-speed atmospheric flight. Once the spacecraft is captured into orbit, the aeroshell is jettisoned.
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One of the main advantages of using an aerocapture technique over that of an aerobraking technique is that it enables mission concepts for human spaceflight due to the rapid process of transitioning to the desired orbit, shortening the length of the mission by months.
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is considered a long-term goal, as their huge gravity wells result in very high entry speeds and harsh aerothermal environments, making aerocapture a less attractive, and, perhaps, infeasible option at these destinations. However, it is possible to use an
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refers to a different "aeroassist" maneuver and is not to be confused with aerocapture. Cruz's 1979 article was the first to use the word aerocapture, and was followed by a series of studies focusing on its applications to Mars Sample Return (SR).
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is another aeroassist maneuver that shares some similarities but also some important differences with aerocapture. While aerocapture is used for inserting a spacecraft into orbit from a hyperbolic trajectory, aerobraking is used for reducing the
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used for the orbit insertion burn. The saving in propellant mass allows for more science instrumentation to be added to the mission, or allows for a smaller and less-expensive spacecraft, and, potentially, a smaller, less-expensive
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in which two spacecraft (one
Russian, one Chinese) both use aerocapture in Jupiter's atmosphere to shed their excess velocity and position themselves for exploring Jupiter's satellites. This can be seen as a special effect in the
322:, the ship Destiny's autopilot employs aerocapture within the atmosphere of a gas giant at the edge of a star system. This puts the ship on a direct heading into the star at the center of the system.
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concept was then referred to as aerodynamic braking or "aerobraking", and was investigated as a potential orbit insertion method for Mars and Venus missions by Repic et al. In modern terminology,
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navigation and atmospheric guidance techniques have shown that heritage low-L/D aeroshells such as Apollo offer sufficient control authority for aerocapture at
Neptune. Aerocapture at
53:, this nearly fuel-free method of deceleration could significantly reduce the mass of an interplanetary spacecraft, as a substantial fraction of the spacecraft mass is often
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provides rapid mission analysis capability for aerocapture and Entry, Descent, and
Landing (EDL) mission concepts to atmosphere-bearing destinations in the Solar System.
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Because of the aerodynamic heating encountered during the atmospheric pass, the spacecraft must be packaged inside an aeroshell (or a deployable entry system) with a
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Way, David; Powell, Richard; Masciarelli, James; Starr, Brett; Edquist, Karl (2003). "Aerocapture
Simulation and Performance for the Titan Explorer Mission".
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robotic missions, the human limits are typically more stringent, especially in light of the effects of prolonged microgravity on acceleration tolerances.
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Aerocapture uses a planet's or moon's atmosphere to accomplish a quick, near-propellantless orbit insertion maneuver to place a spacecraft in its science
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411:" technologies being developed by NASA for science missions to any planetary body with an appreciable atmosphere. These destinations could include
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Entering within the corridor allows the vehicle guidance scheme to achieve the desired exit conditions for a capture orbit around the planet.
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in which a spacecraft uses aerodynamic drag force from a single pass through a planetary atmosphere to decelerate and achieve orbit insertion.
41:. The aerocapture maneuver starts as the spacecraft enters the atmosphere of the target body from an interplanetary approach trajectory. The
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NASA has used blunt aeroshell systems in the past for atmospheric entry missions. The most recent example is the Mars
Exploration Rovers,
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often employ aerocapture, particularly when exploring the satellites of Jool (a gas giant that serves as the game's
Jupiter analogue).
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Schematic showing the various phases of the aerocapture maneuver. Atmospheric height is greatly exaggerated for clarity.
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Physiologically constrained aerocapture for manned Mars missions, JE Lyne, NASA STI/Recon
Technical Report N 93, 12720
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Hall, Jeffery L.; Noca, Muriel A.; Bailey, Robert W. (2005). "Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Aerocapture Mission Set".
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Papadopoulos (1997). "Aerothermal heating simulations with surface catalysis for the Mars 2001 aerocapture mission".
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329:, asteroid miners use a purpose-built aerocapture ship in a desperate attempt to return to Earth from the asteroid
201:, which launched in June and July 2003, and landed on the Martian surface in January 2004. Another example is the
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Histogram showing the number of publications addressing aerocapture since the 1960s, classified by target planet.
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required to correct apoapsis and inclination targeting errors before the initial science orbit is established.
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Girija, AP; et al. (2020). "Feasibility and Mass-Benefit Analysis of Aerocapture for Missions to Venus".
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Lyne, J. E. (1994). "Physiological constraints on deceleration during the aerocapture of manned vehicles".
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Deshmukh, R.G.; et al. (2020). "Investigation of direct force control for aerocapture at Neptune".
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orbiter, but later changed to aerobraking for reasons of cost and commonality with other missions.
776:"Feasibility and Performance Analysis of Neptune Aerocapture Using Heritage Blunt-Body Aeroshells"
603:. Conference on Advanced Technology for Future Space Systems, Hampton, Va. Vol. 1. New York:
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73:, or a drag-modulation system which can change the vehicle's drag-producing area during flight.
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Lu, Ye; et al. (2020). "Titan aerogravity-assist maneuvers for Saturn/Enceladus missions".
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1222:"Quantitative Assessment of Aerocapture and Applications to Future Solar System Exploration"
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Austin, Alex (2019). "SmallSat Aerocapture to Enable a New Paradigm of Planetary Missions".
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in which only a Russian spacecraft undergoes aerocapture (in the film incorrectly called
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Munk, Michelle M; Moon, Steven A (2008). "Aerocapture Technology Development Overview".
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Repic, E.M.; Boobar, M.G. (1968). "Aerobraking as a potential planetary capture mode".
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Finch, Thomas W. (1965). "Aerodynamic braking trajectories for mars orbit attainment".
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London, Howard S (1962). "Change of satellite orbit plane by aerodynamic maneuvering".
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A study showed that using aerocapture over the next best method (propellant burn and
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Schematic of drag modulation aerocapture using a deployable or inflatable aeroshell
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1290:"Assessing the Relative Risk of Aerocapture Using Probabilistic Risk Assessment"
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723:"Aerocapture Assessment for NASA Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Survey Mission Study"
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Cruz, MI (May 8–10, 1979). "The aerocapture vehicle mission design concept".
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Aerocapture has been proposed and analyzed for arrival at Saturn's moon
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1263:"SCIENCE TEAM AND INSTRUMENTS SELECTED FOR MARS SURVEYOR 2001 MISSIONS"
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One of the primary inflatable deceleration technologies is a trailing
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1232:(4). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics: 1074–1095.
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786:(6). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics: 1186–1203.
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Aerocapture has not yet been tried on a planetary mission, but the
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Schematic illustration of the aerocapture vehicle entry corridor
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39th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit
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Hofstadter, Mark D; Simon, Amy; Reh, Kim; Elliot, John (2017).
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238:, or donut-shaped, decelerator, made of a lightweight,
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1288:Percy, T.K.; Bright, E. & Torres, A.O. (2005).
735:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
690:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
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605:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
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76:Aerocapture has been shown to be feasible at
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1118:"Ice Giants Pre-Decadal Study Final Report"
1019:35th Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit
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375:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
267:Aerocapture was originally planned for the
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442:Comparison of aerocapture and aerobraking
438:of a spacecraft that is already in orbit.
286:Aerocapture within fiction can be read in
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395:Learn how and when to remove this message
209:Deployable or Inflatable aeroshell design
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676:Spilker, Thomas R.; Adler, Mark (2019).
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513:Aerocapture Mission Analysis Tool (AMAT)
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110:to insert a spacecraft around Saturn.
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586:NASAfacts, "Aerocapture Technology."
234:configuration. The design features a
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1087:. Big Sky, MT: IEEE. pp. 1–20.
407:Aerocapture is part of a family of "
373:adding citations to reliable sources
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49:Compared to conventional propulsive
1044:. Big Sky, MT: IEEE. pp. 1–7.
721:Saikia, S. J.; et al. (2021).
13:
1573:Weather and environment monitoring
1220:Girija, A.P.; et al. (2022).
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774:Girija, A.P.; et al. (2020).
601:Technical Papers.(A79-34701 14–12)
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181:Blunt body, rigid aeroshell design
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1265:. 6 November 1997. Archived from
1226:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
1177:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
1133:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
965:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
930:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
903:Journal of the Aerospace Sciences
780:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
727:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
682:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
628:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
468:Atmospheric passes over duration
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1854:Health threat from cosmic rays
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1001:"Aeroasist Flight Experiment"
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474:100–400 over weeks to months
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114:Brief History of Aerocapture
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1970:Self-replicating spacecraft
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1021:. Reno, NV. p. 473.
318:In the television serial
67:thermal protection system
32:orbital transfer maneuver
16:Orbital transfer maneuver
1580:Communications satellite
485:Sparse outer atmosphere
2084:reusable launch systems
1701:Extravehicular activity
1612:Commercial use of space
1516:Militarisation of space
1489:Registration Convention
1405:Accidents and incidents
226:Trailing ballute design
140:Benefits of aerocapture
2132:Mission control center
2094:Non-rocket spacelaunch
1528:Billionaire space race
490:Hardware requirements
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185:The blunt body, rigid
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1982:Spacecraft propulsion
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866:. Elsevier: 262–275.
823:. Elsevier: 375–386.
471:1 over hours to days
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203:Apollo Command Module
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1607:Satellite navigation
607:. pp. 195–201.
457:Starting trajectory
369:improve this section
325:In the sci-fi novel
312:Kerbal Space Program
1992:Electric propulsion
1679:Life-support system
1563:Imagery and mapping
1523:Private spaceflight
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1238:2022JSpRo..59.1074G
1189:1994JSpRo..31..443L
1145:2005JSpRo..42..309H
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872:2020AcAau.176..262L
829:2020AcAau.175..375D
792:2020JSpRo..57.1186G
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644:2020JSpRo..57...58G
613:1979atfs.conf..195C
589:. 12 September 2007
557:Atmospheric reentry
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1945:Robotic spacecraft
1871:Space and survival
1726:Space colonization
1622:Space architecture
1474:Outer Space Treaty
1269:on 8 February 2017
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860:Acta Astronautica
817:Acta Astronautica
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922:
899:
895:
856:
852:
813:
809:
772:
768:
719:
715:
674:
667:
624:
620:
597:
593:
585:
574:
570:
532:
527:
525:
522:
509:
496:No heat shield
460:Interplanetary
401:
390:
384:
381:
366:
350:
339:
337:Related methods
284:
249:
228:
211:
183:
162:
142:
116:
51:orbit insertion
17:
12:
11:
5:
2196:
2186:
2185:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2153:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2122:Ground station
2119:
2113:
2111:
2109:Ground segment
2105:
2104:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2077:
2072:
2066:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2042:Interplanetary
2039:
2038:
2037:
2035:Geosynchronous
2032:
2022:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2002:Gravity assist
1999:
1994:
1989:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1942:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1933:Service module
1930:
1925:
1923:Orbital module
1915:
1910:
1908:Launch vehicle
1904:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1888:
1886:Space sexology
1883:
1878:
1876:Space medicine
1873:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1802:
1801:
1791:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1711:Weightlessness
1708:
1703:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1663:
1661:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1632:Space research
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1568:Reconnaissance
1565:
1560:
1550:
1544:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1466:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1437:European Union
1434:
1429:
1424:
1414:
1409:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1369:
1362:
1361:
1354:
1347:
1339:
1332:
1331:
1324:
1298:
1280:
1254:
1212:
1183:(3): 443–446.
1167:
1158:
1153:10.2514/1.4118
1139:(2): 309–320.
1123:
1108:
1101:
1075:
1068:
1032:
1009:
991:
971:(8): 921–926.
955:
936:(4): 497–500.
920:
915:10.2514/8.9416
909:(3): 323–332.
893:
850:
807:
766:
713:
665:
618:
591:
571:
569:
566:
565:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
538:
537:
521:
518:
517:
516:
508:
505:
498:
497:
494:
491:
487:
486:
483:
480:
476:
475:
472:
469:
465:
464:
461:
458:
454:
453:
450:
447:
403:
402:
353:
351:
344:
338:
335:
283:
280:
248:
245:
227:
224:
210:
207:
182:
179:
161:
158:
141:
138:
115:
112:
60:launch vehicle
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2195:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2152:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2070:Direct ascent
2068:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2052:Intergalactic
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1987:Rocket engine
1985:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1918:Space capsule
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1881:Space nursing
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1835:Health issues
1833:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1789:Space Shuttle
1787:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1721:Space tourism
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1642:Space weather
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1529:
1526:
1525:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1506:Space command
1504:
1503:
1502:
1501:Space warfare
1499:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1462:United States
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1380:Astrodynamics
1378:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1355:
1353:
1348:
1346:
1341:
1340:
1337:
1327:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1291:
1284:
1268:
1264:
1258:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1162:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1119:
1112:
1104:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1079:
1071:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1013:
1002:
995:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
959:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
924:
916:
912:
908:
904:
897:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
854:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
811:
802:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
770:
762:
758:
753:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
717:
708:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
672:
670:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
622:
614:
610:
606:
602:
595:
588:
583:
581:
579:
577:
572:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
539:
535:
524:
514:
511:
510:
504:
495:
492:
489:
488:
484:
481:
478:
477:
473:
470:
467:
466:
462:
459:
456:
455:
451:
448:
446:
445:
439:
437:
432:
428:
426:
425:outer planets
422:
418:
414:
410:
399:
396:
388:
385:February 2019
378:
374:
370:
364:
363:
359:
354:This section
352:
348:
343:
342:
334:
332:
328:
323:
321:
316:
314:
313:
307:
305:
301:
300:movie version
296:
294:
289:
279:
277:
272:
270:
265:
262:
258:
254:
253:re-entry skip
244:
241:
237:
233:
223:
215:
206:
204:
200:
196:
191:
188:
178:
174:
166:
157:
153:
151:
146:
137:
133:
130:
120:
111:
109:
105:
100:
96:
91:
87:
83:
79:
74:
72:
68:
63:
61:
56:
52:
47:
44:
40:
35:
33:
29:
21:
2062:Space launch
2047:Interstellar
2013:Destinations
1782:Apollo–Soyuz
1731:Space diving
1716:Space toilet
1540:Applications
1457:Soviet Union
1417:Space policy
1412:Space launch
1307:
1301:
1283:
1271:. Retrieved
1267:the original
1257:
1229:
1225:
1215:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1161:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1111:
1084:
1078:
1041:
1035:
1018:
1012:
994:
968:
964:
958:
933:
929:
923:
906:
902:
896:
863:
859:
853:
820:
816:
810:
783:
779:
769:
730:
726:
716:
685:
681:
631:
627:
621:
600:
594:
562:Skip reentry
501:
452:Aerobraking
449:Aerocapture
429:
406:
391:
382:
367:Please help
355:
324:
317:
310:
308:
291:
285:
273:
269:Mars Odyssey
266:
250:
229:
220:
192:
184:
175:
171:
154:
147:
143:
134:
125:
75:
64:
48:
36:
27:
26:
2020:Sub-orbital
1955:Space probe
1821:New Shepard
1799:Shuttle–Mir
1558:Archaeology
1511:Space force
1494:Moon Treaty
1366:Spaceflight
737:: 505–515.
692:: 536–545.
542:Aerobraking
463:High orbit
431:Aerobraking
304:aerobraking
247:In practice
199:Opportunity
150:aerobraking
129:aerobraking
28:Aerocapture
2089:Launch pad
2080:Expendable
2030:Geocentric
1997:Solar sail
1940:Spaceplane
1900:Spacecraft
1694:Space suit
1672:commercial
1600:Television
1395:Space Race
1273:3 November
568:References
409:aeroassist
282:In fiction
55:propellant
2099:Spaceport
1950:Satellite
1667:Astronaut
1595:Telephone
1548:Astronomy
1469:Space law
1422:Australia
888:219911419
845:224848526
761:233976308
660:213497903
638:: 58–73.
356:does not
290:'s novel
240:thin-film
187:aeroshell
71:aeroshell
2177:Category
2151:Category
1816:Tiangong
1811:Shenzhou
1740:Programs
1585:Internet
1390:Timeline
520:See also
507:Software
436:apoapsis
236:toroidal
2025:Orbital
1826:Artemis
1757:Voskhod
1752:Mercury
1660:General
1400:Records
1385:History
1373:General
1234:Bibcode
1185:Bibcode
1141:Bibcode
1120:. NASA.
973:Bibcode
938:Bibcode
868:Bibcode
825:Bibcode
788:Bibcode
739:Bibcode
694:Bibcode
640:Bibcode
609:Bibcode
377:removed
362:sources
327:Delta-v
232:ballute
95:Jupiter
2162:Portal
2155:
2144:
1960:Lander
1913:Rocket
1777:Skylab
1772:Apollo
1762:Gemini
1747:Vostok
1452:Russia
1322:
1099:
1066:
886:
843:
759:
658:
261:Zond 7
257:Zond 6
195:Spirit
99:Saturn
88:, and
30:is an
1965:Rover
1767:Soyuz
1590:Radio
1447:Japan
1442:India
1427:China
1293:(PDF)
1004:(PDF)
884:S2CID
841:S2CID
757:S2CID
733:(2).
688:(2).
656:S2CID
634:(1).
421:Titan
417:Venus
331:Ryugu
276:Titan
108:Titan
90:Titan
82:Earth
78:Venus
39:orbit
2127:Pass
2082:and
1320:ISBN
1275:2011
1097:ISBN
1064:ISBN
413:Mars
360:any
358:cite
259:and
197:and
97:and
86:Mars
1794:Mir
1312:doi
1242:doi
1201:hdl
1193:doi
1149:doi
1089:doi
1054:hdl
1046:doi
1023:doi
981:doi
946:doi
911:doi
876:doi
864:176
833:doi
821:175
796:doi
747:doi
702:doi
648:doi
371:by
306:).
255:by
106:at
62:.
2179::
1318:.
1310:.
1240:.
1230:59
1228:.
1224:.
1199:.
1191:.
1181:31
1179:.
1147:.
1137:42
1135:.
1095:.
1062:.
1052:.
979:.
967:.
944:.
932:.
907:29
905:.
882:.
874:.
862:.
839:.
831:.
819:.
794:.
784:57
782:.
778:.
755:.
745:.
731:58
729:.
725:.
700:.
686:56
684:.
680:.
668:^
654:.
646:.
632:57
630:.
575:^
427:.
415:,
333:.
278:.
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80:,
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1351:t
1344:v
1328:.
1314::
1295:.
1277:.
1252:.
1250:.
1244::
1236::
1209:.
1203::
1195::
1187::
1155:.
1151::
1143::
1105:.
1091::
1072:.
1056::
1048::
1029:.
1025::
989:}
987:.
983::
975::
969:5
952:.
948::
940::
934:2
917:.
913::
890:.
878::
870::
847:.
835::
827::
804:.
798::
790::
763:.
749::
741::
710:.
704::
696::
662:.
650::
642::
615:.
611::
398:)
392:(
387:)
383:(
379:.
365:.
295:,
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
