1993 Burundian coup attempt

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other eleven military camps in Bujumbura, including members of the 1st Parachute Battalion and a few personnel from the 2nd Commando Battalion. They prepared to attack the palace, which was only guarded by 38 soldiers of the Presidential Guard and two armoured cars. Shortly before 01:00 on 21 October, Ntakije called the president and told him that armoured cars had left Camp Muha for an unknown destination and advised him to leave the palace immediately. Ndadaye then attempted to reach Captain Ildephonse Mushwabure, the commander of the palace guard, by phone, but when he did not answer he went into the palace gardens. At 01:30 the putschists fired a single shot, and shortly thereafter at least one armoured car blasted a hole in the wall of the grounds and began bombarding the palace with cannon fire. Laurence Ndadaye took her three children into an interior room and sheltered them under tables, though she and her son were grazed by shrapnel. Meanwhile, the president was disguised in a military uniform by his guards and placed in one of their armoured cars in the garden, where he remained for the next six hours. According to political scientist

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Ndadaye's safety. Instead of informing the president about the vague threat his wife had learned of, he told him that he felt it strange that UPRONA, the Tutsi-dominated opposition party, was denouncing the government's popular policy of allowing thousands of Burundian refugees to return to the country before the commune elections in December. Ngendahayo stated that he thought this would cost UPRONA the elections, and thus the only reason they would oppose the policy is if they planned to take power via assassination and a coup. He also requested that Ndadaye further consider a previous report declaring his security to be inadequate. Ndadaye instructed Ngendahayo to bring him Minister of Defence Ntakije. Ngendahayo found Ntakije in a separate room on a telephone call. Ambassador Melchior Ntamobwa, who was also present, told Ngendahayo that the colonel was being informed of a coup plot meant to move forward that night. Once Ntakije finished the call, he and Ngendahayo went to the president's office.

995:, but found that the palace was surrounded by putschists. At Captain Mushwabure's direction, Ndadaye decided to be taken with his family to Camp Muha. At 7:30 they left in their armoured car, and were trailed by the putschists' vehicles. Upon arriving at the base at 8:00, their car was surrounded by putschists of the 1st Battalion. Ndadaye was taken by Colonel Bikomagu to a meeting with other senior officers of the army. About an hour later he returned with Secretary of State for Security Colonel Lazare Gakoryo, having reached a verbal agreement with the officers. Ndadaye reentered the armoured car with Gakoryo to finalise their understanding on paper, but when the secretary of state exited the vehicle soldiers began shouting for the president to come out. Once he did, Bikomagu quieted the crowd and Ndadaye appealed to the soldiers to negotiate peacefully with him. 939:

soon departed and Patin reached the embassy, where he telephoned the United States Department of State and told them about the coup. At 2:45 Ntibantunganya telephoned Patin, telling him that the president was safe and that "the situation seems to be under control". He also extracted Patin's assurances that the United States government would condemn the coup. At about 03:30 he told Patin that he was preparing to flee. Distrustful of his military guard, he changed into his gardener's clothes and walked to a friend's home, where he remained in hiding for the next two days. Ntaryamira hid in his neighbours' home, who were Tutsis. When soldiers did not find him in his own residence, they went there asking for his whereabouts. The matriarch of the household told the soldiers that Ntaryamira had fled down the road, and they quickly departed.

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concluding that the perpetrators of Ndadaye's murder should be held accountable. An International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi was eventually established in August 1995 by the UN Security Council. The body's investigation was obstructed by the Burundian military and it found inconsistencies in the testimonies of Tutsi officers. When interviewed about the events, senior commanders portrayed the coup as a mutiny. The commission concluded in its 1996 report that "the coup was carried out by officers highly placed in the line of command of the Burundian Army" but that it was "not in a position to identify the persons that should be brought to justice for this crime". Some low-ranking Tutsi soldiers interviewed by the commission accused Buyoya of involvement in the coup, but they were later killed in a prison riot.

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UPRONA's share of government positions to 45 percent, and mostly stripped the government and National Assembly of their powers by investing all executive authority in a National Security Council. The council comprised the president, prime minister, and eight other persons named by the president "on the proposition of political parties and after consulting with the representatives of civil society". A UPRONA/Tutsi faction then seized a majority on the council and effectively regained control of the country. Reyntjens described the convention as "the institutional translation of the October 1993 coup: the constitution been shelved and the outcome of both the presidential and parliamentary elections swept aside as the president and parliament placed under the tutelage of an unconstitutional body".

725:. He initially ignored the country's ethnic strife and perpetuated Tutsi domination of public life. In August 1988 violence broke out and the army massacred thousands of Hutus. Facing substantial foreign pressure, Buyoya initiated reforms designed to end Burundi's systemic ethnic violence, while UPRONA attempted to incorporate more Hutus into its ranks. The Tutsi establishment in the army and security forces nevertheless resisted change. A commission appointed by the president produced a constitution which provided for democratic elections. The document was adopted via referendum in March 1992 followed shortly thereafter by the creation of new political parties. Buyoya scheduled free elections in 1993 and offered himself as UPRONA's presidential candidate. UPRONA's main challenger became 868:

Ndadaye inquired about the status of Sylvestre Ningaba, the officer who had been arrested in July for attempting a coup, and asked if he could be relocated to a different prison so the putschists could not obtain his help. Ntakije said that this would not be possible due to the objections of prison officials to transferring detainees at nighttime, but he assured the president that he would station an additional armoured car at the Presidential Palace for extra security. Ndadaye spoke about training possibilities for the Presidential Guard before releasing both ministers and going to the palace. When he arrived he told his wife, Laurence, about the coup plot, but was mostly assured by what Ntakije had said to him. Ndadaye and his wife went to sleep, but he was awoken by a phone call from

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According to Lemarchand, the coup was a "watershed event" which "destroyed a nascent interethnic consensus" and "undid in a few hours what a democratic transition begun five years earlier had so painstakingly tried to accomplish". Reyntjens concurred and wrote that it led to the reemergence of ethnicity as "the single most important factor of political life". Academic Alexandre Hatungimana wrote that the killing of Ndadaye "opened a constitutional void that neither the army, divided on the military coup, nor the political parties of the opposition, weakened by their defeat in the election, nor civil society, paralyzed by the violence that took hold of nearly all the hilltops in the country, were able to fill". Economist

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Burundi. At about 14:00 on 21 October, a "Comité de gestion de crise" assembled at the Burundian Army headquarters. It comprised Ngeze (who was presiding), Army Chief of the General Staff Lieutenant Colonel Jean Bikomagu, Lieutenant Colonel Pascal Simbanduku, and Lieutenant Colonel Jean-Bosco Daradangwe. They were later joined by Lieutenant Colonel Slyvestre Ningaba following his release from prison. The committee resolved that military commanders in the provinces should arrest the governors and replace them, reattached the gendarmerie's command to the army, and sent out an appeal for politicians and foreign diplomats to meet with them and "discuss ways to manage the crisis".

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18 soldiers suspected of involvement in Ndadaye's murder, but by the end of 1994 none of the accused had been tried. The civilian procuracy began its investigations in April 1994. They were conducted by teams of provincial magistrates but were undermined by the Tutsi-dominated judicial system. The prosecutors arrested several hundred people—almost all of them Hutus—but by the end of 1994 had not subjected any of them to trial. As required by the Convention de Govournement, in October 1994 President Ntibantunganya called for an international commission of inquiry to investigate the events of October 1993, but no immediate steps were taken to further this endeavor.

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command over the army. The government rejected amnesty for the putschists. The following day Kinigi told reporters at the French embassy that her government had "no power" and appealed for "countries with good relations with us to send us troops". In a broadcast via Radio Rwanda, Ngendahayo asked the population to remain calm and asserted that the once the government could assume its responsibilities it would apprehend those responsible for the coup. The army in turn rejected Kinigi's call of international armed intervention. On 25 October the civilian government declared the abrogation of all emergency measures and the following day it reestablished control over

1048:, where the head of the mission, Jocelyn Basil-Finley, told him that the international community would not accept the coup. Ngeze then made several presidential appointments, assigning a new director of intelligence. At about 21:00, he introduced himself to the public in a television broadcast as President of the Conseil National de Salut Public—a body which did not exist—and announced the displacement of the governors among other actions as measures meant to "manage the crisis". Public radio announcements appealing for public support of the new regime were drafted under the direction of UPRONA politician Charles Mukasi. The country's borders were closed and 999:

Bikomagu then pointed at President Ndadaye and said to the putschists, "He is the one you were looking for. Here he is. Do what you want with him." They placed Ndadaye in a jeep and drove him to the 1st Parachute Battalion's camp nearby, closely followed by Bikomagu, Gakoryo, and Major Nibizi. The president was taken to an office where ten junior officers—specifically assigned to the task—killed him. A coroner's report later found that Ndadaye was held by a cord around his neck while the soldiers bayoneted him 14 times. Half of the wounds penetrated his thorax and the subsequent bleeding filled up his lungs, killing him. According to historian

1291:, while the CNDD-FDD ended its rebellion and engaged in the peace process. South African peacekeepers maintained order while a new consociational constitution was developed. While tensions remained high, political leaders engaged in more constructive and less inflammatory talks than in the aftermath of the 1993 coup, and the army withdrew itself from politics. Municipal elections were held in 2005. UPRONA and FRODEBU were left largely discredited for their governance failures, and CNDD-FDD won a majority of local offices. Subsequent parliamentary elections also resulted in a CNDD-FDD victory. The newly constituted Parliament then elected 1064:

of Ndadaye's death triggered an immediate reaction of violence from FRODEBU members and Hutu peasants across the country, who took to murdering all Tutsis they encountered. Some of the perpetrators stated that they acted out of fear that the assassination signaled an imminent repeat of the 1972 killings of Hutus. More deaths occurred when the army intervened to restore "peace and order", resorting to brutality and murdering many Hutu civilians in the process. Thousands more people fled abroad. When protestors peacefully demonstrated against the coup in Bujumbura, soldiers opened fire on them, killing about 10 people.

1162: 894:, the palace guards offered sustained resistance to the attack until several of them defected to the increasing number of putschists and the rest gave up. Two of the putschists were reportedly wounded by gunfire when they attempted to enter the palace grounds. In contrast, Laurence Ndadaye stated that none of the guards resisted the attack. The United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi wrote, "An armed confrontation is reported to have taken place between 'attackers' and 'defenders' for six hours...yet no one was killed, no armored car damaged." 827:, Libère Bararunyestse, Pascal Simbanduku, Lieutenant Colonel Jean-Bosco Daradangwe, François Bizindavyi, Samuel Nduwingoma, Laurent Niyonkuru, UPRONA politician Charles Mukasi, Lieutenant Colonel Nzosaba, Lieutenant Colonel Ndayisaba, Lieutenant Colonel Niyoyunguruza, Lieutenant Colonel Maregarege, Lieutenant Colonel Nengeri, Lieutenant Colonel Pancrace Girukwigomba, Major Gervais Nimubona, Major Bukasa, Major Haziyo, Lieutenant Ntarataza, Lieutenant Ngomirakiza, Vincent Niyungeko, and George Mukarako. The role of foreign influences is unknown. 1003:, Lieutenant Colonel Paul Kamana "is thought to be the person who actually killed President Ndadaye". The soldiers then dug a mass grave in the centre of the camp, where they buried Ndadaye, Karibwami, Bimazubute, Ndayikeza, and Ndikumwami. After several hours the soldiers realised that international opinion would strongly disapprove of such treatment of the bodies, so they exhumed them and allowed family members to collect them. Of the politicians killed during the coup attempt, all were FRODEBU members, and all but one were Hutu. 6687: 777:

regime, posing a threat to Tutsi elite business interests. Military reforms also led to the separation of the gendarmerie's command from the army, the replacement of the chiefs of staff of the army and gendarmerie, and new requirements for enrollment into the army were introduced. The army was due to open its annual recruitment drive in November, and there were fears among some Tutsi soldiers that this process would be altered in a way that would threaten their dominance of the institution.

29: 650:, Minister of Home Affairs and Communal Development Juvénal Ndayikeza, and Director of Intelligence Richard Ndikumwami. The deaths of Karibwami and Bimazubute eliminated the constitutional line of presidential succession. Other government figures, including Kinigi, survived by fleeing or seeking shelter at the French embassy. Later that day the army formed a crisis committee and presented Ngeze as the new President of Burundi. The announcement of Ndadaye's death touched off severe 654:, as angered Hutu peasants and FRODEBU members began murdering Tutsis. The army retaliated by massacring Hutus. The international community and civil society organisations condemned the coup and requested a return to constitutional governance. Faced with these challenges, in the afternoon of 23 October Bikomagu ordered the army to return to its barracks, and two days later Kinigi's government announced the abrogation of all emergency measures declared by the putschists. 171: 920: 4248: 745: 634:, while the government reconsidered various contracts and economic concessions made by the previous regimes and began reforming the army. These actions threatened the interest of Tutsi business elites and military officers. In this atmosphere, elements in the army began planning a coup. The exact identity of those who led the plot remains unknown, though Ngeze, Army Chief of Staff 1021:

representatives to rescue the nation of Burundi and its democracy. And I particularly call upon the francophone countries to assist, because at the recent francophone summit attended by President Ndadaye, they highlighted the virtues of democracy. I hope that they will spearhead this process in Burundi. And I call upon all Burundians to fight for democracy wherever they are.

1215: 630:. A new coalition government was installed on 10 July with FRODEBU leader Ndadaye as Burundi's first Hutu president. Ndadaye's tenure was largely peaceful, but during his time in office Burundi was subject to several social and political disruptions. Thousands of Burundian Hutu refugees who had fled previous political violence returned to the country 1246:

financially unworkable. According to Reyntjens, the failure of the October putsch led its perpetrators to opt for a "creeping coup", eroding FRODEBU's legitimacy and establishing a constitutional order that favored their aims. Civilian institutions of government were reestablished in earnest in December 1993; the government moved to a mansion near

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Ntaryamira's wife. Minister of Home Affairs and Communal Development Juvénal Ndayikeza called the provincial governors before telephoning Patin to ask him for refuge in the United States embassy. Patin assured him safety, but before Ndayikeza could reach the embassy he was captured by soldiers and killed. Vice-President of the National Assembly

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afternoon, protestors marched through the capital to commemorate Ndadaye and condemn the coup. All major providers of foreign aid to Burundi suspended their relief programs, particularly Belgium, France, Germany, the United States, and the European Union. The governments of Tanzania, Rwanda, and Zaire condemned the coup, as did the

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as Ndadaye's associates found him to be would so readily accept such scant preparations for his protection seems, in retrospect, remarkable to an outsider...However, in a capital perpetually nervous with rumour, it becomes exhausting to take seriously every reported threat. Moreover, Ndadaye may have had a kind of

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In December 1993 the Burundian government announced the formation of a commission of inquiry to investigate crimes related to the coup attempt and subsequent massacres. The commission never materialised. Similar investigations were conducted by the military and civilian procuracies. The army arrested

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had assisted in the coup. RTLM, a Rwandan Hutu extremist propaganda station, deliberately misreported the details of Ndadaye's death—saying he had been tortured and castrated—to inflame anti-Tutsi sentiment. According to Prunier, the death of Ndadaye greatly strengthened the messaging of Rwandan Hutu

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or from spontaneous violence remains heavily disputed among academics and Burundians who lived through the events. The killing of Ndadaye and the flight of 300,000 Hutu refugees to Rwanda during the violence crystallised anti-Tutsi sentiment among Hutus there and greatly troubled the prospects of the

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wrote that while the putschists never issued a manifesto, "it is clear they aimed to destroy the democratic government". She also wrote that "it may have been more of a self-interested coup by soldiers who happened to be Tutsi than a coup to safeguard the interests of the Tutsi as a group". Political

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In the afternoon Ngeze conducted a courtesy call at the French embassy to introduce himself as the new head of state. French Ambassador Henri Crepin-Leblond told him that the coup was unconstitutional and that power should be turned over to the civilian government. Ngeze then went to the local office

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Meanwhile, at about 7:30 Ngendahayo called Bikomagu. Bikomagu stated that he was with Ndadaye, but that the president could not speak due to the presence of hostile soldiers outside and quickly hung up. Ngendahayo, his brother, and Nyangoma suspected that Bikomagu was lying and, feeling that he might

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to mark the first 100 days of his presidency (which had passed two days prior) and discuss what his government had accomplished in comparison to its campaign promises. After the meeting, Ngendahayo requested to speak in private with Ndadaye. In the president's office, Ngendahayo raised concerns about

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Rumours circulated in Burundi that the army would attempt to intervene to disrupt the transition. Ndadaye reassured a supporter that "They can kill Ndadaye, but they can't kill all 5 million Ndadayes." A plot from a handful of officers discovered on 3 July to seize Ndadaye's residence failed due to a

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Writing on Ndadaye's willingness to return to the palace despite the threat, journalists Gaëtan Sebudandi and Pierre-Olivier Richard asserted that the president was probably convinced that the coup would be easily foiled, just like the plot on 3 July. Krueger wrote, "That a president as intelligent

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In March 1994 Boutros-Ghali sent a UN fact-finding mission to Burundi to investigate the coup attempt and subsequent massacres, but its findings were not made public. Further teams were sent by the UN Security Council and Boutros-Ghali throughout 1994 and early 1995 to investigate the massacres, all

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ruled that "the government acting collegially" assumed the responsibilities of the interim presidency until a new president could be elected. The constitution stipulated that upon the death of a president elections were to be held in three months time, but this was unanimously deemed practically and

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Faced with these challenges, in the afternoon of 23 October Bikomagu—offering himself as a mediator between the putschists and the government—ordered the army to return to its barracks and asked for an amnesty for those involved in the coup attempt. Daradangwe urged the civilian government to assume

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International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi determined in 1996 that "circumstantial evidence is sufficient to warrant the conclusion" that some FRODEBU leaders had anticipated the possibility of an army coup attempt and disseminated plans for armed resistance and hostage-taking. The announcement

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The message was repeatedly broadcast over Radio Rwanda throughout the day in French and Kirundi. Ngendahayo, his brother, and Nyangoma then took one of Carlier's company cars and reached the French embassy. Kinigi and Ntakije also sought refuge there; most of the cabinet was gathered at the embassy.

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Jean-Bosco Sindayigaya was also arrested but later released. At about 04:00, a technician awakened by the putschists was, after some delay, able to sever telecommunications between Bujumbura and elsewhere. With the phone lines inoperative, Patin decided to search for President Ndadaye. Upon reaching

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for Buyoya. Buyoya—who had urged the populace to accept the results of the election—condemned the coup attempt, as did the army leadership. Ndadaye was sworn-in as President on 10 July. He assembled a government of 23 ministers, including 13 FRODEBU and six UPRONA members. Nine of the ministers were

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Early in the morning on 21 October François Ngeze, a Hutu UPRONA member of the National Assembly and former Minister of Interior under Buyoya, was brought to Camp Para in Bujumbura. Later that morning army officers assembled in the camp's mess and Ngeze was presented to them as the new President of

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and Melchior Ntahobama were betrayed by their guards and were imprisoned. However, a few hours later a junior military officer freed them and asked them where they wished to go. Ciza was taken to the French embassy, while Ntahobama was taken to the home of the deputy chief of mission of the Belgian

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of the United States embassy, Paul Patin, awoke to the sound of gunfire. He called his embassy's head of security and asked him for a ride to the legation. When the security officer and a United States marine arrived at his residence some Burundian soldiers attempted to impede their entry, but they

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Early in the morning on 21 October 1993 army units took up positions around Bujumbura and mounted an attack on the presidential palace. After several hours Ndadaye was captured and taken to a military camp where he was murdered. The putschists also targeted key FRODEBU leaders, killing President of

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On 22 October Ngeze met with the Bujumbura diplomatic corps and representatives of international organisations at Kigobe Palace. He explained that since the country was embroiled by crisis, he had taken power with the support of the army to restore order. His remarks were negatively received. That

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Soldiers began closing in on the president, and Bikomagu instructed them to let his family go since they were "of no interest" to them. He directed a driver to take the family away, and at Laurence's direction, the soldier brought them to the French embassy, where they were allowed to take refuge.

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At about 7:00, soldiers breached the Presidential Palace and found Laurence Ndadaye and her children. They told them to go outside to find shelter in an armoured car. After 30 minutes of avoiding gunfire, they reached one of the two cars, which would not start. They quickly reunited with President

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of Rwanda to inform them of the coup. Habyarimana told her he was already aware of the putsch. After being warned, Ntibantunganya began calling FRODEBU leaders in an attempt to rally the government. At 02:10 he reached Ngendahayo. Ngendahayo then telephoned Ntakije, who reported that the situation

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Ndadaye's tenure was largely peaceful, but during his time in office Burundi was subject to several social and political disruptions. Among the former, the media—recently liberalised—often used its freedom to discuss public issues in an inflammatory manner. Thousands of Burundian Hutu refugees who

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was collected by soldiers from his residence. Though a Tutsi, he was a proponent of majority rule and was thus regarded as a traitor by the putschists, who soon thereafter killed him. When soldiers arrived at Director of Intelligence Richard Ndikumwami's house, he drew a pistol to defend himself.

1328:"Oh my God, the eternal question...Almost three decades that justice has cleared me. But, in the eyes of Burundians, I still remain the "bad boy"...From far or near, I was never involved. As proof, you will find that it was I who first condemned the coup d'etat, asking for respect for legality." 889:

At around midnight on 20/21 October, putschists of the 11th Armoured Car Battalion departed from Camp Muha in over a dozen armoured cars and took up positions around Bujumbura. Within an hour they surrounded the Presidential Palace. They were joined by hundreds of soldiers and gendarmes from the

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are generally regarded as leading members. Bikomagu and Bagaza denied any involvement, while Ngeze said he had been forced to support the putsch. Others believed to have played a key planning role include Lieutenant Colonel Ningaba, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Kazatasa, Lieutenant Colonel Laurent

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and demanding the reclamation of their property. Though Ndadaye suggested resettling them in vacant lands, many local officials made room for them by evicting others from their homes. Politically, Ndadaye's government reexamined several contracts and economic concessions made the by the previous

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Prunier described the Rwandan Patriotic Front's attitude towards the coup as "ambivalent"; the organisation issued a communique officially condemning Ndadaye's murder and the subsequent ethnic violence, but some of its members openly celebrated the president's death. The RPF also helped several

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on 12 July, a power-sharing agreement which allotted 60 percent of all government and administration offices to FRODEBU and the rest to UPRONA. Unsatisfied, UPRONA and its allies increased their demands, leading to the signing of the Convention de Govournement in September. The agreement raised

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The ethnic violence following the coup lasted to the end of the year. Initial estimates of the death toll ranged from 25,000 to 500,000. A joint study conducted by the United Nations Population Fund and the Burundian government in 2002 estimated the number of people killed from 21 October to 31

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via cell phone. He told them that the president was dead and that Ngendahayo, as Minister of Communications, had to inform the public. Afterwards, two technicians from the radio station phoned him, saying that while they could not broadcast a speech through their own station, they had a working

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was staying. At about 07:00 Ngendahayo telephoned Colonel Bikomagu. The colonel stated that the situation was "under control" and that Ndadye was "in a safe place". Ngendahayo requested a military escort so that he could go to the radio and television station and, as Minister of Communications,

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stated that "In military terms, the coup was a success. The predominantly Tutsi army still effective power. However, in political terms, the actions by the military extremists was an abysmal failure since it failed in their major objective of displacing the democratically elected government."

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Ntakije told Ndadaye that a coup was being planned by the 11th Armoured Car Battalion, which was going to attack the Presidential Palace at 02:00 on 21 October. When asked how he would respond, Ntakije said he would gather trusted officers and organise an ambush if the battalion left its camp.

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Tutsi extremists continued to employ violence in the months after the coup to put pressure on FRODEBU. By mid-1994, the Tutsi-dominated army was conducting ethnic cleansing operations and UPRONA was pushing for constitutional revisions. Seeing no other options, FRODEBU leaders agreed to make

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On 2 November an OAU peace mission was dispatched to Burundi, and Kinigi and Bikomagu met to try and sort out their differences. On 7 November Kinigi left the French embassy and returned to her residence under the protection of French soldiers. The French government assigned approximately 15

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At some point a group of army personnel began planning a coup against Ndadaye's government. According to an officer in the Presidential Guard, one of the preparations taken by the plotters was to move troops from further postings into Bujumbura to grow the strength of the army. According to

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I do not know for certain the fate of President Ndadaye at this time. What I do know is that, whether alive or dead, no one will stop the democratic process in Burundi. The people have decided to choose freedom. The wheel of history is going forward. I therefore call upon the free world's

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Meanwhile, the wives of Ntibantunganya and Ntaryamira, agreeing that they should split up from their husbands, sought safety in the home of their friend, Dominique Barumpozako. Soldiers went there in search of them and killed Ntibantunganya's wife and her houseguest, whom they mistook for

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under the protection of the French military. The National Assembly reconvened and elected Sylvestre Ntibantunganya as its new presiding officer and Christian Sendegaya as vice-president. Attempts by the National Assembly to elect a successor to Ndadaye were stifled by the Tutsi-dominated

1059:(RTLM) reported that a coup had taken place and that Ndadaye had been captured on 21 October. This led young FRODEBU members to arm themselves and take Tutsis and Hutu UPRONA members hostage. Once RTLM announced later that day that Ndadaye was dead, the hostages were executed. The 851:

and informed her that personnel in the army headquarters were plotting against the president. At 15:00 on 20 October, Major Isaïe Nibizi, commander of the 2nd Commando Battalion, commandant of Camp Muha, and the officer responsible for presidential security informed Ndadaye's

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Vice President of Burundi—lived in the former home of President Buyoya, which was constructed with many security features. The guards at his home did not resist the putschists, but they were unable to break in for an hour until they breached the reinforced doors with a

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December 1993 to be 116,059, with at least 100,000 deaths occurring in late October. It remains unclear what proportion of these victims were Tutsi and what proportion were Hutu. The question of whether the killings of Tutsis during this time arose from a planned

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On 19 October 2020 the Supreme Court sentenced Buyoya to life in prison for Ndadaye's murder. Bernard Busokoza, Alphonse-Marie Kadege, and 16 others were also sentenced for involvement in the murder. Buyoya, who was abroad at the time serving as an envoy for the

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considered Buyoya to be the person chiefly responsible for the coup, as did Lieutenant Jean-Paul Kamana and Commandant Hilaire Ntakiyica, two soldiers who admitted to partaking in minor roles in the plot. Others suspected of involvement include Jérôme Sinduhije,

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was under control. When Ntakije called back 30 minutes later, the colonel said that he was hiding and urged Ngendahayo to flee. Ngendahayo then took his family in his private car to the home of Michel Ramboux, a Belgian development official and personal friend.

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Constitutional Court, though the body eventually succeed in electing Cyprien Ntaryamira as president on 13 January 1994 and inaugurating him on 5 February. The composition of the government was revised and Kinigi was replaced by another Tutsi UPRONA member,

702:(UPRONA), which served as the legal ruling party from 1966, was overwhelmingly made up of Tutsis. Military officers dominated the presidency, coming to power through coups. During this time there instances of ethnic repression, particularly in 1972 when the 737:, who was backed by FRODEBU. Ndadaye won the election in a landslide, earning 64 percent of the popular vote. In the subsequent parliamentary elections on 29 June, FRODEBU won 71.4 percent of the vote and earned 80 percent of the seats in the 897:

Laurence Ndadaye was unable to reach her husband's cell phone and believed he was dead. When Ntakije called for him, she told him that he was in the garden. Laurence then made a series of phone calls to Minister of Foreign Affairs

674:, while ethnic violence persisted and UPRONA pushed demands for more favorable constitutional arrangements. Frustrated by this turn of events, some FRODEBU elements broke away from the party and formed rebel groups, leading to the 1121:

police officers and 20 military advisors to assist Kinigi's government and train a Burundian force to assume responsibility for its security. The UN Security Council ultimately declined to send a peacekeeping force to Burundi.

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Can National Dialogue Break the Power of Terror in Burundi?: Report on the Impact of the International Conference National Dialogue Held in Bujumbura on May 15–18 on Burundian Efforts to Restore Democratic Process in the

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Following a long period of military rule by Tutsi army officers, in the early 1990s Burundi underwent a democratic transition. In June 1993 presidential and parliamentary elections were held and won by the Hutu-dominated

1368:, denounced the proceedings as "a political trial conducted in a scandalous manner" and resigned from his diplomatic position "in order to have full freedom to defend myself and clear my name". He died in December 2020. 1030:

was in Kigali at the time of the takeover, and delivered a message through the station, appealing to Burundians to resist the coup and calling for international armed intervention to protect the civilian government.

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head of state of Burundi. Civilian institutions of government were reestablished in earnest in December. Attempts by the National Assembly to elect a successor to Ndadaye were stifled by the Tutsi-dominated

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Minister of Justice Fulgence Bakana fled to Rwanda. Most members of the National Assembly successfully went into hiding. Radio Rwanda broke news of Ndadaye's death early in the evening. Minister of Health

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to "facilitate the return of the country to constitutional rule". Burundian religious leaders also requested that Bikomagu and Ngeze restore the constitution, while Minani declared that he was forming a

1406:, fatalistic attitude that could come to a person who, having overcome numerous life threatening challenges, was unwilling to run away from the position and responsibilities he had so recently assumed." 843:. He returned to Burundi on the last day. During that time, Chief of the General Staff of the Gendarmerie Lieutenant Colonel Epitace Bayaganakandi informed Minister of Defence Lieutenant Colonel 1144:

described the coup as "the most successful failed military take-over" in African history, and largely attributed its failure to popular domestic resistance. Journalists Zdenek Červenka and

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Shortly before dawn, Ngendahayo scaled the wall at Ramboux's residence and went to the neighbouring home, which belonged to his brother and was also where Minister of Refugee Repatriation

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lack of support from other components of the military, resulting in several arrests, including that of its suspected leader, Lieutenant Colonel Slyvestre Ningaba, who had been

1346:

Burundian authorities ultimately tried 117 people for involvement in Ndadaye's murder in 1999, during Buyoya's second presidency. Krueger characterised the proceedings as a "

1256: 1007:

have sent troops to kill them, they fled to the warehouse of Belgian businessman Michel Carlier. Carlier hid them in the warehouse, and Ngendahayo managed to reach Ndadaye's

1360:), Laurent Nzeyimana, Juvenal Gahungu, Sylvere Nduwumukama, and Emmanuel Ndayizeye. The remaining 38 of those tried were acquitted, including Bikomagu, Ntakije, and Nibizi. 847:

that he was in the possession of reliable reports which indicated a coup was being planned. On 19 October, an army officer approached the wife of Minister of Communications

1392:, having learned of the plot, warned Buyoya that the international community would not accept a coup, and thus the president intervened and ordered the army not to act. 1153:

argued that, "Unlike earlier ethnic conflicts the crisis that followed the October 1993 military coup has been longer, bloodier, and has affected the entire country."

1105:

in Kigali. The following day several political parties, churches, and civic associations released a joint statement calling for a return to constitutional governance.

3012:

La Cour constitutionnelle de la République du Burundi siegeant en matiere de constatation de la vacance du poste de Président de la République a rendu l'arret suivant

1311:, Uganda. Kamana—who maintained that his only role in the coup was to serve as Ngeze's driver and bodyguard—said he fled upon realising that he would be made a 876:, the Methodist Bishop of Burundi, who informed the president of rumours circulating among the Burundian expatriates in Brussels of an impending military coup. 3799: 1189:. Reyntjens asserted that Ndadaye's assassination completely derailed the peace process in Rwanda. Some Rwandan Hutus even speculated that the Tutsi-dominated 873: 5334: 4338: 6727: 1097: 949: 6639: 6282: 5836: 5450: 844: 6732: 1745: 610:

was presented as the new President of Burundi by the army, but the coup failed under domestic and international pressure, leaving Prime Minister

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wrote that Commandant Hilaire Ntakiyica told him that the coup had been planned by Buyoya. It reportedly failed after the French ambassador and

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the Burundian Army headquarters, French military attaches who were present dissuaded him from going to Camp Muha, saying it was too dangerous.

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The exact identity of those who planned and organised the 1993 coup remains disputed. Army Chief of the General Staff Lieutenant Colonel

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were signed in August 2000, but the agreement faced a troubled implementation process. Buyoya stepped down in 2003 and was replaced by

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Over the course of the 1994 negotiations, several FRODEBU leaders broke away from the talks and formed rebel groups, including the

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They quickly disarmed him and bayoneted him in front of his family before taking his body away. President of the National Assembly

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Ndadaye, who was in the other armoured vehicle. The family considered scaling the perimeter wall to go to the neighbouring

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extremists who sought to exterminate Tutsis and allowed them to push their ideas beyond fringe status, culminating in the

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Academic Nigel Watt wrote that "it was reported" that the Belgian embassy had declined to offer the ministers sanctuary.

798:

journalist Alexis Sinduhige, the putschists relied on a corporal, Nzisabira, as an informant in the Presidential Guard.

6036: 3856: 1283:

which returned Buyoya to the presidency. Under regional pressure, the warring factions began negotiations in 1998. The

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President of Burundi. Ndadaye Day is observed annually in Burundi on 21 October to commemorate the president's death.

4545: 4178: 4154: 4133: 4112: 4062: 4004: 3943: 3922: 3901: 3880: 3812: 3788: 3757: 3726: 3651: 3593: 3572: 3550: 3502: 1113:, the state broadcaster. Two days later the UPRONA parliamentary group declared its support for the civilian regime. 6488: 6182: 5664: 4773: 4461: 6401: 6141: 5566: 4815: 4014:

Reyntjens, Filip (December 1993). "The Proof of the Pudding is in the Eating: The June 1993 Elections in Burundi".

1082: 703: 595: 562: 533: 486: 6161: 6136: 6116: 5292: 5050: 4745: 4696: 4640: 4566: 4517: 4440: 4412: 4295: 4285: 4280: 1280: 1279:. Civil governance broke down as UPRONA and FRODEBU grew unable to cooperate, and on 25 July 1996 the army staged 722: 417: 367: 357: 6691: 6634: 6599: 6589: 6383: 6151: 5923: 5829: 5766: 5545: 5327: 3561: 3016: 1842: 1242: 1170: 1093: 1089: 1049: 663: 651: 406: 135: 6619: 6614: 6567: 6503: 6433: 6368: 6352: 6297: 6156: 6121: 6056: 6016: 5891: 5808: 5801: 5752: 5678: 5594: 5531: 5457: 5341: 5299: 5229: 5201: 5113: 5071: 5064: 5008: 5001: 4966: 4917: 4875: 4808: 4738: 4724: 4703: 4689: 4633: 4573: 4531: 4496: 4482: 4433: 4426: 4419: 1354:

found 79 of those tried guilty of involvement. Five were sentenced to death: Kamana (who was in exile and tried

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The deaths of Ndadaye, Karibwami, and Bimazubute eliminated the constitutionally-delineated presidential

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Mbitiru, Chege (25 October 1993). "Exiled Burundian prime minister appeals for military intervention".

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Reyntjens, Filip (January 2006). "Briefing: Burundi: A Peaceful Transition after a Decade of War?".

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Bundervoet, Tom (May 2009). "Livestock, Land and Political Power: The 1993 Killings in Burundi".

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All of the soldiers arrested in July for plotting a coup were released during the October putsch.

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The coup attempt left Prime Minister Kinigi—the highest-ranking civilian official to survive—the

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inform the country of such. Bikomagu said he would call back and send an escort when possible.

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Searching for Peace in Africa: An Overview of Conflict Prevention and Management Activities

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Gender & Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region

8: 3953:

Ndikumana, Léonce (April 1998). "Institutional Failure and Ethnic Conflicts in Burundi".

3643:

Burundi, la fracture identitaire: logiques de violence et certitudes ethniques, 1993-1996

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Conseil National Pour la Défense de la Démocratie-Forces pour la Défense de la Démocratie

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and the deaths of other officials in the constitutional line of presidential succession.

387: 139: 3384:"Ex-Burundi president gets prison term for 1993 killing of victorious election opponent" 1150: 978: 741:. The party also took over most local administration, displacing many Tutsi incumbents. 4089: 4039: 4031: 3978: 3970: 3628: 3529: 1288: 1252: 923: 903: 670:

as President of Burundi in January 1994. Ntaryamira died in April and was succeeded by

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Les crises politiques au Burundi et au Rwanda, 1993-1994: analyses, faits et documents

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Kinigi's bodyguards remained loyal to her during the takeover. Deputy Prime Ministers

891: 4193: 4174: 4150: 4129: 4108: 4058: 4043: 4000: 3982: 3939: 3918: 3897: 3876: 3852: 3833: 3808: 3784: 3753: 3722: 3703: 3683: 3669: 3647: 3632: 3620: 3589: 3568: 3546: 3498: 3477: 3453: 1356: 1292: 1186: 1136: 944: 647: 231: 6675: 6666: 5907: 4347: 4238: 3990: 3533: 1237:, and left Kinigi, the highest-ranking civilian official to survive the putsch, the 1000: 810: 607: 583: 68: 5264: 4377: 4081: 4023: 3962: 3695: 3612: 3521: 2412: 1389: 1323:

before quietly returning to Uganda and eventually being detained in late November.

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Giraudineau, Laurent (November 1993). "Burundi : La Démocratie Assassinée".

3716: 3699: 3641: 3616: 3583: 3492: 1316: 1247: 1141: 759: 646:

the National Assembly Pontien Karibwami, Vice President of the National Assembly

3772:, New York: United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi, 1996 6247: 4682: 3780:

The UN Security Council and International Criminal Tribunals: Procedure Matters

3661: 2794: 1060: 992: 538: 448: 4027: 3752:(in French) (2nd ed.). Université des sciences et technologies de Lille. 3289: 3287: 3272: 283: 6706: 3707: 3624: 3525: 2648: 2586: 2584: 1365: 1219: 802: 790: 785: 765: 714: 635: 627: 611: 219: 111: 1319:, the soldiers were asked to leave in February 1994. They briefly stayed in 1315:

by his superiors. Being a source of some embarrassment to Ugandan President

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concessions to their political opponents. This resulted in the signing of a

28: 4085: 3284: 3260: 1863:(in French). Nouvelles du Burundi - Africa Generation News. 21 October 2010 1203: 1013: 965: 3769:

International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi: Final Report (S/1996/682)

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Chretien, Jean-Pierre (May 1996). "Burundi: The Obsession with Genocide".

2581: 2491: 1016:. Ngendahayo proceeded to deliver the following message for Radio Rwanda: 1385: 1298: 1165:

Burundians fleeing from the violence in the aftermath of the coup attempt

1145: 1027: 836: 819: 4164: 4093: 1347: 1255:. Ntaryamira was killed alongside President Habyarimana of Rwanda when 919: 4035: 3974: 1259:

over Kigali on April 6. Ntibantunganya subsequently became president.

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From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years During Genocide

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Une jeune femme sur un bateau ivre: Agathe Uwilingiyimana du Rwanda

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Burundian army officers purportedly involved in the coup settle in

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Mekenkamp, Monique; van Tongeren, Paul; van de Veen, Hans (1999).

3191: 2850: 2848: 1746:"Leader of Burundi Reportedly Killed in a Coup by an Ethnic Rival" 4247: 4242: 3387: 3223: 3221: 2136: 2134: 1704: 1702: 1648: 1435: 1308: 958: 687: 587: 303: 58: 3938:. European Platform for Conflict Prevention and Transformation. 3931: 3767: 2800: 2082: 2080: 2845: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2386: 2376: 2374: 2320: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2291: 2279: 2269: 2267: 2252: 2206: 2204: 2189: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2146: 2107: 2097: 2095: 2043: 2041: 961:. They fatally beat and bayoneted Karibwami and took him away. 4346: 4104:

Le drame burundais: hantise du pouvoir ou tentation suicidaire

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L'Afrique des grands lacs en crise: Rwanda, Burundi, 1988-1994

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Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates, Henry Louis, eds. (2012).

3167: 3155: 3143: 3131: 3102: 3077: 3075: 2515: 2337: 2335: 2077: 1999: 1960: 1948: 1823: 1769: 1767: 1333:—Ngeze on being asked about his involvement in the coup, 2021 1320: 1199: 707: 691: 591: 347: 183: 85: 4146:

Politics of Innocence: Hutu Identity, Conflict and Camp Life

3914:

A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda's Genocide

3783:(online ed.). Cham: Springer International Publishing. 3466: 3442: 3293: 3278: 3266: 3179: 3121: 3119: 3117: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2784: 2782: 2654: 2616: 2590: 2547: 2545: 2503: 2497: 2427: 2371: 2359: 2347: 2303: 2264: 2240: 2228: 2201: 2170: 2158: 2092: 2038: 1636: 1612: 1602: 1600: 2952: 2913: 2811: 2809: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2119: 2026: 2011: 1987: 1972: 1931: 1914: 1660: 1564: 1552: 1528: 906:, FRODEBU leaders, the provincial governors, and President 695: 599: 81: 3208: 3206: 3072: 3038: 3036: 3034: 2942: 2940: 2833: 2821: 2644:. Vol. 329, no. 46. 30 October 1993. p. 46. 2534:"PM to resume reins of power after Burundi coup fizzles". 2332: 1764: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1579: 1303:

Following the failure of the coup, Ningaba, Kamana, Major

859:

Later that afternoon, Ndadaye hosted a cabinet meeting in

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From 16 to 18 October 1993, Ndadaye attended a summit of

729:(FRODEBU), a party largely associated with Hutus. In the 642:, and Buyoya are widely suspected to have been involved. 3048: 2860: 2806: 2769: 2767: 2756:"Burundi's Prime Minister back home after failed coup". 2719: 2460: 2065: 2053: 1902: 1675: 1624: 3311: 3203: 3031: 2937: 2683:"Burundi Army Leaders Urge Civilians to Resume Control" 1890: 1726: 1576: 1540: 1516: 1478: 1470:

Watson, Catherine (September 1993). "Freed From Fear".

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faction. The coup attempt resulted in assassination of

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Numerous government officials and family members killed

3686:(May 1994). "Burundi: Failed coup or creeping coup?". 2976: 2925: 2901: 1880: 1878: 1299:

Criminal investigations and fate of alleged putschists

2764: 2667:"UN responds to coup d'etat, sudden refugee crisis". 1793:. Vol. 38, no. 6. November 1993. p. 6. 772:

had fled during the violence of 1972 began returning

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Political Handbook of the World 2016-2017. Volume 1

2671:. Vol. 31, no. 1. March 1994. p. 58. 2409:"BBC: Burundi Government Trying To Reassert Itself" 1875: 1498:"1962-2012 : 50 ans de turbulences au Burundi" 3715:Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel, eds. (2015). 3714: 3413:"Burundian ex-president Buyoya dies from Covid-19" 3197: 3098:. Vol. 39, no. 2. March 1994. p. 7. 2448: 1806:"Buyoya: Condemned for Coup, Praised for Politics" 1714: 666:, though the body eventually succeed in selecting 3798:Krueger, Robert; Krueger, Kathleen Tobin (2007). 3358:"Five sentenced to death in Ndadaye murder trial" 6704: 4170:Life after Violence: A People's Story of Burundi 4100: 3875:(reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3640:Chretien, Jean-Pierre; Mukuri, Melchior (2002). 3352: 3350: 1708: 1693: 3999:(reprint ed.). Columbia University Press. 3490: 2854: 789:Some observers suspected that former president 3797: 3740:(in French). No. 108. pp. 24–30, 34. 3718:Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society 3639: 3227: 2801:Mekenkamp, van Tongeren & van de Veen 1999 2736: 2734: 2627: 2521: 2509: 2442: 2392: 2380: 2365: 2353: 2326: 2314: 2297: 2285: 2273: 2258: 2246: 2234: 2210: 2195: 2183: 2164: 2152: 2140: 2125: 2113: 2101: 2086: 2047: 2020: 2005: 1993: 1981: 1966: 1954: 1942: 1925: 1829: 1654: 5892: 4332: 4223: 4190:Burundi: Biography of a Small African Country 3559: 3347: 2827: 1307:, and seven other Burundian soldiers fled to 563: 1241:head of state of Burundi. On 8 November the 1206:people were stoned in reaction to the coup. 1185:power-sharing agreement designed to end the 131:Reinstatement of the civilian-led government 3735: 3407: 3405: 2745:(third ed.). Reuters. 8 November 1993. 2731: 2222: 1474:. Vol. 38, no. 5. pp. 58–61. 915:Escape attempts of the government ministers 5899: 5885: 4339: 4325: 4230: 4216: 3893:The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa 3889: 3865: 3776: 3766: 3682: 3511: 3341: 3305: 3125: 3108: 3081: 2970: 2839: 2788: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2575: 2563: 2551: 2071: 2059: 2032: 1908: 1849:. Vol. 39, no. 8. 17 April 1998. 1773: 1669: 1618: 1606: 1591: 570: 556: 27: 4071: 4050: 4013: 3952: 3744: 3185: 3173: 3161: 3149: 3137: 3066: 2883: 2866: 2815: 2725: 2706: 2704: 2473: 1681: 1642: 1630: 1570: 1558: 1546: 1534: 1522: 1484: 1096:. Boutros-Ghali dispatched Special Envoy 1057:Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines 4121: 3996:The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide 3821: 3602: 3419:. Agence France-Presse. 18 December 2020 3402: 3233: 3054: 3027:– via Great Lakes of Africa Centre 2946: 2538:. Reuters. 26 October 1993. p. A20. 2403: 2401: 1896: 1732: 1490: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1213: 1160: 1075:Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 918: 784: 743: 37:, who was killed during the coup attempt 6640:Democratic Republic of the Congo (2024) 6283:Democratic Republic of the Congo (2004) 5837:Democratic Republic of the Congo (2024) 5451:Democratic Republic of the Congo (2004) 4455:Democratic Republic of the Congo (1965) 4192:. New York: Columbia University Press. 3989: 3910: 3560:Červenka, Zdenek; Legum, Colin (1994). 3239: 3212: 2958: 2931: 2919: 2773: 2760:. Reuters. 8 November 1993. p. N9. 2711:"Burundi rivals talk, seek agreement". 2607: 2596: 2341: 1067: 6705: 4142: 3581: 3545:(in French). Africa Books Collective. 3540: 2907: 2895: 2701: 2485: 1803: 1789:"Burundi's President Killed in Coup". 1784: 1782: 1469: 1034: 694:ethnic minority at the expense of the 5880: 4320: 4211: 4016:The Journal of Modern African Studies 3872:Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide 3846: 3660: 3329: 3317: 3042: 2398: 1884: 1452: 1275:(CNDD-FDD), sparking the decade-long 1111:Burundi National Radio and Television 856:about suspicious military movements. 6728:1990s coups d'état and coup attempts 4187: 4163: 3896:. University of Pennsylvania Press. 3849:Africa Contemporary Record 1992–1994 3242:"Au coin du feu avec François Ngeze" 2982: 2640:"Burundi: We didn't mean to do it". 2454: 1861:"Burundi : Ndadaye est mort..." 1720: 1209: 1130: 3087: 2995:"Violence Not Stemmed in Burundi". 1779: 1738: 985: 727:Front pour la Démocratie au Burundi 686:From the mid-1960s, the country of 620:Front pour la Démocratie au Burundi 13: 4462:Central African Republic (1965–66) 3777:Kaoutzanis, Christodoulos (2020). 2660: 1156: 1046:United Nations Development Program 809:, and former Minister of Interior 780: 706:quashed a Hutu rebellion and then 169: 22:1993 Burundian coup d'état attempt 14: 6749: 6733:Attempted coups d'état in Burundi 4125:The Media and the Rwanda Genocide 3469:Amnesty International Report 1995 3445:Amnesty International Report 1994 3294:Amnesty International Report 1995 3279:Amnesty International Report 1995 3267:Amnesty International Report 1995 2655:Amnesty International Report 1994 2591:Amnesty International Report 1994 2498:Amnesty International Report 1994 885:Attack on the Presidential Palace 690:was politically dominated by its 622:(FRODEBU), displacing the ruling 6686: 6685: 5914:, and attempted coups since 1991 4246: 4107:(in French). Karthala Editions. 4057:(in French). Karthala Editions. 3646:(in French). Karthala Editions. 3376: 3003: 2988: 1804:Davies, Kevin (13 August 1996). 1427: 1202:in eastern Zaire, Tutsi-related 1083:United Nations Secretary-General 764:Tutsi, including Prime Minister 6530:Central African Republic (2021) 6424:Central African Republic (2013) 6238:Central African Republic (2003) 6218:Central African Republic (2001) 5924:List of coups and coup attempts 5711:Central African Republic (2021) 5609:Central African Republic (2013) 5395:Central African Republic (2003) 5381:Central African Republic (2001) 4932:Central African Republic (1982) 4911:Central African Republic (1981) 4851:Central African Republic (1979) 3917:(reprint ed.). Zed Books. 3582:Charny, Israel W., ed. (1999). 3497:. Oxford University Press USA. 3494:Dictionary of African Biography 3240:Mugisha, Hervé (4 March 2021). 3017:Constitutional Court of Burundi 2749: 2715:. 3 November 1993. p. A13. 2675: 2633: 2527: 1853: 1835: 1797: 1418: 1409: 1395: 1378: 1171:1993 ethnic violence in Burundi 1094:United Nations General Assembly 1090:United Nations Security Council 1050:Bujumbura International Airport 930:members who survived the coup. 926:(center) was among the leading 3435: 3198:Falola & Jean-Jacques 2015 1504:(in French). 24 September 2012 700:Union pour le Progrès National 624:Union pour le Progrès National 273:Prince Rwagasore assassination 1: 6723:October 1993 events in Africa 5774:Burkina Faso (September 2022) 4122:Thompson, Allan, ed. (2007). 3828:. Thousand Oaks, California: 3807:. University of Texas Press. 3585:Encyclopedia of Genocide: A–H 2997:The Christian Science Monitor 2612:(final ed.). p. A8. 1445: 1079:Organisation of African Unity 681: 614:in charge of the government. 6595:São Tomé and Príncipe (2022) 6258:São Tomé and Príncipe (2003) 6097:São Tomé and Príncipe (1995) 5781:São Tomé and Príncipe (2022) 5416:São Tomé and Príncipe (2003) 5335:Republic of the Congo (1998) 5272:São Tomé and Príncipe (1995) 5209:Sierra Leone (December 1992) 5086:São Tomé and Príncipe (1988) 5058:Republic of the Congo (1987) 4662:Republic of the Congo (1972) 4560:Republic of the Congo (1968) 4511:Republic of the Congo (1966) 4364:Republic of the Congo (1960) 3700:10.1525/curh.1994.93.583.203 3617:10.1525/curh.1996.95.601.206 1709:Sebudandi & Richard 1996 1694:Sebudandi & Richard 1996 1125: 731:1 June presidential election 407:Genocidal killings of Tutsis 16:1993 coup attempt in Burundi 7: 5760:Burkina Faso (January 2022) 4953:Upper Volta (February 1983) 3822:Lansford, Tom, ed. (2017). 3567:. Nordic Africa Institute. 2855:Akyeampong & Gates 2012 879: 189:Hutu, Tutsi and Twa origins 10: 6754: 5307:Sierra Leone (August 1996) 3847:Legum, Colin, ed. (1994). 3228:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2689:. Reuters. 26 October 1993 2628:Chretien & Mukuri 2002 2522:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2510:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2443:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2393:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2381:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2366:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2354:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2327:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2315:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2298:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2286:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2274:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2259:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2247:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2235:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2211:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2196:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2184:Chretien & Mukuri 2002 2165:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2153:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2141:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2126:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2114:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2102:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2087:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2048:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2021:Krueger & Krueger 2007 2006:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1994:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1982:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1967:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1955:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1943:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1926:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1830:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1655:Krueger & Krueger 2007 1168: 1077:in session in Cyprus, the 1012:telephone connection with 902:, Minister of Agriculture 830: 6653: 6517: 6361: 6175: 5944: 5919: 5846: 5695: 5516: 5358: 5123: 4960:Upper Volta (August 1983) 4860: 4604: 4355: 4256: 4051:Reyntjens, Filip (1994). 4028:10.1017/S0022278X00012246 3890:Lemarchand, René (2012). 3588:. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. 3541:Butare, Innocent (2019). 3514:Journal of Peace Research 2828:Červenka & Legum 1994 2610:Austin American Statesman 1257:their plane was shot down 793:was involved in the coup. 152: 147: 117: 107: 74: 64: 50: 42: 26: 6278:Equatorial Guinea (2004) 5444:Equatorial Guinea (2004) 4844:Equatorial Guinea (1979) 3526:10.1177/0022343309102657 1371: 1352:Supreme Court of Burundi 1198:of 1994. In the city of 900:Sylvestre Ntibantunganya 672:Sylvestre Ntibantunganya 429:Titanic Express massacre 80:Ethnic tensions between 46:21 October–November 1993 4476:Burundi (November 1966) 4128:. London: Pluto Press. 3911:Melvern, Linda (2000). 1191:Rwandan Patriotic Front 768:, a member of UPRONA. 626:(UPRONA) and President 6692:Plots and conspiracies 6198:Solomon Islands (2000) 5746:Sudan (September 2021) 4581:Libya (September 1969) 4497:Nigeria (January 1966) 4143:Turner, Simon (2012). 3955:African Studies Review 1438:after fleeing Burundi. 1330: 1230: 1166: 1023: 931: 794: 753: 582:On 21 October 1993, a 263:Parliamentary election 175: 6062:Bophuthatswana (1994) 5237:Bophuthatswana (1994) 4595:Libya (December 1969) 4385:French Algeria (1961) 3474:Amnesty International 3450:Amnesty International 2741:"PM leaves embassy". 1326: 1217: 1164: 1086:Boutros Boutros-Ghali 1018: 922: 849:Jean-Marie Ngendahayo 825:Alphonse-Marie Kadege 814:Niyonkuru, and Major 788: 747: 173: 6635:Guinea-Bissau (2023) 6590:Guinea-Bissau (2022) 6574:Burkina Faso (2022) 6409:Guinea-Bissau (2012) 6384:Guinea-Bissau (2011) 6253:Guinea-Bissau (2003) 6228:Côte d'Ivoire (2002) 6203:Côte d'Ivoire (2001) 6167:Côte d'Ivoire (1999) 6152:Guinea-Bissau (1998) 5830:Guinea-Bissau (2023) 5767:Guinea-Bissau (2022) 5753:Sudan (October 2021) 5602:Libya (October 2013) 5560:Guinea-Bissau (2012) 5546:Guinea-Bissau (2011) 5409:Guinea-Bissau (2003) 5388:Côte d'Ivoire (2002) 5367:Côte d'Ivoire (2001) 5349:Côte d'Ivoire (1999) 5328:Guinea-Bissau (1998) 4883:Guinea-Bissau (1980) 4350:in Africa since 1960 4188:Watt, Nigel (2008). 4086:10.1093/afraf/adi092 3476:Publications. 1995. 3452:Publications. 1994. 3362:The New Humanitarian 2578:, pp. xiii–xiv. 1843:"Secrets and splits" 1243:Constitutional Court 1229:following the coup. 1227:President of Burundi 1068:Collapse of the coup 971:parliamentary leader 874:J. Alfred Ndoricimpa 807:Jean-Baptiste Bagaza 719:President of Burundi 664:Constitutional Court 640:Jean-Baptiste Bagaza 255:Road to independence 33:Burial of President 6738:Burundian Civil War 6630:Sierra Leone (2023) 6625:Burkina Faso (2023) 6479:Burkina Faso (2016) 6469:Burkina Faso (2015) 6233:Burkina Faso (2003) 6012:Sierra Leone (1992) 5977:Georgia (1991–1992) 5967:Soviet Union (1991) 5823:Sierra Leone (2023) 5816:Burkina Faso (2023) 5651:Burkina Faso (2016) 5644:Burkina Faso (2015) 5423:Burkina Faso (2003) 5321:Sierra Leone (1997) 5279:Sierra Leone (1996) 5195:Sierra Leone (1992) 5093:Burkina Faso (1989) 5044:Burkina Faso (1987) 4546:Sierra Leone (1968) 4504:Nigeria (July 1966) 4469:Burundi (July 1966) 3308:, pp. 128–129. 3176:, pp. 125–126. 3164:, pp. 121–123. 3152:, pp. 118–120. 3140:, pp. 117–118. 2999:. 24 December 1993. 2961:, pp. 200–201. 2922:, pp. 199–200. 2344:, pp. 201–202. 1847:Africa Confidential 1657:, pp. 269–270. 1645:, pp. 577–578. 1573:, pp. 565–567. 1561:, pp. 565–566. 1537:, pp. 563–564. 1277:Burundian Civil War 1103:government-in-exile 1035:Military government 908:Juvénal Habyarimana 676:Burundian Civil War 388:Burundian Civil War 140:Burundian Civil War 128:and other officials 23: 6328:Philippines (2007) 6248:Philippines (2003) 4946:Upper Volta (1982) 4890:Upper Volta (1980) 4788:Uganda (June 1977) 4676:Upper Volta (1974) 4490:Upper Volta (1966) 4149:. Berghahn Books. 3684:Des Forges, Alison 3662:Daley, Patricia O. 3188:, pp. 128–29. 2758:The Globe and Mail 2687:The New York Times 1750:The New York Times 1621:, pp. 24, 34. 1384:American diplomat 1289:Domitien Ndayizeye 1265:protocole d'accord 1253:Anatole Kanyenkiko 1235:line of succession 1231: 1167: 932: 924:Cyprien Ntaryamira 904:Cyprien Ntaryamira 839:heads of state in 795: 754: 752:, pictured in 1993 708:murdered thousands 668:Cyprien Ntaryamira 208:German East Africa 200:Kingdom of Burundi 184:Urewe civilisation 176: 163:History of Burundi 21: 6718:Conflicts in 1993 6700: 6699: 6389:Bangladesh (2011) 6374:Madagascar (2010) 6348:Madagascar (2009) 6338:Mauritania (2008) 6318:Madagascar (2006) 6303:Mauritania (2005) 6243:Mauritania (2003) 6132:Bangladesh (1996) 6087:Azerbaijan (1995) 6032:Azerbaijan (1993) 5981:Venezuela (1992) 5874: 5873: 5851:: successful coup 5630:The Gambia (2014) 5567:Mali (April 2012) 5553:Mali (March 2012) 5525:Madagascar (2010) 5507:Madagascar (2009) 5493:Mauritania (2008) 5479:Madagascar (2006) 5465:Mauritania (2005) 5402:Mauritania (2003) 4974:Mauritania (1984) 4925:Seychelles (1981) 4897:Mauritania (1981) 4869:Mauritania (1980) 4830:Mauritania (1979) 4823:Mauritania (1978) 4774:Seychelles (1977) 4314: 4313: 4199:978-0-231-70090-0 3839:978-1-5063-2718-1 3675:978-0-253-35171-5 3483:978-0-86210-245-6 3459:978-0-86210-230-2 3390:. 20 October 2020 3320:, pp. 82–83. 3281:, pp. 83–84. 3111:, p. xix–xx. 3019:, 8 November 1993 2985:, pp. 13–14. 2657:, pp. 44–45. 2415:. 26 October 1993 2395:, pp. 17–18. 2329:, pp. 20–21. 2300:, pp. 19–20. 2288:, pp. 18–19. 2261:, pp. 15–16. 2198:, pp. 11–12. 2155:, pp. 10–11. 2116:, pp. 13–14. 1752:. 22 October 1993 1672:, pp. 20–21. 1293:Pierre Nkurunziza 1210:Political effects 1187:Rwandan Civil War 1137:Alison Des Forges 1131:Academic analysis 1098:James O. C. Jonah 1055:The Rwanda-based 969:embassy. FRODEBU 950:Pontien Karibwami 945:Gilles Bimazubute 936:chargé d'affaires 739:National Assembly 648:Gilles Bimazubute 586:was attempted in 580: 579: 509:COVID-19 pandemic 498:Army coup attempt 439:Army coup attempt 396:Army coup attempt 318:Army coup attempt 232:Ruzagayura famine 174:Emblem of Burundi 157: 156: 124:Assassination of 6745: 6689: 6688: 6223:Venezuela (2002) 6052:Lithuania (1993) 6027:Guatemala (1993) 5901: 5894: 5887: 5878: 5877: 5867: 5859: 5852: 5839: 5832: 5825: 5818: 5811: 5804: 5797: 5790: 5783: 5776: 5769: 5762: 5755: 5748: 5741: 5734: 5727: 5720: 5713: 5706: 5688: 5681: 5674: 5667: 5660: 5653: 5646: 5639: 5632: 5625: 5618: 5611: 5604: 5597: 5590: 5583: 5576: 5569: 5562: 5555: 5548: 5541: 5534: 5527: 5509: 5502: 5495: 5488: 5481: 5474: 5467: 5460: 5453: 5446: 5439: 5432: 5425: 5418: 5411: 5404: 5397: 5390: 5383: 5376: 5369: 5351: 5344: 5337: 5330: 5323: 5316: 5309: 5302: 5295: 5288: 5281: 5274: 5267: 5260: 5253: 5246: 5239: 5232: 5225: 5218: 5211: 5204: 5197: 5190: 5183: 5176: 5169: 5162: 5155: 5148: 5141: 5134: 5116: 5109: 5102: 5095: 5088: 5081: 5074: 5067: 5060: 5053: 5046: 5039: 5032: 5025: 5018: 5011: 5004: 4997: 4990: 4983: 4976: 4969: 4962: 4955: 4948: 4941: 4934: 4927: 4920: 4913: 4906: 4899: 4892: 4885: 4878: 4871: 4853: 4846: 4839: 4832: 4825: 4818: 4811: 4804: 4797: 4790: 4783: 4776: 4769: 4762: 4755: 4748: 4741: 4734: 4727: 4720: 4713: 4706: 4699: 4692: 4685: 4678: 4671: 4664: 4657: 4650: 4643: 4636: 4629: 4622: 4615: 4597: 4590: 4583: 4576: 4569: 4562: 4555: 4548: 4541: 4534: 4527: 4520: 4513: 4506: 4499: 4492: 4485: 4478: 4471: 4464: 4457: 4450: 4443: 4436: 4429: 4422: 4415: 4408: 4401: 4394: 4387: 4380: 4373: 4366: 4341: 4334: 4327: 4318: 4317: 4251: 4250: 4232: 4225: 4218: 4209: 4208: 4203: 4184: 4160: 4139: 4118: 4097: 4080:(418): 117–135. 4068: 4047: 4010: 3986: 3949: 3928: 3907: 3886: 3867:Lemarchand, René 3862: 3843: 3818: 3806: 3794: 3773: 3763: 3746:Guichaoua, André 3741: 3738:Afrique Magazine 3732: 3711: 3694:(583): 203–207. 3679: 3657: 3636: 3611:(601): 206–210. 3599: 3578: 3556: 3537: 3508: 3487: 3463: 3429: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3409: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3354: 3345: 3339: 3333: 3327: 3321: 3315: 3309: 3303: 3297: 3291: 3282: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3237: 3231: 3225: 3216: 3210: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3177: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3052: 3046: 3045:, p. 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353: 343: 333: 323: 311: 290: 278: 268: 237: 226: 213: 159: 158: 126:Melchior Ndadaye 95:Melchior Ndadaye 35:Melchior Ndadaye 31: 24: 20: 6753: 6752: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6744: 6743: 6742: 6713:1993 in Burundi 6703: 6702: 6701: 6696: 6683: 6649: 6513: 6509:Ethiopia (2019) 6489:Zimbabwe (2017) 6459:Yemen (2014–15) 6449:Thailand (2014) 6357: 6353:Honduras (2009) 6313:Thailand (2006) 6188:Paraguay (2000) 6171: 6162:Pakistan (1999) 6137:Cambodia (1997) 6107:Paraguay (1996) 6082:Cambodia (1994) 5962:Thailand (1991) 5940: 5915: 5905: 5875: 5870: 5862: 5855: 5850: 5842: 5835: 5828: 5821: 5814: 5807: 5800: 5793: 5786: 5779: 5772: 5765: 5758: 5751: 5744: 5737: 5730: 5723: 5716: 5709: 5702: 5691: 5686:Ethiopia (2019) 5684: 5677: 5670: 5665:Zimbabwe (2017) 5663: 5656: 5649: 5642: 5635: 5628: 5621: 5614: 5607: 5600: 5593: 5586: 5579: 5572: 5565: 5558: 5551: 5544: 5537: 5530: 5523: 5512: 5505: 5498: 5491: 5484: 5477: 5470: 5463: 5456: 5449: 5442: 5435: 5428: 5421: 5414: 5407: 5400: 5393: 5386: 5379: 5372: 5365: 5354: 5347: 5340: 5333: 5326: 5319: 5312: 5305: 5298: 5291: 5284: 5277: 5270: 5263: 5256: 5249: 5242: 5235: 5228: 5221: 5214: 5207: 5200: 5193: 5186: 5179: 5172: 5165: 5158: 5151: 5144: 5137: 5130: 5119: 5112: 5105: 5100:Ethiopia (1989) 5098: 5091: 5084: 5077: 5072:Transkei (1987) 5070: 5063: 5056: 5049: 5042: 5035: 5028: 5021: 5014: 5007: 5000: 4993: 4986: 4981:Cameroon (1984) 4979: 4972: 4965: 4958: 4951: 4944: 4937: 4930: 4923: 4916: 4909: 4902: 4895: 4888: 4881: 4874: 4867: 4856: 4849: 4842: 4835: 4828: 4821: 4814: 4807: 4800: 4793: 4786: 4779: 4772: 4765: 4758: 4751: 4744: 4737: 4730: 4723: 4716: 4709: 4702: 4697:Ethiopia (1974) 4695: 4688: 4681: 4674: 4667: 4660: 4653: 4646: 4639: 4632: 4625: 4618: 4611: 4600: 4593: 4586: 4579: 4572: 4565: 4558: 4551: 4544: 4537: 4530: 4523: 4516: 4509: 4502: 4495: 4488: 4481: 4474: 4467: 4460: 4453: 4446: 4439: 4432: 4425: 4418: 4411: 4404: 4397: 4390: 4383: 4376: 4371:Ethiopia (1960) 4369: 4362: 4351: 4345: 4315: 4310: 4252: 4245: 4236: 4206: 4200: 4181: 4157: 4136: 4115: 4074:African Affairs 4065: 4007: 3991:Prunier, Gérard 3946: 3925: 3904: 3883: 3859: 3840: 3830:SAGE Publishing 3815: 3804: 3791: 3760: 3729: 3688:Current History 3676: 3654: 3605:Current History 3596: 3575: 3553: 3505: 3484: 3460: 3438: 3433: 3432: 3422: 3420: 3411: 3410: 3403: 3393: 3391: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3367: 3365: 3356: 3355: 3348: 3342:S/1996/682 1996 3340: 3336: 3328: 3324: 3316: 3312: 3306:Kaoutzanis 2020 3304: 3300: 3292: 3285: 3277: 3273: 3265: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3238: 3234: 3226: 3219: 3211: 3204: 3196: 3192: 3184: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3126:Lemarchand 1996 3124: 3115: 3109:Lemarchand 1996 3107: 3103: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3082:Lemarchand 1996 3080: 3073: 3065: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3041: 3032: 3022: 3020: 3009: 3008: 3004: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2981: 2977: 2971:Lemarchand 2012 2969: 2965: 2957: 2953: 2945: 2938: 2930: 2926: 2918: 2914: 2906: 2902: 2894: 2890: 2882: 2873: 2865: 2861: 2853: 2846: 2842:, p. xiii. 2840:Lemarchand 1996 2838: 2834: 2826: 2822: 2814: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2789:Des Forges 1994 2787: 2780: 2772: 2765: 2755: 2754: 2750: 2743:The Independent 2740: 2739: 2732: 2724: 2720: 2713:The Evening Sun 2710: 2709: 2702: 2692: 2690: 2681: 2680: 2676: 2666: 2665: 2661: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2626: 2617: 2606: 2597: 2589: 2582: 2576:Lemarchand 1996 2574: 2570: 2564:Bundervoet 2009 2562: 2558: 2552:Bundervoet 2009 2550: 2543: 2533: 2532: 2528: 2520: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2496: 2492: 2484: 2480: 2472: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2441: 2428: 2418: 2416: 2407: 2406: 2399: 2391: 2387: 2379: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2340: 2333: 2325: 2321: 2313: 2304: 2296: 2292: 2284: 2280: 2272: 2265: 2257: 2253: 2245: 2241: 2233: 2229: 2221: 2217: 2209: 2202: 2194: 2190: 2182: 2171: 2163: 2159: 2151: 2147: 2139: 2132: 2124: 2120: 2112: 2108: 2100: 2093: 2089:, pp. 8–9. 2085: 2078: 2072:S/1996/682 1996 2070: 2066: 2060:S/1996/682 1996 2058: 2054: 2046: 2039: 2033:Lemarchand 1996 2031: 2027: 2019: 2012: 2008:, pp. 7–8. 2004: 2000: 1992: 1988: 1980: 1973: 1969:, pp. 3–4. 1965: 1961: 1957:, pp. 1–2. 1953: 1949: 1941: 1932: 1924: 1915: 1909:S/1996/682 1996 1907: 1903: 1895: 1891: 1883: 1876: 1866: 1864: 1859: 1858: 1854: 1841: 1840: 1836: 1828: 1824: 1814: 1812: 1802: 1798: 1788: 1787: 1780: 1776:, p. xxxi. 1774:Lemarchand 1996 1772: 1765: 1755: 1753: 1744: 1743: 1739: 1731: 1727: 1719: 1715: 1707: 1700: 1692: 1688: 1680: 1676: 1670:S/1996/682 1996 1668: 1661: 1653: 1649: 1641: 1637: 1629: 1625: 1619:S/1996/682 1996 1617: 1613: 1607:Des Forges 1994 1605: 1598: 1592:S/1996/682 1996 1590: 1577: 1569: 1565: 1557: 1553: 1545: 1541: 1533: 1529: 1521: 1517: 1507: 1505: 1496: 1495: 1491: 1483: 1479: 1468: 1453: 1448: 1443: 1442: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1400: 1396: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1336: 1332: 1317:Yoweri Museveni 1301: 1248:Lake Tanganyika 1218:Prime Minister 1212: 1173: 1159: 1157:Ethnic violence 1142:Filip Reyntjens 1133: 1128: 1070: 1052:was shut down. 1037: 1009:chef de cabinet 988: 934:Meanwhile, the 917: 892:René Lemarchand 887: 882: 854:chef de cabinet 845:Charles Ntakije 833: 805:, ex-President 783: 781:Coup organisers 760:chef de cabinet 684: 652:ethnic violence 638:, ex-President 576: 521: 520: 519: 516: 513: 504: 501: 494: 491: 482: 479: 468: 460: 459: 458: 455: 452: 445: 442: 435: 432: 425: 422: 414: 411: 402: 399: 390: 380: 379: 378: 375: 372: 364: 361: 354: 351: 344: 341: 334: 331: 324: 321: 312: 306: 296: 295: 294: 291: 288: 279: 276: 269: 266: 257: 247: 246: 245: 242: 241: 238: 235: 227: 224: 214: 211: 202: 136:ethnic violence 38: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6751: 6741: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6694: 6671: 6663: 6661:or its attempt 6654: 6651: 6650: 6648: 6647: 6645:Bolivia (2024) 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6586: 6585: 6580: 6572: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6557: 6555:Tunisia (2021) 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6535:Myanmar (2021) 6532: 6527: 6521: 6519: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6464:Burundi (2015) 6461: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6419:Eritrea (2013) 6416: 6411: 6406: 6405: 6404: 6399: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6365: 6363: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6208:Burundi (2001) 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6183:Ecuador (2000) 6179: 6177: 6173: 6172: 6170: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6117:Burundi (1996) 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6077:Liberia (1994) 6074: 6072:Lesotho (1994) 6069: 6064: 6059: 6057:Nigeria (1993) 6054: 6049: 6047:Burundi (1993) 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6017:Algeria (1992) 6014: 6009: 6008: 6007: 6002: 5994: 5993: 5992: 5987: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5957:Lesotho (1991) 5954: 5948: 5946: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5938: 5937: 5936: 5931: 5920: 5917: 5916: 5904: 5903: 5896: 5889: 5881: 5872: 5871: 5869: 5868: 5865:attempted coup 5860: 5853: 5847: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5840: 5833: 5826: 5819: 5812: 5805: 5798: 5791: 5784: 5777: 5770: 5763: 5756: 5749: 5742: 5735: 5732:Tunisia (2021) 5728: 5721: 5714: 5707: 5699: 5697: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5689: 5682: 5675: 5668: 5661: 5654: 5647: 5640: 5637:Burundi (2015) 5633: 5626: 5623:Lesotho (2014) 5619: 5612: 5605: 5598: 5591: 5584: 5581:Eritrea (2013) 5577: 5570: 5563: 5556: 5549: 5542: 5535: 5528: 5520: 5518: 5514: 5513: 5511: 5510: 5503: 5496: 5489: 5482: 5475: 5468: 5461: 5454: 5447: 5440: 5433: 5426: 5419: 5412: 5405: 5398: 5391: 5384: 5377: 5374:Burundi (2001) 5370: 5362: 5360: 5356: 5355: 5353: 5352: 5345: 5338: 5331: 5324: 5317: 5310: 5303: 5296: 5293:Burundi (1996) 5289: 5282: 5275: 5268: 5265:Comoros (1995) 5261: 5258:Liberia (1994) 5254: 5251:Lesotho (1994) 5247: 5240: 5233: 5230:Nigeria (1993) 5226: 5219: 5216:Burundi (1993) 5212: 5205: 5202:Algeria (1992) 5198: 5191: 5184: 5181:Lesotho (1991) 5177: 5170: 5163: 5156: 5149: 5142: 5139:Nigeria (1990) 5135: 5127: 5125: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5117: 5110: 5103: 5096: 5089: 5082: 5075: 5068: 5065:Tunisia (1987) 5061: 5054: 5051:Burundi (1987) 5047: 5040: 5033: 5030:Lesotho (1986) 5026: 5023:Liberia (1985) 5019: 5012: 5005: 5002:Nigeria (1985) 4998: 4991: 4984: 4977: 4970: 4967:Nigeria (1983) 4963: 4956: 4949: 4942: 4935: 4928: 4921: 4914: 4907: 4900: 4893: 4886: 4879: 4876:Liberia (1980) 4872: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4857: 4855: 4854: 4847: 4840: 4833: 4826: 4819: 4812: 4809:Comoros (1978) 4805: 4802:Somalia (1978) 4798: 4791: 4784: 4777: 4770: 4763: 4756: 4753:Nigeria (1976) 4749: 4746:Burundi (1976) 4742: 4739:Comoros (1976) 4735: 4728: 4725:Nigeria (1975) 4721: 4714: 4707: 4704:Comoros (1975) 4700: 4693: 4686: 4679: 4672: 4665: 4658: 4655:Morocco (1972) 4651: 4644: 4641:Dahomey (1972) 4637: 4630: 4627:Morocco (1971) 4623: 4616: 4613:Lesotho (1970) 4608: 4606: 4602: 4601: 4599: 4598: 4591: 4588:Somalia (1969) 4584: 4577: 4570: 4567:Dahomey (1969) 4563: 4556: 4549: 4542: 4539:Algeria (1967) 4535: 4528: 4521: 4518:Dahomey (1967) 4514: 4507: 4500: 4493: 4486: 4479: 4472: 4465: 4458: 4451: 4448:Burundi (1965) 4444: 4441:Dahomey (1965) 4437: 4434:Algeria (1965) 4430: 4423: 4416: 4413:Dahomey (1963) 4409: 4406:Algeria (1962) 4402: 4399:Senegal (1962) 4395: 4392:Somalia (1961) 4388: 4381: 4374: 4367: 4359: 4357: 4353: 4352: 4344: 4343: 4336: 4329: 4321: 4312: 4311: 4309: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4277: 4276: 4271: 4263: 4257: 4254: 4253: 4235: 4234: 4227: 4220: 4212: 4205: 4204: 4198: 4185: 4179: 4161: 4155: 4140: 4134: 4119: 4113: 4098: 4069: 4063: 4048: 4022:(4): 563–583. 4011: 4005: 3987: 3967:10.2307/524680 3950: 3944: 3929: 3923: 3908: 3902: 3887: 3881: 3863: 3858:978-0841905627 3857: 3844: 3838: 3819: 3813: 3795: 3789: 3774: 3764: 3758: 3742: 3733: 3727: 3712: 3680: 3674: 3658: 3652: 3637: 3600: 3594: 3579: 3573: 3557: 3551: 3538: 3520:(3): 357–376. 3509: 3503: 3488: 3482: 3464: 3458: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3431: 3430: 3401: 3375: 3346: 3334: 3322: 3310: 3298: 3283: 3271: 3259: 3232: 3230:, p. 268. 3217: 3215:, p. 202. 3202: 3200:, p. 131. 3190: 3186:Reyntjens 2006 3178: 3174:Reyntjens 2006 3166: 3162:Reyntjens 2006 3154: 3150:Reyntjens 2006 3142: 3138:Reyntjens 2006 3130: 3113: 3101: 3086: 3084:, p. xix. 3071: 3069:, p. 742. 3067:Guichaoua 1995 3059: 3057:, p. 209. 3047: 3030: 3002: 2987: 2975: 2963: 2951: 2936: 2924: 2912: 2910:, p. 510. 2900: 2888: 2886:, p. 117. 2884:Reyntjens 2006 2871: 2867:Ndikumana 1998 2859: 2857:, p. 388. 2844: 2832: 2820: 2818:, p. 582. 2816:Reyntjens 1993 2805: 2803:, p. 198. 2793: 2791:, p. 207. 2778: 2763: 2748: 2730: 2728:, p. 270. 2726:Reyntjens 1994 2718: 2700: 2674: 2659: 2647: 2632: 2615: 2595: 2580: 2568: 2566:, p. 372. 2556: 2554:, p. 361. 2541: 2526: 2524:, p. 269. 2514: 2502: 2490: 2478: 2476:, p. 581. 2474:Reyntjens 1993 2459: 2447: 2426: 2397: 2385: 2370: 2358: 2346: 2331: 2319: 2302: 2290: 2278: 2263: 2251: 2239: 2227: 2215: 2200: 2188: 2169: 2157: 2145: 2130: 2118: 2106: 2091: 2076: 2064: 2052: 2037: 2025: 2010: 1998: 1986: 1971: 1959: 1947: 1930: 1913: 1901: 1899:, p. 208. 1889: 1874: 1852: 1834: 1832:, p. 266. 1822: 1796: 1778: 1763: 1737: 1735:, p. 220. 1725: 1713: 1698: 1686: 1684:, p. 579. 1682:Reyntjens 1993 1674: 1659: 1647: 1643:Reyntjens 1993 1635: 1633:, p. 578. 1631:Reyntjens 1993 1623: 1611: 1609:, p. 205. 1596: 1575: 1571:Reyntjens 1993 1563: 1559:Reyntjens 1993 1551: 1549:, p. 565. 1547:Reyntjens 1993 1539: 1535:Reyntjens 1993 1527: 1525:, p. 569. 1523:Reyntjens 1993 1515: 1489: 1487:, p. 573. 1485:Reyntjens 1993 1477: 1450: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1426: 1417: 1408: 1404:che sarà, sarà 1394: 1376: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1350:". In May the 1325: 1300: 1297: 1285:Arusha Accords 1211: 1208: 1183:Arusha Accords 1169:Main article: 1158: 1155: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1069: 1066: 1061:United Nations 1036: 1033: 1001:Gérard Prunier 993:Meridian Hotel 987: 984: 916: 913: 886: 883: 881: 878: 832: 829: 811:François Ngeze 782: 779: 710:of civilians. 704:Burundian Army 683: 680: 608:François Ngeze 578: 577: 575: 574: 567: 560: 552: 549: 548: 547: 546: 541: 536: 531: 523: 522: 518: 517: 512: 505: 500: 495: 490: 483: 478: 470: 469: 466: 465: 462: 461: 457: 456: 451: 449:Itaba massacre 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 415: 410: 403: 398: 392: 391: 386: 385: 382: 381: 377: 376: 371: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 338:Micombero coup 335: 330: 325: 320: 314: 313: 302: 301: 298: 297: 293: 292: 287: 280: 275: 270: 265: 259: 258: 253: 252: 249: 248: 244: 243: 240: 239: 234: 228: 223: 217: 215: 210: 204: 203: 198: 197: 194: 193: 192: 191: 186: 178: 177: 166: 165: 155: 154: 150: 149: 145: 144: 143: 142: 132: 129: 119: 115: 114: 109: 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6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6343:Guinea (2008) 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6180: 6178: 6174: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6147:Zambia (1997) 6145: 6143: 6142:Turkey (1997) 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6102:Guinea (1996) 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6067:Gambia (1994) 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6037:Russia (1993) 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5995: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5982: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5925: 5922: 5921: 5918: 5913: 5909: 5902: 5897: 5895: 5890: 5888: 5883: 5882: 5879: 5866: 5861: 5858: 5854: 5849: 5848: 5845: 5838: 5834: 5831: 5827: 5824: 5820: 5817: 5813: 5810: 5806: 5803: 5799: 5796: 5792: 5789: 5788:Gambia (2022) 5785: 5782: 5778: 5775: 5771: 5768: 5764: 5761: 5757: 5754: 5750: 5747: 5743: 5740: 5739:Guinea (2021) 5736: 5733: 5729: 5726: 5722: 5719: 5715: 5712: 5708: 5705: 5701: 5700: 5698: 5694: 5687: 5683: 5680: 5676: 5673: 5669: 5666: 5662: 5659: 5655: 5652: 5648: 5645: 5641: 5638: 5634: 5631: 5627: 5624: 5620: 5617: 5613: 5610: 5606: 5603: 5599: 5596: 5592: 5589: 5585: 5582: 5578: 5575: 5571: 5568: 5564: 5561: 5557: 5554: 5550: 5547: 5543: 5540: 5536: 5533: 5529: 5526: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5515: 5508: 5504: 5501: 5497: 5494: 5490: 5487: 5486:Guinea (2008) 5483: 5480: 5476: 5473: 5469: 5466: 5462: 5459: 5455: 5452: 5448: 5445: 5441: 5438: 5434: 5431: 5427: 5424: 5420: 5417: 5413: 5410: 5406: 5403: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5389: 5385: 5382: 5378: 5375: 5371: 5368: 5364: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5350: 5346: 5343: 5339: 5336: 5332: 5329: 5325: 5322: 5318: 5315: 5314:Zambia (1997) 5311: 5308: 5304: 5301: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5286:Guinea (1996) 5283: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5269: 5266: 5262: 5259: 5255: 5252: 5248: 5245: 5244:Gambia (1994) 5241: 5238: 5234: 5231: 5227: 5224: 5220: 5217: 5213: 5210: 5206: 5203: 5199: 5196: 5192: 5189: 5185: 5182: 5178: 5175: 5171: 5168: 5164: 5161: 5160:Ciskei (1990) 5157: 5154: 5150: 5147: 5146:Zambia (1990) 5143: 5140: 5136: 5133: 5129: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5115: 5111: 5108: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5083: 5080: 5076: 5073: 5069: 5066: 5062: 5059: 5055: 5052: 5048: 5045: 5041: 5038: 5034: 5031: 5027: 5024: 5020: 5017: 5016:Guinea (1985) 5013: 5010: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4995:Uganda (1985) 4992: 4989: 4988:Guinea (1984) 4985: 4982: 4978: 4975: 4971: 4968: 4964: 4961: 4957: 4954: 4950: 4947: 4943: 4940: 4936: 4933: 4929: 4926: 4922: 4919: 4915: 4912: 4908: 4905: 4904:Gambia (1981) 4901: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4880: 4877: 4873: 4870: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4859: 4852: 4848: 4845: 4841: 4838: 4834: 4831: 4827: 4824: 4820: 4817: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4796: 4795:Angola (1977) 4792: 4789: 4785: 4782: 4778: 4775: 4771: 4768: 4764: 4761: 4757: 4754: 4750: 4747: 4743: 4740: 4736: 4733: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4715: 4712: 4708: 4705: 4701: 4698: 4694: 4691: 4687: 4684: 4683:Uganda (1974) 4680: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4669:Rwanda (1973) 4666: 4663: 4659: 4656: 4652: 4649: 4645: 4642: 4638: 4635: 4631: 4628: 4624: 4621: 4620:Uganda (1971) 4617: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4592: 4589: 4585: 4582: 4578: 4575: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4561: 4557: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4543: 4540: 4536: 4533: 4529: 4526: 4522: 4519: 4515: 4512: 4508: 4505: 4501: 4498: 4494: 4491: 4487: 4484: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4470: 4466: 4463: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4449: 4445: 4442: 4438: 4435: 4431: 4428: 4424: 4421: 4417: 4414: 4410: 4407: 4403: 4400: 4396: 4393: 4389: 4386: 4382: 4379: 4378:Rwanda (1961) 4375: 4372: 4368: 4365: 4361: 4360: 4358: 4354: 4349: 4342: 4337: 4335: 4330: 4328: 4323: 4322: 4319: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4258: 4255: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4233: 4228: 4226: 4221: 4219: 4214: 4213: 4210: 4201: 4195: 4191: 4186: 4182: 4180:9781848137240 4176: 4173:. 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16. 2972: 2967: 2960: 2955: 2949:, p. 45. 2948: 2947:Thompson 2007 2943: 2941: 2934:, p. 83. 2933: 2928: 2921: 2916: 2909: 2904: 2897: 2892: 2885: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2869:, p. 36. 2868: 2863: 2856: 2851: 2849: 2841: 2836: 2829: 2824: 2817: 2812: 2810: 2802: 2797: 2790: 2785: 2783: 2776:, p. 84. 2775: 2770: 2768: 2759: 2752: 2744: 2737: 2735: 2727: 2722: 2714: 2707: 2705: 2688: 2684: 2678: 2670: 2663: 2656: 2651: 2643: 2642:The Economist 2636: 2630:, p. 26. 2629: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2611: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2593:, p. 84. 2592: 2587: 2585: 2577: 2572: 2565: 2560: 2553: 2548: 2546: 2537: 2530: 2523: 2518: 2512:, p. 37. 2511: 2506: 2500:, p. 85. 2499: 2494: 2488:, p. 72. 2487: 2482: 2475: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2464: 2457:, p. 47. 2456: 2451: 2445:, p. 38. 2444: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2414: 2410: 2404: 2402: 2394: 2389: 2383:, p. 17. 2382: 2377: 2375: 2368:, p. 39. 2367: 2362: 2356:, p. 21. 2355: 2350: 2343: 2338: 2336: 2328: 2323: 2317:, p. 20. 2316: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2299: 2294: 2287: 2282: 2276:, p. 16. 2275: 2270: 2268: 2260: 2255: 2249:, p. 14. 2248: 2243: 2237:, p. 13. 2236: 2231: 2225:, p. 34. 2224: 2219: 2213:, p. 12. 2212: 2207: 2205: 2197: 2192: 2186:, p. 25. 2185: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2167:, p. 11. 2166: 2161: 2154: 2149: 2142: 2137: 2135: 2127: 2122: 2115: 2110: 2104:, p. 15. 2103: 2098: 2096: 2088: 2083: 2081: 2074:, p. 29. 2073: 2068: 2062:, p. 35. 2061: 2056: 2050:, p. 19. 2049: 2044: 2042: 2034: 2029: 2022: 2017: 2015: 2007: 2002: 1995: 1990: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1968: 1963: 1956: 1951: 1944: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1911:, p. 25. 1910: 1905: 1898: 1897:Chretien 1996 1893: 1887:, p. 84. 1886: 1881: 1879: 1862: 1856: 1848: 1844: 1838: 1831: 1826: 1811: 1807: 1800: 1792: 1791:Africa Report 1785: 1783: 1775: 1770: 1768: 1751: 1747: 1741: 1734: 1733:Lansford 2017 1729: 1723:, p. 56. 1722: 1717: 1711:, p. 25. 1710: 1705: 1703: 1696:, p. 24. 1695: 1690: 1683: 1678: 1671: 1666: 1664: 1656: 1651: 1644: 1639: 1632: 1627: 1620: 1615: 1608: 1603: 1601: 1594:, p. 21. 1593: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1572: 1567: 1560: 1555: 1548: 1543: 1536: 1531: 1524: 1519: 1503: 1502:Jeune Afrique 1499: 1493: 1486: 1481: 1473: 1472:Africa Report 1466: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1451: 1437: 1430: 1421: 1412: 1405: 1398: 1391: 1387: 1381: 1377: 1369: 1367: 1366:African Union 1361: 1359: 1358: 1353: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1329: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1266: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1228: 1225: 1222:was left the 1221: 1220:Sylvie Kinigi 1216: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1172: 1163: 1154: 1152: 1147: 1143: 1138: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1112: 1106: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1065: 1062: 1058: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1041: 1032: 1029: 1022: 1017: 1015: 1010: 1004: 1002: 996: 994: 983: 980: 975: 972: 967: 962: 960: 955: 951: 946: 940: 937: 929: 925: 921: 912: 909: 905: 901: 895: 893: 877: 875: 871: 865: 862: 857: 855: 850: 846: 842: 838: 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ABC-CLIO. 3717: 3691: 3687: 3665: 3642: 3608: 3604: 3584: 3562: 3542: 3517: 3513: 3493: 3468: 3444: 3421:. Retrieved 3416: 3392:. Retrieved 3378: 3366:. Retrieved 3361: 3337: 3325: 3313: 3301: 3274: 3262: 3252:22 September 3250:. Retrieved 3245: 3235: 3213:Prunier 1997 3193: 3181: 3169: 3157: 3145: 3133: 3104: 3095: 3089: 3062: 3050: 3023:22 September 3021:, retrieved 3011: 3005: 2996: 2990: 2978: 2966: 2959:Prunier 1997 2954: 2932:Melvern 2000 2927: 2920:Prunier 1997 2915: 2903: 2898:, p. 1. 2891: 2862: 2835: 2830:, p. 6. 2823: 2796: 2774:Melvern 2000 2757: 2751: 2742: 2721: 2712: 2691:. Retrieved 2686: 2677: 2669:UN Chronicle 2668: 2662: 2650: 2641: 2635: 2609: 2571: 2559: 2536:Toronto Star 2535: 2529: 2517: 2505: 2493: 2481: 2450: 2417:. 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London: 3448:. London: 3330:Daley 2008 3318:Daley 2008 3043:Legum 1994 1885:Daley 2008 1756:7 November 1446:References 1348:show trial 1140:scientist 1135:Historian 1119:antiterror 1092:, and the 954:ex officio 748:President 721:following 698:majority. 682:Background 602:President 148:Casualties 6680:self-coup 6659:Self-coup 6583:September 6563:September 5857:self-coup 4044:154612240 3983:143482426 3708:0011-3530 3633:249701714 3625:0011-3530 2983:Uvin 2013 2455:Watt 2008 1721:Watt 2008 1313:scapegoat 1126:Aftermath 952:—who was 861:Bujumbura 841:Mauritius 492:2015–2018 480:1998–2003 236:1943–1944 225:1922–1962 212:1891–1919 99:President 55:Bujumbura 6005:November 5990:November 5985:February 4274:November 4167:(2013). 3993:(1997). 3869:(1996). 3748:(1995). 3664:(2008). 3534:58245595 2419:18 April 1867:18 April 1815:16 April 1508:18 April 1239:de facto 1224:de facto 1178:genocide 880:The coup 870:Brussels 774:en masse 713:In 1987 659:de facto 632:en masse 544:Timeline 529:Category 342:Nov 1966 332:Jul 1966 138:and the 93:of Hutu 91:Election 51:Location 6669:attempt 6578:January 6568:October 4243:Burundi 4094:3518791 3564:Country 3388:Reuters 2693:19 June 1436:Kampala 1309:Kampala 1081:(OAU), 1044:of the 959:bazooka 928:FRODEBU 831:Prelude 717:became 688:Burundi 588:Burundi 534:Commons 467:Current 309:present 304:Burundi 118:Outcome 59:Burundi 6690: 4196: 4177: 4153: 4132: 4111: 4092: 4061: 4042: 4036:161291 4034: 4003: 3981: 3975:524680 3973: 3942: 3921: 3900: 3879: 3855: 3836: 3811: 3787: 3756: 3725: 3706: 3672: 3650: 3631: 3623: 3592: 3571: 3549: 3532: 3501: 3480: 3456: 1088:, the 723:a coup 539:Portal 108:Motive 86:Tutsis 6518:2020s 6402:April 6397:March 6362:2010s 6176:2000s 6000:April 5945:1990s 5908:Coups 5696:2020s 5517:2010s 5359:2000s 5124:1990s 4861:1980s 4605:1970s 4356:1960s 4265:1966 4239:Coups 4090:JSTOR 4040:S2CID 4032:JSTOR 3979:S2CID 3971:JSTOR 3805:(PDF) 3629:S2CID 3530:S2CID 3423:5 May 3368:5 May 3246:IWACU 1372:Notes 1321:Zaire 1200:Uvira 692:Tutsi 592:Tutsi 590:by a 420:, 2nd 370:, 1st 348:Ikiza 307:1962– 82:Hutus 75:Cause 6676:coup 6667:Coup 4296:1996 4286:1987 4281:1976 4269:July 4194:ISBN 4175:ISBN 4151:ISBN 4130:ISBN 4109:ISBN 4059:ISBN 4001:ISBN 3940:ISBN 3919:ISBN 3898:ISBN 3877:ISBN 3853:ISBN 3834:ISBN 3809:ISBN 3785:ISBN 3754:ISBN 3723:ISBN 3704:ISSN 3670:ISBN 3648:ISBN 3621:ISSN 3590:ISBN 3569:ISBN 3547:ISBN 3499:ISBN 3478:ISBN 3454:ISBN 3425:2021 3396:2020 3370:2021 3254:2021 3025:2021 2695:2019 2421:2021 1869:2021 1817:2021 1758:2019 1510:2021 696:Hutu 600:Hutu 596:army 584:coup 502:2015 453:2002 443:2001 433:2000 423:1996 412:1993 400:1993 373:1987 362:1976 352:1972 322:1965 289:1962 277:1961 267:1961 84:and 65:Type 43:Date 6678:or 4241:in 4082:doi 4078:105 4024:doi 3963:doi 3696:doi 3613:doi 3522:doi 872:by 97:as 6709:: 5910:, 4088:. 4076:. 4038:. 4030:. 4020:31 4018:. 3977:. 3969:. 3959:41 3957:. 3832:. 3702:. 3692:93 3690:. 3627:. 3619:. 3609:95 3607:. 3528:. 3518:46 3516:. 3415:. 3404:^ 3386:. 3360:. 3349:^ 3286:^ 3244:. 3220:^ 3205:^ 3116:^ 3074:^ 3033:^ 3015:, 2939:^ 2874:^ 2847:^ 2808:^ 2781:^ 2766:^ 2733:^ 2703:^ 2685:. 2618:^ 2598:^ 2583:^ 2544:^ 2462:^ 2429:^ 2411:. 2400:^ 2373:^ 2334:^ 2305:^ 2266:^ 2203:^ 2172:^ 2133:^ 2094:^ 2079:^ 2040:^ 2013:^ 1974:^ 1933:^ 1916:^ 1877:^ 1845:. 1808:. 1781:^ 1766:^ 1748:. 1701:^ 1662:^ 1599:^ 1578:^ 1500:. 1454:^ 678:. 57:, 5900:e 5893:t 5886:v 4340:e 4333:t 4326:v 4231:e 4224:t 4217:v 4202:. 4183:. 4159:. 4138:. 4117:. 4096:. 4084:: 4067:. 4046:. 4026:: 4009:. 3985:. 3965:: 3948:. 3927:. 3906:. 3885:. 3861:. 3842:. 3817:. 3793:. 3762:. 3731:. 3710:. 3698:: 3678:. 3656:. 3635:. 3615:: 3598:. 3577:. 3555:. 3536:. 3524:: 3507:. 3486:. 3462:. 3427:. 3398:. 3372:. 3256:. 2697:. 2423:. 1871:. 1819:. 1760:. 1512:. 571:e 564:t 557:v

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1993 Burundian coup attempt

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