22:
132:
506(c) of United States Code (USC) Title 17 prohibits three distinct acts: (1) placing a false notice of copyright on an article; (2) publicly distributing articles which bear a false copyright notice; and (3) importing for public distribution articles which bear a false copyright notice. The prosecution must prove that the act alleged was committed "with fraudulent intent". Violations of sections 506(c) and 506(d) are each punishable by a fine of up to $ 2,500. No private right of action exists under either of these provisions. No company has ever been prosecuted for violating this law.
541:
349:, for example, includes in its vast collection of artworks many from the nineteenth century. Although they have become part of the public domain, the museum claims they own the copyrights to them and therefore requires a visitor to agree to its terms before obtaining a copy of any works, i.e.: "The Images are not simple reproductions of the works depicted and are protected by copyright ... The MFA regularly makes images available for reproduction and publication in, for example, research papers and textbooks".
157:
Book publishers, both hard copy and e-books, sometimes include a license-like statement in compilations of public domain material purporting to restrict how the buyer can use the printed material. For instance, Dover
Publications, which publishes collections of public domain clip art, often includes statements purporting to limit how the illustrations can be used. Fishman states that while the seller cannot sue successfully for copyright infringement under federal law, they can sue for
441:
copy something they are in fact entitled to use for free. While falsely claiming copyright is technically a criminal offense under the Act, prosecutions are extremely rare. These circumstances have produced fraud on an untold scale, with millions of works in the public domain deemed copyrighted, and countless dollars paid out every year in licensing fees to make copies that could be made for free. Copyfraud stifles valid forms of reproduction and undermines free speech.
149:
338:, Peter Hirtle, has written that "many repositories would like to maintain a kind of quasi-copyright-like control over the further use of materials in their holding, comparable to the monopoly granted to a copyright owner." Mazzone, for one, finds the trend of false claims of copyright by public, taxpayer-supported institutions, especially troubling: "We should be able to expect in return that public domain works be left in the public domain." He credits the
322:
251:
756:" and "the strict limitations that museums often place on sharing the informational data regarding their collection with the public. ... Even when their cases lack legal support, museums and governments can try to use copyright or contract law to restrict access to cultural materials, to claim that they own all of the data and images outright, or to use digital rights management technology to lock up their data altogether. The result is 'copyfraud
741:, previously criticized for claiming propriety rights over its collections material in the public domain, updated its website to reflect a rights and reproductions policy that makes no claims to copyright. The AAS allows users to "freely download and use any of images" on its online image database, and it does not require a user to cite the library as a source. Additionally, the AAS now allows unrestricted photography within its reading room.
63:. Because copyfraud carries little or no oversight by authorities and few legal consequences, it exists on a massive scale, with millions of works in the public domain falsely labelled as copyrighted. Payments are therefore unnecessarily made by businesses and individuals for licensing fees. Mazzone states that copyfraud stifles valid reproduction of free material, discourages innovation and undermines
454:
686:, for $ 1.35 billion over their attempts to assert copyright over, and charge fees for the use of, 18,755 of her images, which she releases royalty-free. Getty had sent her a bill for one of the images, which she used on her own website. In November 2016, the court dismissed the lawsuit with respect to the federal copyright claims, and the remaining issues were settled out of court.
365:
or scanning, but it is doubtful that the law supports this". They argued that the fees inhibit the dissemination of knowledge, the very purpose of public museums and galleries, and so "pose a serious threat to art history". Therefore, they advised the UK's national museums "to follow the example of a growing number of international museums (such as the
Netherlands'
369:) and provide open access to images of publicly owned, out-of-copyright paintings, prints and drawings so that they are free for the public to reproduce". A 2022 study by Andrea Wallace found "a fundamental misunderstanding of what the public domain is, includes and should include" among UK galleries, libraries, archives and museums. A November 2023
238:: Most of the text, illustrations and photos published by the US government are in the public domain and free from copyright. Some exceptions might include a publication that includes copyrighted material, such as non-government photos. But many publishers include a copyright notice on reproduced government documents, such as one on the
2605:
1846:, May 1, 2009, accessed July 11, 2015. Techdirt wrote of another White House photo, "the White House is ignoring what that license says in claiming that the photograph 'may not be manipulated in any way.' That's clearly untrue under the law and a form of copyfraud, in that they are overclaiming rights." Masnick, Mike.
268:: Publishers have often placed copyright notices and restrictions on their reproductions of public domain artwork and photos. However, there is no copyright for reproduction, whether by photograph or even a painted reproduction, since there is no original creativity. One famous court case which explained that was
533:'s claims to copyright in its digital reproductions of public domain art images are "spurious ... abuses ... restricting access to art that belongs to the public by requiring payment of unnecessary fees and stifling the proliferation of new, creative expression, of 'Progress' that the Constitution guarantees.
905:
published images, and one in the public domain, Dorothy Lange's
Migrant Mother, is available on Alamy from a number of historical collections. In this regard Alamy is merely a modern entrant into a long industry tradition of preserving, cataloging and distributing important historical and archival images."
232:: A collection of public domain material, whether scanned and digitized, or reprinted, only protects the arrangement of the material, but not the individual works collected. However, publishers of many public domain collections will nonetheless place a copyright notice covering the entire publication.
941:
Portion of
Bridgeman's Terms and Conditions: "Unless otherwise indicated, all of the content featured or displayed on the Site, including, but not limited to, text, graphics, data, photographic images, moving images, sound, illustrations, software and the selection and arrangement thereof ("Bridgeman
904:
Alamy, another defendant in the
Highsmith case, asserted, "Publishers and others rely on Alamy and its competitors as sources of historical, archival and culturally relevant material, and for the service of providing easy searching and access to a broad range of subjects. For example, one of the most
414:
magazine, another trade journal, suggests that producers should "never assume that any film clip is in the public domain". Mazzone describes this new "licensing culture" as becoming an entrenched norm built on fear of using any prior work without permission. These clearance fees are typically a major
364:
newspaper, to urge that "fees charged by the UK's national museums to reproduce images of historic paintings, prints and drawings are unjustified, and should be abolished". They commented that "useums claim they create a new copyright when making a faithful reproduction of a 2D artwork by photography
218:
From the U.S. Constitution to old newspapers, from the paintings of old masters to the national anthem, the public domain has been copyrighted ... Copyfraud is the most outrageous type of overreaching in intellectual property law because it involves claims to a copyright where none at all exist.
131:
Mazzone notes that although the US government protects copyrights, it offers little protection to works in the public domain. Consequently, false claims of copyright over public domain works (copyfraud) is common. The profits earned by publishers falsely claiming copyrights have been immense. Section
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Eicher suggests several remedies: "Government should act to secure its authority over copyrights. ... Private interests should be prohibited from exerting pseudo-regulatory powers. ... Anti-trust actions could break up the newly forming publishing cartel before it becomes entrenched. ... Google's
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for $ 50,000 a year. After a little more than a year of performances, the company discovered that the work had passed into the public domain several years before due to a failure on the part of the copyright holder to renew the copyright. It ceased paying royalties, and after being sued by the owner
536:
Charles Eicher pointed out the prevalence of copyfraud with respect to Google Books, Creative
Commons' efforts to "license" public domain works, and other areas. He explained one of the methods: After you scan a public domain book, "reformat it as a PDF, mark it with a copyright date, register it as
425:
As a practical matter it is usually too expensive and difficult to file a lawsuit to establish that a copyright claim is spurious. In effect, the federal government encourages spurious copyright claims. The potential economic rewards for making such claims are great, while the possibility of getting
398:
in
Chicago learned that the public domain federal government footage he wanted to use in a film was considered copyrighted by a director who then wanted payment to use it. Similarly, Stanford professor Jan Krawitz needed to incorporate a public domain clip into an instructional film, but the archive
301:
Besides online digital libraries, a number of libraries, archives and museums which hold original manuscripts, photos and fine art, have claimed to have copyright over copies they make of those items because they possess the original. However, many of those items were created before the 20th century
504:, imposes penalties for "groundless threats of legal proceedings" and provides a cause of action for any false claims of copyright infringement. This includes false claims of copyright ownership of public domain material, or claims to impose copyright restrictions beyond those permitted by the law.
471:
In the US Copyright Act, only two sections deal with improper assertions of copyright on public domain materials: Section 506(c) criminalizes fraudulent uses of copyright notices, and
Section 506(e) punishes knowingly making a false representation of a material fact in the application for copyright
440:
Copyright law itself creates strong incentives for copyfraud. The
Copyright Act provides for no civil penalty for falsely claiming ownership of public domain materials. There is also no remedy under the Act for individuals who wrongly refrain from legal copying or who make payment for permission to
511:
wrote that payment demands for spurious copyright infringement might be resisted in civil lawsuits under a number of commerce-law theories: (1) Breach of warranty of title; (2) unjust enrichment; (3) fraud; and (4) false advertising. Heald cited a case in which the first of these theories was used
48:. Such claims are unlawful, at least under US and Australian copyright law, because material that is not copyrighted is free for all to use, modify and reproduce. Copyfraud also includes overreaching claims by publishers, museums and others, as where a legitimate copyright owner knowingly, or with
156:
Companies that sell public domain material under false claims of copyright often require the buyer to agree to a contract commonly referred to as a license. Many such licenses for material bought online require a buyer to click a button to "accept" their terms before they can access the material.
488:
has argued that the US government should "make the penalties for copyfraud (false claim of copyright) at least as severe as the penalties for infringement; that is, take the wrongful decrease in the circulation of ideas at least as seriously as the wrongful increase in the circulation of ideas."
184:
sued Getty Images for asserting they owned copyrights to photos she donated to the public domain, Getty admitted that her images were in the public domain, but said it nonetheless had a right to charge a fee for distributing the material, since "Distributing and providing access to public domain
112:
Copyfraud stifles creativity and imposes financial costs upon consumers. False copyright claims lead individuals to pay unnecessarily for licenses and to forgo entirely projects that make legitimate uses of public domain materials. Copyfraud is a land grab. It represents private control over the
389:
The owners of the actual physical copies of public domain footage often impose restrictions on its use along with charging licensing fees. The result is that documentary filmmakers have in many cases found it nearly impossible to either make a film or else have dropped projects entirely. In one
528:
article, noted the "widespread practice of putting restrictions on scanned copies of public domain books online" and the many "powerful entities who lobby online services for a shoot now/ask questions later approach to copyright takedowns, while the victims of the fraud have no powerful voice
483:
But the US Copyright Act does not expressly provide for any civil actions to remedy illegal copyright claims over public domain materials, nor does the Act prescribe relief for individuals who have been damaged: either by refraining from copying or by paying for a license to use public domain
192:
state law when it conflicts with federal law, that such copyright-like licenses should be unenforceable. However, the first two cases dealing with violations of such licenses decided that the licenses were enforceable, despite the fact that the material used was in the public domain: see
942:
Images
Content"), is owned by Bridgeman Images, its licensors or its third-party image partners. All elements of the Site, including the Bridgeman Images Content, are protected by copyright, trademark, patent, trade secret and other intellectual property laws and treaties."
289:, a similar stock photo company. Getty has over 200 million items for sale, most of which have been scanned and digitized to be sold and distributed online. Its vast collection includes many images of two-dimensional public domain works. Other digital libraries, including
958:
of the abandoned copyright, counterclaimed for damages in the amount paid to the owner on a breach of warranty/failure of consideration theory. The trial court awarded the opera company $ 50,500 in damages, and the court of appeals affirmed the judgement, finding that
537:
a new book with an ISBN, then submit it to Amazon.com for sale as an ebook on Kindle. Once the book is listed for sale ... submit it to Google Books for inclusion in its index. Google earns a small kickback on every sale referred to Amazon or other booksellers."
972:
orphan books settlement should be given further judicial review and invalidated. ... Google and Amazon should be prohibited from offering books with false copyrights, and the public should be empowered to flag copyfraud books and issue a take-down notice."
317:
in New York, similarly requires that a user of its archive first agree to their terms before visiting or reproducing anything from its collection of nineteenth and early 20th century photographs, most of which have long become part of the public domain.
357:
In the United Kingdom, it remains common for museums and repositories to claim rights over images of material in their collections and to charge reproduction fees. In November 2017, 27 prominent art historians, museum curators and critics wrote to
415:
portion of a film's budget, which leads more producers to simply cut any footage out of a film rather than deal with obtaining permissions. The industry motto, according to entertainment attorney Fernando Ramirez, is "When in doubt, cut it out."
127:
are reprinted and sold by large publishers that state or imply they own copyrights in those works. While selling copies of public domain works is legal, claiming or implying ownership of a copyright in those works can amount to fraud.
2036:
2274:
777:, whose performances are all public domain. After its claim was disputed by the uploader, Adafruit Industries, Rumblefish retracted the claim. In 2019, the same video was again hit with a false copyright claim, this time by
2016:
492:
In the United Kingdom, Ronan Deazley and Robert Sullivan argue that terms which require users to pay a licence fee for what should be fair dealing as permitted by copyright law could be in breach of section 2 of the
1850:
2191:
333:
According to Mazzone, archives and museums typically assert ownership of copyrights where none exist, and wrongly require users to agree to their license and terms and conditions. Former president of the
135:
Mazzone argues that copyfraud is usually successful because there are few and weak laws criminalizing false statements about copyrights, lax enforcement of such laws, few people who are competent to give
2202:
2346:
625:
and other characters and elements in Conan Doyle's works published before 1923. The US Supreme Court agreed with Klinger, ruling that these characters and elements are in the American public domain.
2243:
2033:
2047:
866:
599:
306:, which has a large archive of early American documents. Its terms and conditions for obtaining a copy of any of those documents requires agreeing to their license, along with payment.
2266:
2544:
406:, who wrote about this problem in a popular filmmaking trade journal, filmmakers are now "abandoning projects because of cost or self-censoring materials ... the sense in the
274:
in 1999: The "skill, labor or judgment merely in the process of copying cannot confer originality". Despite the clear ruling of a US federal court, however, Mazzone notes that the
2320:
2077:
2013:
278:
has been "undeterred by its loss in court and continues to assert copyright in reproductions" of countless public domain works by famous artists of previous centuries, such as
1276:
2521:
644:
ruling that Warner/Chappell's copyright claim was invalid and that the song is in the public domain, except for Warner/Chappell's specific piano arrangements of the song.
595:. In a March 2007 settlement, Crook agreed to withdraw the claims, "take a copyright law course and apologize for interfering with the free speech rights of his targets".
2300:
1706:
1847:
2188:
1518:
2700:
1017:
2449:
1991:
1831:
noted that "official photos by the official White House photographer ... aren't copyrightable should instead be flagged as public domain." See D'Andrade, Hugh.
689:
In 2016, lawsuits were filed by the same legal team who brought the 2013 "Happy Birthday" lawsuit, alleging false claims of copyright with respect to the songs "
1890:
2108:
1064:
473:
1566:
2199:
552:
account is free of copyright because it is a US federal government work. Yet, it bears a false claim that the "photograph may not be manipulated in any way".
2213:
2648:
2343:
2235:
445:
He also adds that "copyfraud upsets the constitutional balance and undermines First Amendment values", chilling free expression and stifling creativity.
2129:
1590:
563:
2147:
2492:
242:. Knowing that the penalty for making a false copyright claim on a copied government publication is small, some publishers simply ignore the laws.
2622:
2044:
2660:
Cronin, Charles Patrick Desmond (March 8, 2016). "Possession is 99% of the Law: 3D Printing, Public Domain Cultural Artifacts & Copyright".
1820:
923:
ProQuest offers an online searchable database of newspapers from the nineteenth century on, with each displayed page showing a copyright notice.
2168:
60:
663:
considers such uses of the DMCA to be "bogus complaints" a kind of copyfraud. Improper claims of copyright with respect to works used under a
113:
public domain. Copyfraud upsets the balance that the law has struck between private rights and the interests of the public in creative works.
1194:
752:
in Berlin. They released the data on the internet, allowing the public to copy the bust. Their aim was to defy "a culture of 'hyperownership
140:
on the copyright status of material and few people willing to risk a lawsuit to resist the fraudulent licensing fees that resellers demand.
1555:
932:"The Court is persuaded that its original conclusion that Bridgeman's transparencies are not copyrightable under British law was correct."
2424:
1446:
399:
that had the film made no distinction between copyrighted works and public domain works, thereby requiring her to pay a substantial fee.
381:
clarified that, in the UK, no new copyright is created in making a photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional public domain artwork.
1353:
2635:
2317:
2069:
1835:
994:
792:
issued numerous DMCA notices to try to stop journalists and others from using public domain information. Sony did the same in 2014.
2401:
1236:
1788:
67:
rights. Other legal scholars have suggested public and private remedies, and a few cases have been brought involving copyfraud.
49:
2513:
1208:
962:"passed, finally, completely and forever into the public domain and became freely available to the unrestricted use of anyone".
2475:
2297:
1962:
1703:
914:
The US Copyright Office stated that "digitization ... does not result in a new work of authorship" to allow a copyright.
727:
filed a lawsuit against an individual whom they allege abused DMCA takedowns to extort money from other users of the website.
310:
2369:
1484:
1341:
850:
708:
270:
1886:
1493:
370:
293:
and Art Resource, have claimed copyright over images they supply and imposed restrictions on how the images can be used.
30:
1749:
1014:
2582:
1987:
2034:"Warner Music Reprising the Role of the Evil Slayer of the Public Domain, Fights Back Against Happy Birthday Lawsuit"
694:
2100:
1916:
1866:
United States Court of Appeals, Second Circuit (October 4, 1984). Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.
1079:
582:
477:
1940:"The Digital Millennium Copyright Act Takedown Notice Procedure: Misuses, Abuses, and Shortcomings of the Process"
1875:
United States Court of Appeals, Second Circuit (July 15, 1986). Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.
2014:"Lawsuit Filed to Prove Happy Birthday Is in The Public Domain; Demands Warner Pay Back Millions of License Fees"
876:
701:
2210:
1843:
1828:
1765:
621:
in a lawsuit in Illinois for demanding that Klinger pay a license fee for the use in his book of the character
335:
180:
after agreeing to their terms and paying license fees of up to $ 5,000 for a six-month term. When photographer
21:
1808:
17 USC sec. 105; and Compendium of US Copyright Office Practices sec. 313.6(C)(1) (3d ed.) US Copyright Office
649:
530:
501:
2267:"Photographer Sues Getty Images For $ 1 Billion For Claiming Copyright On Photos She Donated To The Public"
738:
578:
that King Kong was in the public domain. Nintendo also won the appeal, a counterclaim and a further appeal.
303:
2144:
633:
1448:
A Culture of Copyright: A scoping study on open access to digital cultural heritage collections in the UK
1315:
346:
2489:
1260:
2716:
1739:
814:, shut down its website after complaints that it had falsely claimed copyright over images such as the
668:
690:
2165:
1817:
800:
574:. Nintendo's lawyers showed that Universal had successfully argued in 1975 legal proceedings against
567:
195:
886:
123:
According to copyright experts Jason Mazzone and Stephen Fishman, a massive amount of works in the
1606:
1413:
1329:
856:
819:
774:
1627:
1209:"Getty Images will bill you thousands to use a photo that belongs to the public. Is that legal?"
2721:
1480:
610:, that 3,300 downloaded images of copyright-expired artworks it housed violated its copyrights.
378:
1357:
1213:
823:
778:
769:
637:
629:
407:
275:
1389:
991:
844:
602:
notified Derrick Coetzee, an editor/administrator of the free content multimedia repository
540:
2329:
1832:
1668:
607:
585:(DMCA) claims against websites, claiming copyright on screenshots of his appearance on the
2236:"Photographer Files $ 1 Billion Suit Against Getty for Licensing Her Public Domain Images"
2209:, Musikpiraten e.V., September 30, 2011, accessed May 16, 2016; and Van der Sar, Ernesto.
1988:"Conan Doyle Estate: Denying Sherlock Holmes Copyright Gives Him 'Multiple Personalities'"
1763:"Corbis & Copyright?: Is Bill Gates Trying to Corner the Market on Public Domain Art?"
8:
591:
342:
among the shrinking list of archives that properly states whether a work is copyrighted.
339:
314:
302:
and have become part of the public domain. One example that Mazzone gives is that of the
173:
2490:"Ashley Madison commits copyfraud in desperate bid to suppress news of its titanic leak"
1519:"Court of Appeal ruling will prevent UK museums from charging reproduction fees—at last"
2673:
2397:
1685:
807:
796:
675:
614:
189:
181:
158:
1939:
1785:
285:
Mazzone also uses the example of Corbis, founded by Bill Gates, which was merged with
2578:
1689:
1666:
Deazley, Ronan; Sullivan, Robert (2011). "Copyright, Licences, and Statutory Fraud".
1649:
1528:
1523:
1237:"Photographer sues Getty Images for $ 1 billion after she's billed for her own photo"
881:
811:
745:
713:
641:
603:
463:
2677:
2665:
2166:"Copyfraud: Disney's bogus complaint over toy photo gets a fan kicked off Facebook"
1677:
1536:
1514:
1497:
1463:
1455:
1425:
1026:
861:
657:
in good faith before issuing a takedown notice for content posted on the internet.
395:
279:
254:
93:
1378:
2649:"Open Access, Panorama, Copyfraud : République numérique, la loi se dessine"
2496:
2350:
2344:"Lawyers who yanked 'Happy Birthday' into public domain now sue over 'This Land'"
2324:
2304:
2217:
2206:
2195:
2172:
2151:
2051:
2040:
2020:
1854:
1839:
1824:
1792:
1769:
1710:
1021:
998:
953:
764:
731:
622:
545:
1330:"Bridgeman Art Library, Ltd. v. Corel Corp., 36 F. Supp. 2d 191 (S.D.N.Y. 1999)"
2726:
2691:
2450:"Rumblefish claims it owns 'America the Beautiful' by United States Navy Band?"
1772:, Intellectual Property Law Bulletin, vol. 16, p. 1, University of Alabama 2011
1681:
789:
618:
494:
169:
26:
2710:
2593:
2545:"Furor over 'black hole' photo forces China's largest image provider to shut"
1532:
1303:
717:
519:
508:
239:
124:
89:
Claiming copyright ownership on the basis of ownership of copies or archives.
80:
45:
44:
claim by an individual or institution with respect to content that is in the
1540:
1501:
1467:
1320:, United States Warren Commission, Barnes & Noble Books copyright notice
2355:
1459:
871:
749:
679:
664:
628:
In 2013, Good Morning to You Productions, a documentary film company, sued
391:
286:
177:
165:
137:
86:
Imposition by a copyright owner of restrictions beyond what the law allows.
2189:"GEMA Strikes Again: Demands Licensing Fees For Music It Has No Rights To"
1912:
1428:; et al. (November 6, 2017). "Museums' fees for image reproduction".
2669:
1744:
767:
falsely claimed a copyright on a YouTube video of the public-domain song
659:
575:
524:
485:
366:
64:
1752:, Likelihood of Confusion, September 19, 2012, accessed October 30, 2018
410:
community is that the problem has reached a crisis point. As a result,
148:
2625:[How Wikimedia defends the public domain against "Copyfraud"].
1848:"President Obama Is Not Impressed With Your Right to Modify His Photos"
951:
In this case an opera company purchased the right to perform the opera
815:
782:
467:(1776), are often sold under a claim of copyright by the new publisher.
458:
403:
321:
250:
1740:"Copyfraud, uncertainty and doubt: the vanishing online public domain"
457:
Modern editions of public domain books hundreds of years old, such as
1963:"Legal row over National Portrait Gallery images placed on Knowledge"
1430:
571:
360:
41:
2318:"'Happy Birthday' Legal Team Turns Attention to 'We Shall Overcome'"
2045:"Court Keeps Candles Lit on Dispute Over 'Happy Birthday' Copyright"
1762:
867:
National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute
453:
2695:
2476:"Entrepreneurial Innovators Series: Richard Gottehrer, The Orchard"
654:
586:
326:
803:
to restrict usage of works that were already in the public domain.
329:
are often printed by museums with a questionable copyright notice.
2514:"Portugal Bans Use of DRM to Limit Access to Public Domain Works"
992:"Jason Mazzone, Professor, Lynn H. Murray Faculty Scholar in Law"
724:
556:
290:
2623:"Quand Wikimédia défend le domaine public contre le "copyfraud""
1748:, June 25, 2014, accessed June 16, 2015. See also Coleman, Ron.
1704:"Payment Demands for Spurious Copyrights: Four Causes of Action"
1827:, The White House flickr account, posted December 6, 2009. The
1001:, University of Illinois College of Law, accessed June 17, 2015
549:
497:, and constitute the offence of fraud by false representation.
2398:"Rights and Reproductions at the American Antiquarian Society"
1195:"Protection of Copyright Notices – 17 USC § 506(c) and 506(d)"
732:
Other notable use and recognition of improper copyright claims
296:
2425:"A most unpatriotic YouTube hijacking: America the Beautiful"
2200:"Musikpiraten e.V. examines option to sue GEMA for copyfraud"
1833:"White House Photos – Does the Public Need a License to Use?"
1290:"Policy Decision on Copyrightability of Digitized Typeface",
831:
683:
529:
advocating for them." Professor Tanya Asim Cooper wrote that
472:
registration. Section 512(f) additionally punishes using the
2636:"Le copyfraud, entre circulation des savoirs et contraintes"
2298:"Court Dismisses $ 1 Billion Copyright Claim Against Getty"
2070:"'Happy Birthday' Song Copyright Is Not Valid, Judge Rules"
1306:, "US Copyright Office Circular 14", accessed April 5, 2019
827:
570:, claiming that Donkey Kong was too similar to Universal's
436:
Mazzone places blame on both violators and the government:
2370:"United States District Court of Nebraska Case No. 19-353"
2198:, Techdirt.com, October 10, 2011, accessed May 16, 2016;
1750:"Who owns the copyright in scans of public domain works?"
325:
Reproductions of public domain works by artists such as
96:
to a public domain work converted to a different medium.
2701:
Podcast interview of Jason Mazzone discussing copyfraud
2575:
Copyfraud and Other Abuses of Intellectual Property Law
1628:"False copyright claims are more common than you think"
653:
affirmed a holding that copyright owners must consider
480:
to remove material the issuer knows is not infringing.
185:
content is different from asserting ownership of it".
59:
was coined by Jason Mazzone, a Professor of Law at the
1913:"Diehl v. Crook | Electronic Frontier Foundation"
2043:, Techdirt.com, September 3, 2013; and Johnson, Ted.
1887:"The plight of Pirates on the information superwaves"
1857:, Techdirt, November 20, 2012, accessed July 11, 2015
1342:
Pissarro's "The Boulevard Montmartre at Night", 1897
1479:
1944:Minnesota Journal of Law, Science & Technology
1058:
1056:
2598:Searcher: The Magazine for Database Professionals
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
2708:
2101:"'Happy Birthday' Copyright Ruled to Be Invalid"
1513:
1304:"Copyright in Derivative Works and Compilations"
172:, available for unrestricted downloads from the
143:
2211:"Music Royalty Collectors Accused of Copyfraud"
1727:Tams-Witmark Music Library v. New Opera Company
1665:
1404:: Fall/Winter 2003, Vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 235-247
877:Reiss Engelhorn Museum § Wikimedia lawsuit
514:Tams-Witmark Music Library v. New Opera Company
29:, with false copyright claim, while on loan to
16:False copyright claims to public-domain content
1444:
1033:
744:In 2015, two people obtained a 3D scan of the
557:Lawsuits alleging improper claims of copyright
1990:. Hollywoodreporter.com. September 13, 2013.
188:Fishman believes that because US federal law
105:
52:, claims rights beyond what the law allows.
2591:
2400:. Americanantiquarian.org. April 16, 2009.
1009:
1007:
795:In 2017, Portugal passed amendments to its
297:Original artworks, manuscripts and archives
1177:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1103:Mazzone, Jason. "Too Quick to Copyright",
678:sued two stock photography organizations,
667:, such as one by German royalty collector
2068:Mai-Duc, Christine (September 22, 2015).
1780:
1778:
1424:
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1173:
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1169:
1167:
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1159:
1157:
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1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
845:Atomium § Worldwide copyright claims
2620:
2258:
2224:, October 2, 2011, accessed May 14, 2016
2155:, 572 F. Supp. 2d 1150 (N.D. Cal. 2008).
1786:"Copyfraud: Poisoning the public domain"
1390:Fenimore Art Museum terms and conditions
1004:
640:". In September 2015, the court granted
539:
452:
320:
249:
147:
20:
2572:
2264:
2134:, 801 F.3d 1126 (2015), (9th Cir. 2015)
2111:from the original on September 23, 2015
2098:
2080:from the original on September 23, 2015
2067:
1994:from the original on September 16, 2013
1960:
1884:
1799:, June 26, 2009, accessed June 16, 2015
1234:
1206:
1062:
566:to stop Nintendo from profiting on its
2709:
2659:
2621:GĂ©vaudan, Camille (December 3, 2015).
2422:
1775:
1656:, July 2, 2011, accessed July 17, 2016
1154:
1110:
384:
25:Second-century bronze jug held by the
2662:USC Law Legal Studies Paper No. 16-13
2633:
2524:from the original on October 24, 2017
2233:
1937:
1553:
1294:, no. 189 (September 29, 1988): 38113
1197:, Justice.gov, accessed April 2, 2019
1013:Katyal, Sonia K. and Simone C. Ross.
512:successfully in a copyright context:
311:New York State Historical Association
2646:
2594:"Copyfraud' and Public Domain Works"
2099:Gardner, Eriq (September 22, 2015).
1715:Journal of Intellectual Property Law
1445:Andrea Wallace (February 23, 2022),
1400:Hirtle Peter."Archives or Assets?",
1379:American Antiquarian Society license
851:Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.
709:Online Policy Group v. Diebold, Inc.
671:in 2011, have been termed copyfraud.
426:caught and paying a price is small.
271:Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.
245:
206:
2608:from the original on March 28, 2017
2592:Ebbinghouse, Carol (January 2008).
2542:
1919:from the original on August 2, 2009
1591:"How to Avoid a Lawsuit in Waiting"
1207:Hiltzik, Michael (August 2, 2016).
1188:
617:estate was accused of copyfraud by
581:In 2006, Michael Crook filed false
152:"Migrant mother", by Dorothea Lange
13:
2647:Gary, Nicolas (January 23, 2016).
2566:
2404:from the original on June 27, 2009
2277:from the original on July 29, 2016
2246:from the original on July 28, 2016
1893:from the original on July 30, 2012
1885:Reyners, Conrad (March 17, 2008).
1572:from the original on July 28, 2020
1235:Hiltzik, Michael (July 29, 2016).
598:In 2009, lawyers representing the
14:
2738:
2685:
799:laws making it illegal to impose
500:In Australia, section 202 of the
352:
259:The Boulevard Montmartre at Night
583:Digital Millennium Copyright Act
478:Digital Millennium Copyright Act
448:
211:
79:Claiming copyright ownership of
75:Mazzone describes copyfraud as:
2634:Blanc, Sabine (April 1, 2016).
2536:
2506:
2482:
2468:
2442:
2416:
2390:
2362:
2336:
2310:
2290:
2265:Masnick, Mike (July 28, 2016).
2227:
2182:
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2137:
2123:
2092:
2061:
2026:
2006:
1980:
1961:Kennedy, Maev (July 14, 2009).
1954:
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1878:
1869:
1860:
1811:
1802:
1755:
1732:
1720:
1696:
1659:
1642:
1620:
1607:"The Many Meanings of 'Fair Use
1600:
1584:
1547:
1507:
1473:
1438:
1418:
1414:MFA-Boston Terms and Conditions
1407:
1394:
1383:
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1297:
1284:
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1254:
965:
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935:
926:
917:
908:
898:
702:SCO Group, Inc. v. Novell, Inc.
600:National Portrait Gallery (NPG)
564:Universal Studios sued Nintendo
100:
2543:Goh, Brenda (April 12, 2019).
2518:Electronic Frontier Foundation
2287:includes a copy of the lawsuit
2234:Dunne, Carey (July 27, 2016).
1844:Electronic Frontier Foundation
1829:Electronic Frontier Foundation
1228:
1200:
1097:
1072:New York University Law Review
1015:"Can technoheritage be owned?"
985:
810:, China's largest provider of
336:Society of American Archivists
1:
2307:, PDNPulse, November 22, 2016
2131:Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.
2023:, Techdirt.com, June 13, 2013
978:
650:Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.
502:Australian Copyright Act 1968
144:Restricting use with licenses
70:
2423:Mullin, Joe (July 3, 2015).
2145:Lenz v. Universal Music Corp
1654:SPARC Open Access Newsletter
739:American Antiquarian Society
304:American Antiquarian Society
7:
1717:, vol. 1, 1993–1994, p. 259
1650:"Open Access and Copyright"
1278:Matthew Bender v. Jurisline
1151:, Stanford Law Books (2011)
838:
418:
347:Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
201:Matthew Bender v. Jurisline
10:
2743:
1682:10.5235/175776311799280782
1617:magazine, December 1, 2005
1554:Dunne, Matt (April 2005).
763:In 2015, a company called
236:US government publications
176:, are also available from
1729:, 81 N.E. 2d 70 (NY 1948)
1281:, 91 F.Supp.2d 677 (2000)
1078:(3): 1026. Archived from
801:digital rights management
196:ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg
106:False claims of copyright
2478:. American Express OPEN.
1818:Photo at the White House
1354:""Terms and Conditions""
1317:Warren Commission Report
1267:, accessed April 2, 2019
1185:, Nolo (2006), pp. 24–29
892:
887:YouTube copyright issues
309:Another repository, the
164:Public domain photos by
2573:Mazzone, Jason (2011).
1938:Cobia, Jeffrey (2009).
1556:"The Cost of Clearance"
1063:Mazzone, Jason (2006).
857:Censorship by copyright
820:Event Horizon Telescope
775:United States Navy Band
568:Donkey Kong arcade game
507:American legal scholar
2577:. Stanford Law Books.
2105:The Hollywood Reporter
1630:. Public Domain Sherpa
1460:10.5281/ZENODO.6242611
1402:The American Archivist
826:and various corporate
773:, as performed by the
695:This Land Is Your Land
674:In 2016, photographer
553:
468:
443:
428:
330:
262:
221:
153:
115:
61:University of Illinois
50:constructive knowledge
33:
1517:(December 29, 2023).
1483:(November 20, 2023),
1261:Court filing by Alamy
1241:The Los Angeles Times
1214:The Los Angeles Times
824:Chinese national flag
770:America the Beautiful
638:Happy Birthday to You
630:Warner/Chappell Music
543:
456:
438:
423:
408:independent filmmaker
324:
276:Bridgeman Art Library
253:
216:
151:
110:
24:
2670:10.2139/ssrn.2731935
2520:. October 23, 2017.
1761:Cooper, Tanya Asim.
1669:Journal of Media Law
1563:Independent Magazine
1332:, Cornell Law School
608:Wikimedia Foundation
592:Hannity & Colmes
484:material. Professor
2454:Adafruit Industries
2179:, December 11, 2015
1597:, February 11, 2003
1481:Lord Justice Arnold
1292:Federal Register 53
1107:, volume 26, no. 46
818:image taken by the
390:example, filmmaker
385:Public domain films
379:Lord Justice Arnold
340:Library of Congress
315:Fenimore Art Museum
266:Art and photography
174:Library of Congress
161:under the license.
31:Tullie House Museum
2692:Copyfraud examples
2503:, August 20, 2015
2495:2016-05-13 at the
2349:2017-08-13 at the
2323:2016-04-16 at the
2303:2017-09-01 at the
2216:2016-06-24 at the
2205:2016-06-11 at the
2194:2016-06-17 at the
2171:2016-05-07 at the
2150:2016-11-25 at the
2050:2017-06-28 at the
2039:2013-11-03 at the
2019:2013-10-14 at the
1853:2015-07-13 at the
1838:2015-07-12 at the
1823:2015-09-22 at the
1791:2016-02-04 at the
1768:2015-10-30 at the
1709:2016-05-28 at the
1565:. pp. 30–31.
1181:Fishman, Stephen.
1020:2016-06-06 at the
997:2015-12-28 at the
830:, such as that of
808:Visual China Group
797:anti-circumvention
781:, a subsidiary of
716:case related to a
676:Carol M. Highsmith
634:claiming copyright
615:Arthur Conan Doyle
554:
476:provisions of the
469:
331:
263:
182:Carol M. Highsmith
159:breach of contract
154:
34:
2717:Commercial crimes
2333:, April 12, 2016.
2074:Los Angeles Times
2058:, October 7, 2013
1784:Eicher, Charles.
1524:The Art Newspaper
1426:Grosvenor, Bendor
1360:on March 28, 2019
1183:The Public Domain
882:Sweat of the brow
812:stock photography
748:displayed at the
746:bust of Nefertiti
714:misrepresentation
691:We Shall Overcome
642:summary judgement
604:Wikimedia Commons
464:Wealth of Nations
246:Digital libraries
207:Types of material
94:copyright notices
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2488:Doctorow, Cory.
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2342:Farivar, Cyrus.
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1738:Doctorow, Cory.
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1515:Bendor Grosvenor
1511:
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1356:. Archived from
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1147:Mazzone, Jason.
1145:
1108:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1085:on March 4, 2016
1084:
1069:
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1027:The Boston Globe
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862:Copyright misuse
759:
755:
606:, hosted by the
544:This image from
432:
396:Kartemquin Films
280:Camille Pissarro
255:Camille Pissarro
225:
119:
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2567:Further reading
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2497:Wayback Machine
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2359:, June 18, 2016
2351:Wayback Machine
2341:
2337:
2325:Wayback Machine
2316:Gardner, Eriq.
2315:
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2305:Wayback Machine
2296:Walker, David.
2295:
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2218:Wayback Machine
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2052:Wayback Machine
2041:Wayback Machine
2032:Masnick, Mike.
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2012:Masnick, Mike.
2011:
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1702:Heald, Paul J.
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2456:. July 3, 2015
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1486:THJ v Sheridan
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665:free license
658:
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2501:Boing Boing
2177:Boing Boing
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1745:Boing Boing
1105:Legal Times
1065:"Copyfraud"
779:The Orchard
660:Boing Boing
576:RKO General
525:Boing Boing
486:Peter Suber
474:safe harbor
377:, 2023) by
373:judgement (
367:Rijksmuseum
230:Collections
199:(1996) and
65:free speech
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2711:Categories
2653:ActuaLitté
2640:La Gazette
2627:Liberation
1595:MovieMaker
1541:Q124044230
1502:Q124044396
1468:Q111275072
979:References
816:black hole
783:Sony Music
765:Rumblefish
459:Adam Smith
412:MovieMaker
404:Matt Dunne
92:Attaching
71:Definition
2554:April 16,
2330:Billboard
1972:March 27,
1690:143774979
1533:0960-6556
1431:The Times
1364:March 28,
1149:Copyfraud
806:In 2019,
788:In 2015,
723:In 2019,
647:In 2015,
572:King Kong
562:In 1984,
361:The Times
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42:copyright
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2696:Techdirt
2678:62370801
2606:Archived
2522:Archived
2493:Archived
2408:July 19,
2402:Archived
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2321:Archived
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2281:July 28,
2275:Archived
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2250:July 28,
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1923:July 19,
1917:Archived
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1766:Archived
1707:Archived
1634:April 2,
1576:July 28,
1567:Archived
1537:Wikidata
1498:Wikidata
1464:Wikidata
1089:June 17,
1018:Archived
995:Archived
839:See also
655:fair use
587:Fox News
419:Analysis
327:Van Gogh
203:(2000).
190:preempts
2612:July 5,
2549:Reuters
2460:July 8,
2434:July 8,
2056:Variety
725:YouTube
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2373:(PDF)
1686:S2CID
1570:(PDF)
1559:(PDF)
1490:(PDF)
1452:(PDF)
1083:(PDF)
1068:(PDF)
893:Notes
832:Baidu
828:logos
684:Alamy
589:show
2614:2017
2579:ISBN
2556:2019
2530:2017
2462:2019
2436:2019
2410:2009
2384:2019
2283:2016
2252:2016
2117:2015
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1974:2019
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1529:ISSN
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