Anabolic steroid - Knowledge

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would be more suitable for use in women and children. However, this effort failed comprehensively and was abandoned by the 1970s. This failure was due to the subsequent discovery of a singular androgen receptor (AR) mediating the effects of AAS in both muscle and reproductive tissue, along with misinterpretation of flawed animal androgen bioassays employed to distinguish between androgenic or virilizing effects and anabolic or myotrophic effects (i.e., the Hershberger assay involving the unrepresentative levator ani muscle). In reality, all AAS have essentially similar AR-mediated effects, even if some may differ in potency to a degree in certain tissues (e.g., skin, hair follicles, prostate gland) based on susceptibility to 5α-reduction and associated metabolic amplification or inactivation or lack thereof. Per Handelsman, the terms "anabolic steroid" and "anabolic–androgenic steroid" are obsolete, meaningless, and falsely distinguish these agents from androgens when there is no physiological basis for such distinction. In fact, it has been noted that the use and distinction of the concepts "anabolic" and "androgenic" as well as the term "anabolic–androgenic steroid" are oxymoronic, as anabolic refers to muscle-building while androgenic refers to induction and maintenance of male secondary sexual characteristics (which in principle would include anabolic or muscle-building effects). Handelsman has argued that these terms should be discarded and instead, AAS should all simply be referred to as "androgens", with him using this term exclusively to refer to these agents in his publications. Although the term "anabolic–androgenic steroid" is technically valid in describing two types of actions of these agents, Handelsman considers the term unnecessary and redundant and likens it to hypothetical never-used terms like "luteal–gestational progestins" or "mammary–uterine estrogens". Handelsman also notes that "anabolic steroid" is easily and unnecessarily confusable with

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pharmacology to define an idealized androgen lacking virilizing features but maintaining myotrophic properties so that it could be used safely in chidren and women. Although this quest proved illusory and was abandoned after all industry efforts failed to identify such a hypothetical synthetic androgen, the obsolete term "anabolic steroid" persists mainly as a lurid descriptor in popular media despite continuing to make a false distinction where there is no difference. Better understanding of the metabolic activation of androgens via 5α-reduction and aromatization in target tissues and the tissue-specific partial agonist/antagonist properties of some synthetic androgens may lead to more physiological concepts of tissue-specific androgen action ("specific androgen receptor modulator") governed by the physiological processes of pre-receptor androgen activation as well as post-receptor interaction with co-regulator proteins analogous to the development of synthetic estrogen partial agonists with tissue specificity ("specific estrogen receptor modulator") (588). The potential for new clinical therapeutic indications of novel tissue-selective androgens in clinical development remain to be fully evaluated (589).

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Blue Cross Blue Shield found." Another study found that non-medical use of AAS among college students was at or less than 1%. According to a recent survey, 78.4% of steroid users were noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes, while about 13% reported unsafe injection practices such as reusing needles, sharing needles, and sharing multidose vials, though a 2007 study found that sharing of needles was extremely uncommon among individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes, less than 1%. Another 2007 study found that 74% of non-medical AAS users had post-secondary degrees and more had completed college and fewer had failed to complete high school than is expected from the general populace. The same study found that individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes had a higher employment rate and a higher household income than the general population. AAS users tend to research the drugs they are taking more than other controlled-substance users; however, the major sources consulted by steroid users include friends, non-medical handbooks, internet-based forums, blogs, and fitness magazines, which can provide questionable or inaccurate information.

21642:'anabolic steroid' based on dissociating the virilizing from the anabolic effects of androgens failed. This is now understood in the light of the later discovery of the singular AR together with the flawed interpretations of relatively nonspecific whole animal bioassays then used to screen synthetic steroids for supposedly distinct anabolic and virilizing effects. Yet, despite the industry's abandonment of this fruitless endeavor by 1980, and its recent reincarnation under the guise of developing a 'selective AR modulator' (SARM) , the empty concept of an 'anabolic steroid' persists as an ill-defined and misleading scientific terminology . In this paper, the more accurate and clearer term 'androgen' is used exclusively for both endogenous and synthetic androgens, but includes references to chemicals loosely defined elsewhere as 'anabolic steroids' or 'anabolicandrogenic steroids', which confuse by making an obsolete distinction where there is no difference. 1436:(adhesive patches placed on the skin) may also be used to deliver a steady dose through the skin and into the bloodstream. Testosterone-containing creams and gels that are applied daily to the skin are also available, but absorption is inefficient (roughly 10%, varying between individuals) and these treatments tend to be more expensive. Individuals who are especially physically active and/or bathe often may not be good candidates, since the medication can be washed off and may take up to six hours to be fully absorbed. There is also the risk that an intimate partner or child may come in contact with the application site and inadvertently dose themselves; children and women are highly sensitive to testosterone and can develop unintended masculinization and health effects, even from small doses. Injection is the most common method used by individuals administering AAS for non-medical purposes. 11910: 3219:), would not undergo such potentiation in said tissues. Moreover, nandrolone is metabolized by 5α-reductase, but unlike the case of testosterone and DHT, the 5α-reduced metabolite of nandrolone has much lower affinity for the AR than does nandrolone itself, and this results in reduced AR activation in 5α-reductase-expressing tissues. As so-called "androgenic" tissues such as skin/hair follicles and male reproductive tissues are very high in 5α-reductase expression, while skeletal muscle is virtually devoid of 5α-reductase, this may primarily explain the high myotrophic–androgenic ratio and dissociation seen with nandrolone, as well as with various other AAS. 7100:(woman-like breasts). AAS that have a high potential for aromatization like testosterone and particularly methyltestosterone show a high risk of gynecomastia at sufficiently high dosages, while AAS that have a reduced potential for aromatization like nandrolone show a much lower risk (though still potentially significant at high dosages). In contrast, AAS that are 4,5α-reduced, and some other AAS (e.g., 11β-methylated 19-nortestosterone derivatives), have no risk of gynecomastia. In addition to gynecomastia, AAS with high estrogenicity have increased antigonadotropic activity, which results in increased potency in suppression of the 11607: 2295: 9516: 3530:– that is, they dose-dependently suppress gonadal testosterone production and hence reduce systemic testosterone concentrations. By suppressing endogenous testosterone levels and effectively replacing AR signaling in the body with that of the exogenous AAS, the myotrophic–androgenic ratio of a given AAS may be further, dose-dependently increased, and this hence may be an additional factor contributing to the differences in myotrophic–androgenic ratio among different AAS. In addition, some AAS, such as 19-nortestosterone derivatives like nandrolone, are also potent 21476:

discovery of a singular androgen receptor (AR) together with the misinterpretation of nonspecific whole animal androgen bioassays employed to distinguish between anabolic and virilizing effects (37). The term "androgen" is used herein for both endogenous and synthetic androgens including references to chemicals named elsewhere as "anabolic steroids," "anabolic-androgenic steroids," or "specific AR modulators" (SARM), which continue to make an obsolete and oxymoronic distinction between virilizing and anabolic effects of androgens where there is no difference (36).

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and non-preferentially-anabolic steroids like testosterone. While many anabolic steroids have diminished androgenic potency in comparison to anabolic potency, there is no anabolic steroid that is exclusively anabolic, and hence all anabolic steroids retain at least some degree of androgenicity. (Likewise, all "androgens" are inherently anabolic.) Indeed, it is probably not possible to fully dissociate anabolic effects from androgenic effects, as both types of effects are mediated by the same signaling receptor, the AR. As such, the distinction between the terms

9205: 8853: 18283: 12540: 8195: 11547:, but was not marketed. Subsequently, in 1955, it was re-examined for testosterone-like activity in animals and was found to have similar anabolic activity to testosterone, but only one-sixteenth of its androgenic potency. It was the first steroid with a marked and favorable separation of anabolic and androgenic effect to be discovered, and has accordingly been described as the "first anabolic steroid". Norethandrolone was introduced for medical use in 1956, and was quickly followed by numerous similar steroids, for instance 3211:. According to the intracellular metabolism explanation, the androgenic-to-anabolic ratio of a given AR agonist is related to its capacity to be transformed by the aforementioned enzymes in conjunction with the AR activity of any resulting products. For instance, whereas the AR activity of testosterone is greatly potentiated by local conversion via 5α-reductase into DHT in tissues where 5α-reductase is expressed, an AAS that is not metabolized by 5α-reductase or is already 5α-reduced, such as DHT itself or a derivative (like 7953: 21597:"androgenic-anabolic steroids" remain an obsolete terminology making a distinction between androgenic and anabolic effects where there is no real difference . This obsolete yet widely used terminology represent a vestige of the unsuccessful quest by the pharmaceutical industry to dissociate the virilizing from anabolic properties and remains in the public mind mainly as a media piñata. Androgen abuse, a more appropriate term which encompasses illicit use of all available androgens, will be used in this chapter. 8897: 2156: 10459: 9887: 7975: 1387: 9029: 8041: 8019: 2991:. Effects on women include deepening of the voice, facial hair growth, and possibly a decrease in breast size. Men may develop an enlargement of breast tissue, known as gynecomastia, testicular atrophy, and a reduced sperm count. The androgenic:anabolic ratio of an AAS is an important factor when determining the clinical application of these compounds. Compounds with a high ratio of androgenic to an anabolic effects are the drug of choice in androgen-replacement therapy (e.g., treating 21682:

tissue-specific activation by aromatization to a corresponding estrogen or to amplification of androgenic potency by 5a-reduction. In this context the endogenous pure androgens nandrolone and DHT can be considered prototype SARMs. SARMs are not the modern embodiment of so-called "anabolic steroids," an outdated term referring to hypothetical but nonexistent non-virilizing androgens targeted exclusively to muscle, a failed concept lacking biological proof of principle (Handelsman 2011).

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The primary urinary metabolites may be detectable for up to 30 days after the last use, depending on the specific agent, dose and route of administration. A number of the drugs have common metabolic pathways, and their excretion profiles may overlap those of the endogenous steroids, making interpretation of testing results a very significant challenge to the analytical chemist. Methods for detection of the substances or their excretion products in urine specimens usually involve

10303: 9739: 9340: 8875: 9428: 10642: 1457: 10264: 9998: 9924: 9230: 8582: 10072: 9961: 8261: 9850: 8692: 7796: 10674: 10420: 10537: 9139: 8941: 7642: 6981:, where 5α-reductase either is not expressed or is only minimally expressed. As DHT is 3- to 10-fold more potent as an agonist of the AR than is testosterone, the AR agonist activity of testosterone is thus markedly and selectively potentiated in such tissues. In contrast to testosterone, DHT and other 4,5α-dihydrogenated AAS are already 5α-reduced, and for this reason, cannot be potentiated in androgenic tissues. 19-Nortestosterone derivatives like 10381: 10342: 10498: 9384: 8736: 8173: 9252: 9007: 7774: 8758: 8714: 9362: 8151: 9450: 9318: 2601: 774: 9051: 9585: 8333: 8085: 10658: 9296: 7686: 7664: 9274: 9095: 8963: 8560: 8377: 8802: 8421: 8311: 8107: 58: 791:

of individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes were willing to seek medical supervision for their steroid use, 58% lacked trust in their physicians, 92% felt that the medical community's knowledge of non-medical AAS use was lacking, and 99% felt that the public has an exaggerated view of the side-effects of AAS use. A recent study has also shown that long term AAS users were more likely to have symptoms of

8129: 23064: 9704: 9406: 8780: 8465: 8239: 7909: 7862: 9472: 9161: 8670: 8535: 8487: 8217: 9541: 9073: 8985: 8824: 8399: 8509: 7752: 9183: 9117: 8919: 8648: 8063: 7887: 26455: 8626: 8443: 7931: 7818: 9563: 7840: 7309:(although these are relatively weak AAS), and the 19-nortestosterone derivatives dimethandrolone and 11β-MNT, which have improved resistance to first-pass hepatic metabolism due to their 11β-methyl groups (in contrast to them, the related AAS trestolone (7α-methyl-19-nortestosterone) is not orally active). As these AAS are not 17α-alkylated, they show minimal potential for hepatotoxicity. 9494: 7708: 8604: 8286: 7997: 8355: 7730: 3227:, might be expected to have a higher myotrophic–androgenic ratio in comparison. In addition, DHT is inactivated by high activity of 3α-HSD in skeletal muscle (and cardiac tissue), and AAS that lack affinity for 3α-HSD could similarly be expected to have a higher myotrophic–androgenic ratio (although perhaps also increased long-term cardiovascular risks). In accordance, DHT, 3035:). The LA/VP weight gain ratio from rat experiments is not unitary for testosterone (typically 0.3–0.4), but it is normalized for presentation purposes, and used as basis of comparison for other AAS, which have their androgenic:anabolic ratios scaled accordingly (as shown in the table above). In the early 2000s, this procedure was standardized and generalized throughout 2438:

between lifetime and past-year self-reported AAS use and involvement in violent acts. Compared with individuals that did not use steroids, young adult males that used AAS reported greater involvement in violent behaviors even after controlling for the effects of key demographic variables, previous violent behavior, and polydrug use. A 1996 review examining the

12032: 3097:, the effects of these agents have been divided into two partially dissociable types: anabolic (myotrophic) and androgenic. Dissociation between the ratios of these two types of effects relative to the ratio observed with testosterone is observed in rat bioassays with various AAS. Theories for the dissociation include differences between AAS in terms of their 1426:

desirable in order to maintain a more constant level of hormone in the system. Injectable steroids are typically administered into the muscle, not into the vein, to avoid sudden changes in the amount of the drug in the bloodstream. In addition, because estered testosterone is dissolved in oil, intravenous injection has the potential to cause a dangerous

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pharmacists, veterinarians, and physicians. In addition, a significant number of counterfeit products are sold as AAS, in particular via mail order from websites posing as overseas pharmacies. In the U.S., black-market importation continues from Mexico, Thailand, and other countries where steroids are more easily available, as they are legal.

11623:, which makes simple possession of such substances without a prescription a federal crime punishable by up to one year in prison for the first offense. Unlawful distribution or possession with intent to distribute AAS as a first offense is punished by up to ten years in prison. In Canada, AAS and their derivatives are part of the 14386: 11975:. The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin stated that "Anabolic steroid abuse by police officers is a serious problem that merits greater awareness by departments across the country". It is also believed that police officers across the United Kingdom "are using criminals to buy steroids" which he claims to be a top risk factor for 7253:, which is orally active, albeit with only very low oral bioavailability (approximately 3%). In contrast to most other AAS, 17α-alkylated testosterone derivatives show resistance to metabolism due to steric hindrance and are orally active, though they may be esterified and administered via intramuscular injection as well. 7005:(7α,11β-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone), cannot be 5α-reduced. Conversely, certain 17α-alkylated AAS like methyltestosterone are 5α-reduced and potentiated in androgenic tissues similarly to testosterone. 17α-Alkylated DHT derivatives cannot be potentiated via 5α-reductase however, as they are already 4,5α-reduced. 20914:

Butenandt A, Hanisch G (1935). "Über die Umwandlung des Dehydro-androsterons in Δ4-Androsten-ol-(17)-0n-(3) (Testosteron); ein Weg zur Darstellung des Testosterons aus Cholesterin (Vorläuf. Mitteil.)" [On the conversion of dehydro-Δ4-androstene androsterons in-ol (17) 0n (3) (testosterone), a way

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was originally intended to specifically describe testosterone-derived steroids with a marked dissociation of anabolic and androgenic effect, it is applied today indiscriminately to all steroids with AR agonism-based anabolic effects regardless of their androgenic potency, including even non-synthetic

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The intracellular metabolism theory explains how and why remarkable dissociation between anabolic and androgenic effects might occur despite the fact that these effects are mediated through the same signaling receptor, and why this dissociation is invariably incomplete. In support of the model is the

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The upper region of the body (thorax, neck, shoulders, and upper arm) seems to be more susceptible for AAS than other body regions because of predominance of ARs in the upper body. The largest difference in muscle fiber size between AAS users and non-users was observed in type I muscle fibers of the

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Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Blackman MR, Boyce A, Chrousos G, Corpas E, de Herder WW, Dhatariya K, Dungan K, Hofland J, Kalra S, Kaltsas G, Kapoor N, Koch C, Kopp P, Korbonits M, Kovacs CS, Kuohung W, Laferrère B, Levy M, McGee EA, McLachlan R, New M, Purnell J, Sahay R, Shah AS, Singer F, Sperling MA,

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Following the hiatus of World War II, the pharmaceutical industry development of synthetic steroids included pursuing the goal of a nonvirilizing androgen ('anabolic steroid') potentially suitable for use to obtain pharmacological androgen effects in women and children. the industrial quest for an

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at the C17β position allows the substance to be administered parenterally and increases the duration of effectiveness because agents soluble in oily liquids may be present in the body for several months; and alterations of the ring structure were applied for both PO and parenteral agents to seeking

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of testosterone was achieved in August that year, when Butenandt and G. Hanisch published a paper describing "A Method for Preparing Testosterone from Cholesterol." Only a week later, the third group, Ruzicka and A. Wettstein, announced a patent application in a paper "On the Artificial Preparation

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provided by their 11β-methyl group, whereas the closely related AAS trestolone (7α-methyl-19-nortestosterone), in relation to its lack of an 11β-methyl group, can be aromatized. AAS that are 17α-alkylated (and not also 4,5α-reduced or 19-demethylated) are also aromatized but to a lesser extent than

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Anabolic steroids interact with ARs across various tissues, including muscle, bone, and reproductive systems. Upon binding to the AR, anabolic steroids trigger a translocation of the hormone-receptor complex to the cell nucleus, where they either alter gene expression or activate cellular signaling

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There are four common forms in which AAS are administered: oral pills; injectable steroids; creams/gels for topical application; and skin patches. Oral administration is the most convenient. Testosterone administered by mouth is rapidly absorbed, but it is largely converted to inactive metabolites,

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AAS users tend to be unhappy with the portrayal of AAS as deadly in the media and in politics. According to one study, AAS users also distrust their physicians and in the sample 56% had not disclosed their AAS use to their physicians. Another 2007 study had similar findings, showing that, while 66%

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In recent years several laboratories (Kochakian, Albright, Wilkins) have entertained the hope of finding a protein anabolic steroid without any, or with only minor, sexual effects. These studies have received special impetus and encouragement from the observation of Kochakian that certain steroids

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has criticized terminology and understanding surrounding AAS in many publications. According to Handelsman, the pharmaceutical industry attempted to dissociate the so-called "androgenic" and "anabolic" effects of AAS in the mid-20th-century in order to create non-masculinizing anabolic agents that

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The most commonly employed human physiological specimen for detecting AAS usage is urine, although both blood and hair have been investigated for this purpose. The AAS, whether of endogenous or exogenous origin, are subject to extensive hepatic biotransformation by a variety of enzymatic pathways.

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that is normal for females but is of course greatly reduced relative to males. These observations suggest that the AR is mainly or exclusively responsible for masculinization and myotrophy caused by androgens. The mARs have however been found to be involved in some of the health-related effects of

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Anabolic steroids notably influence muscle fiber characteristics, affecting both the size and type of muscle fibers. This alteration significantly contributes to enhanced muscle strength and endurance. Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) cause these changes by directly impacting the muscle tissue's

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in males), whereas compounds with a reduced androgenic:anabolic ratio are preferred for anemia and osteoporosis, and to reverse protein loss following trauma, surgery, or prolonged immobilization. Determination of androgenic:anabolic ratio is typically performed in animal studies, which has led to

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Anabolic steroids influence cellular differentiation while favoring the development of muscle cells over fat-storage cells. Research in this field has shown that structural modifications in anabolic steroids are critical in determining their binding affinity to ARs and their resulting anabolic and

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Affective disorders have long been recognised as a complication of AAS use. Case reports describe both hypomania and mania, along with irritability, elation, recklessness, racing thoughts and feelings of power and invincibility that did not meet the criteria for mania/hypomania. Of 53 bodybuilders

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for a personality disorder guideline that "The pattern must not be better accounted for as a manifestation of another mental disorder, or to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g. drug or medication) or a general medical condition (e.g. head trauma).". As a result, AAS users may get

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age of about 25 who are noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes and use the drugs for cosmetic purposes. "Among 12- to 17-year-old boys, use of steroids and similar drugs jumped 25 percent from 1999 to 2000, with 20 percent saying they use them for looks rather than sports, a study by insurer

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Anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS) are a class of natural and synthetic hormones that owe their name to their chemical structure (the steroid nucleus, see Figure 1) and the biological effects (anabolic and androgenic) they induce. Anabolic refers to the skeletal muscle-building properties of AAS,

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Androgens, estrogens and progestins exert a negative feedback effect on the secretion of GnRH and LH by their actions on the pituitary and the hypothalamus. Most of the negative feedback effect of androgens is caused by their estrogenic metabolites produced by aromatization. 5α-Reduction does not

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can be dated as far back as at least the mid-1940s, when it was used to describe the at-the-time hypothetical concept of a testosterone-derived steroid with anabolic effects but with minimal or no androgenic effects. This concept was formulated based on the observation that steroids had ratios of

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The development of nonsteroidal androgens, marketed as "selective androgen receptor modulators" (SARMs), offers new possibilities for adjuvant pharmacological androgen therapy. In contrast to the full spectrum of androgen effects of testosterone, such SARMs would be pure androgens not subject to

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substances, meaning that it is illegal to obtain or sell them without a prescription; however, possession is not punishable, a consequence reserved for schedule I, II, or III substances. Those guilty of buying or selling AAS in Canada can be imprisoned for up to 18 months. Import and export also

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Body weight in men may increase by 2 to 5 kg as a result of short-term (<10 weeks) AAS use, which may be attributed mainly to an increase of lean mass. Animal studies also found that fat mass was reduced, but most studies in humans failed to elucidate significant fat mass decrements. The

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form. These derivatives are hydrolyzed to release free testosterone at the site of injection; absorption rate (and thus injection schedule) varies among different esters, but medical injections are normally done anywhere between semi-weekly to once every 12 weeks. A more frequent schedule may be

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In Canada, researchers have concluded that steroid use among student athletes is extremely widespread. A study conducted in 1993 by the Canadian Centre for Drug-Free Sport found that nearly 83,000 Canadians between the ages of 11 and 18 use steroids. AAS are also illegal without prescription in

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and increased aggressiveness, but pointed out that attempts to determine whether AAS use triggers violent behavior have failed, primarily because of high rates of non-participation. A 2008 study on a nationally representative sample of young adult males in the United States found an association

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However, a third major quest, for the development of a nonvirilizing androgen ("anabolic steroid") suitable for use in women and children, based on dissociating the virilizing from the anabolic effects of androgens failed comprehensively (36). This failure is now understood as being due to the

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AAS are frequently produced in pharmaceutical laboratories, but, in nations where stricter laws are present, they are also produced in small home-made underground laboratories, usually from raw substances imported from abroad. In these countries, the majority of steroids are obtained illegally

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The same act also introduced more stringent controls with higher criminal penalties for offenses involving the illegal distribution of AAS and human growth hormone. By the early 1990s, after AAS were scheduled in the U.S., several pharmaceutical companies stopped manufacturing or marketing the

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himself, according to his physician, was injected with testosterone derivatives to treat various ailments. AAS were used in experiments conducted by the Nazis on concentration camp inmates, and later by the allies attempting to treat the malnourished victims that survived Nazi camps. President

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have only extremely rarely or never been associated with hepatotoxicity, and other non-17α-alkylated AAS only rarely, although long-term use may reportedly still increase the risk of hepatic changes (but at a much lower rate than 17α-alkylated AAS and reportedly not at replacement dosages). In

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available at that time also found that these had demonstrated a link between aggression and steroid use, but pointed out that with estimates of over one million past or current steroid users in the United States at that time, an extremely small percentage of those using steroids appear to have

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The identification of a single gene and protein for the androgen receptor in 1988 (584-586) explains the physiologic observation that, at equivalent doses, all androgens have essentially similar effects (587). The term "anabolic steroid" was invented during the post-WWII golden age of steroid

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United States federal law enforcement officials have expressed concern about AAS use by police officers. "It's a big problem, and from the number of cases, it's something we shouldn't ignore. It's not that we set out to target cops, but when we're in the middle of an active investigation into

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use of AAS to treat medical disorders, but instances of AAS dependence have been reported among weightlifters and bodybuilders who chronically administered supraphysiologic doses. Mood disturbances (e.g. depression, mania, psychotic features) are likely to be dose- and drug-dependent, but AAS

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Fragkaki AG, Angelis YS, Koupparis M, Tsantili-Kakoulidou A, Kokotos G, Georgakopoulos C (February 2009). "Structural characteristics of anabolic androgenic steroids contributing to binding to the androgen receptor and to their anabolic and androgenic activities. Applied modifications in the

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In the U.S., Canada, and Europe, illegal steroids are sometimes purchased just as any other illegal drug, through dealers who are able to obtain the drugs from a number of sources. Illegal AAS are sometimes sold at gyms and competitions, and through the mail, but may also be obtained through

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Part 1 drugs are subject to full import and export controls with possession being an offence without an appropriate prescription. There is no restriction on the possession when it is part of a medicinal product. Part 2 drugs require a Home Office licence for importation and export unless the

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and a severely underdeveloped or even absent prostate gland. In addition, at the time of puberty, such males develop normal musculature, voice deepening, and libido, but have reduced facial hair, a female pattern of body hair (i.e., largely restricted to the pubic triangle and underarms), no

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By definition, all androgens combine intrinsic anabolic and androgenic properties, which have never been meaningfully separated , manifest via the androgen receptor, a protein encoded by a single copy gene. Hence the singularity of androgen action means that the terms "anabolic steroid" or

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cellular components. Studies have shown that these changes are not merely superficial but represent a profound transformation in the muscle's structural and functional properties. This transformation is a key factor in the steroids' ability to enhance physical performance and endurance.

7080:. 4,5α-Dihydrogenated derivatives of testosterone such as DHT cannot be aromatized, whereas 19-nortestosterone derivatives like nandrolone can be but to a greatly reduced extent. Some 19-nortestosterone derivatives, such as dimethandrolone and 11β-MNT, cannot be aromatized due to 842:. Such use is prohibited by the rules of the governing bodies of most sports. AAS use occurs among adolescents, especially by those participating in competitive sports. It has been suggested that the prevalence of use among high-school students in the U.S. may be as high as 2.7%. 3084:

at 600 mg/week may improve strength more than training alone does. This dose is sufficient to significantly improve lean muscle mass relative to placebo even in subjects that did not exercise at all. The anabolic effects of testosterone enanthate were highly dose dependent.

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with little or no AR affinity. 5α-reductase is widely distributed throughout the body, and is concentrated to various extents in skin (particularly the scalp, face, and genital areas), prostate, seminal vesicles, liver, and the brain. In contrast, expression of 5α-reductase in

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in a recent animal study, Hsiao et al. (10) found two different kinds of androgen response elements that could respond differentially to T and DHT. Therefore, it is possible that a selective androgen response element sequence may play a role in differential T vs. DHT AR

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in the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland, raced to isolate it. This hormone was first identified by Karoly Gyula David, E. Dingemanse, J. Freud and Ernst Laqueur in a May 1935 paper "On Crystalline Male Hormone from Testicles (Testosterone)." They named the hormone

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The relationship between AAS use and depression is inconclusive. A 1992 review found that AAS may both relieve and cause depression, and that cessation or diminished use of AAS may also result in depression, but called for additional studies due to disparate data.

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Stanley SM, Kent S, Rodgers JP (December 1997). "Biotransformation of 17-alkyl steroids in the equine: high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric and gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis of fluoxymesterone metabolites in urine samples".

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were mostly bodybuilders and weight lifters. Although Ziegler prescribed only small doses to athletes, he soon discovered that those having used Dianabol developed enlarged prostates and atrophied testes. AAS were placed on the list of banned substances of the

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Ruzicka L, Wettstein A (1935). "Sexualhormone VII. Uber die kunstliche Herstellung des Testikelhormons. Testosteron (Androsten-3-one-17-ol.)" [Sex hormones VII About the artificial production of testosterone Testikelhormons (androstene-3-one-17-ol)].

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Matsumoto AM (January 1990). "Effects of chronic testosterone administration in normal men: safety and efficacy of high dosage testosterone and parallel dose-dependent suppression of luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and sperm production".

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range in men (i.e., complete suppression of gonadal testosterone production and circulating testosterone levels decreased by about 95%). As such, combined progestogenic activity may serve to further increase the myotrophic–androgenic ratio for a given AAS.

23248: 6492: 3080:. For almost two decades, it was assumed that AAS exerted significant effects only in experienced strength athletes. A randomized controlled trial demonstrated, however, that even in novice athletes a 10-week strength training program accompanied by 781:

Most steroid users are not athletes. In the United States, between 1 million and 3 million people (1% of the population) are thought to have used AAS. Studies in the United States have shown that AAS users tend to be mostly middle-class men with a

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In the late 2000s, the worldwide trade in illicit AAS increased significantly, and authorities announced record captures on three continents. In 2006, Finnish authorities announced a record seizure of 11.8 million AAS tablets. A year later, the

2644:. However, as fat-soluble hormones, AAS are membrane-permeable and influence the nucleus of cells by direct action. The pharmacodynamic action of AAS begin when the exogenous hormone penetrates the membrane of the target cell and binds to an 1439:

The traditional routes of administration do not have differential effects on the efficacy of the drug. Studies indicate that the anabolic properties of AAS are relatively similar despite the differences in pharmacokinetic principles such as

3480:. It has been proposed that differential signaling through mARs may be involved in the dissociation of the anabolic and androgenic effects of AAS. Indeed, DHT has less than 1% of the affinity of testosterone for ZIP9, and the synthetic AAS 17535:

Christou MA, Christou PA, Markozannes G, Tsatsoulis A, Mastorakos G, Tigas S (September 2017). "Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids on the Reproductive System of Athletes and Recreational Users: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis".

3294: 336:

and banned by most major sporting bodies. Athletes have been looking for drugs to enhance their athletic abilities since the Olympics started in Ancient Greece. For many years, AAS have been by far the most detected doping substances in

3075:

Strength improvements in the range of 5 to 20% of baseline strength, depending largely on the drugs and dose used as well as the administration period. Overall, the exercise where the most significant improvements were observed is the

11878:

Even though they can still be prescribed by a medical doctor in the U.S., the use of anabolic steroids for injury recovery purposes has been a taboo subject, even amongst the majority of sports medicine doctors and endocrinologists.

463:

in elderly men, as some studies indicate. However, a 2006 placebo-controlled trial of low-dose testosterone supplementation in elderly men with low levels of testosterone found no benefit on body composition, physical performance,

18978:"Oral progestogen combined with testosterone as a potential male contraceptive: additive effects between desogestrel and testosterone enanthate in suppression of spermatogenesis, pituitary-testicular axis, and lipid metabolism" 7136:

in addition to AAS. Similarly to the case of estrogenic activity, the progestogenic activity of these drugs serves to augment their antigonadotropic activity. This results in increased potency and effectiveness of these AAS as

3287: 11614:

The legal status of AAS varies from country to country: some have stricter controls on their use or prescription than others though in many countries they are not illegal. In the U.S., AAS are currently listed as Schedule III

20686:

Fragkaki AG, Angelis YS, Tsantili-Kakoulidou A, Koupparis M, Georgakopoulos C (May 2009). "Schemes of metabolic patterns of anabolic androgenic steroids for the estimation of metabolites of designer steroids in human urine".

20467:

De Brabanter N, Van Gansbeke W, Geldof L, Van Eenoo P (November 2012). "An improved gas chromatography screening method for doping substances using triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, with an emphasis on quality assurance".

4845: 2116:, but steroid use may accelerate this process. However, both the connection between changes in the structure of the left ventricle and decreased cardiac function, as well as the connection to steroid use have been disputed. 383:

Since the discovery and synthesis of testosterone in the 1930s, AAS have been used by physicians for many purposes, with varying degrees of success. These can broadly be grouped into anabolic, androgenic, and other uses.

11429:, began as early as 1937. There are often reported rumors that German soldiers were administered AAS during the Second World War, the aim being to increase their aggression and stamina, but these are, as yet, unproven. 2708:

androgenic activities. These modifications affect a steroid's ability to influence gene expression and cellular processes, highlighting the complex biophysical interactions of anabolic steroids at the cellular level.

11953:(WADA) maintains the list of performance-enhancing substances used by many major sports bodies and includes all anabolic agents, which includes all AAS and precursors as well as all hormones and related substances. 3123:

The measurement of the dissociation between anabolic and androgenic effects among AAS is based largely on a simple but outdated and unsophisticated model using rat tissue bioassays. It has been referred to as the

10199: 7600: 3667: 18708:

Although both testosterone and dihydrotestosterone activate the same androgen receptor, differences in the sequence of androgen response elements are responsible for differential regulation of these hormones

16225: 3463:

could differentially respond to testosterone and DHT upon activation of the AR. Whether this is involved in the differences in the ratios of anabolic-to-myotrophic effect of different AAS is unknown however.

19066:

Masonis AE, McCarthy MP (April 1995). "Direct effects of the anabolic/androgenic steroids, stanozolol and 17 alpha-methyltestosterone, on benzodiazepine binding to the. gamma-aminobutyric acid(a) receptor".

3222:

Aside from 5α-reductase, aromatase may inactivate testosterone signaling in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, so AAS that lack aromatase affinity, in addition to being free of the potential side effect of

7272:

Aside from prohormones and testosterone undecanoate, almost all orally active AAS are 17α-alkylated. A few AAS that are not 17α-alkylated are orally active. Some examples include the testosterone 17-ethers

3500:

but a defect in the AR such that it is non-functional, are a challenge to this notion. They are completely insensitive to the AR-mediated effects of androgens like testosterone, and show a perfectly female

21560:

These findings also highlight how obsolete is the term "anabolic steroid," when falsely distinguishing from "androgen," a dichotomy devoid of physiological meaning and lingering mainly as a media piñata.10

6337: 2734: 345:

in many countries, meaning that AAS have recognized medical use but are also recognized as having a potential for abuse and dependence, leading to their regulation and control. In countries where AAS are

9639: 13616:

Arver S, Dobs AS, Meikle AW, Caramelli KE, Rajaram L, Sanders SW, Mazer NA (December 1997). "Long-term efficacy and safety of a permeation-enhanced testosterone transdermal system in hypogonadal men".

4838: 2401:(1.6 times) personality profiles than non-users. Other studies have suggested that antisocial personality disorder is slightly more likely among AAS users than among non-users (Pope & Katz, 1994). 13659:

Nieschlag E, Büchter D, Von Eckardstein S, Abshagen K, Simoni M, Behre HM (December 1999). "Repeated intramuscular injections of testosterone undecanoate for substitution therapy in hypogonadal men".

11335:, suggesting that ancient Indians had some understanding of steroidal properties of cow urine around 6th century BCE. Extraction of hormones from urines began in China around 100 BCE. Medical use of 2340:, raising the specter of possibly irreversible neurotoxicity. Recreational AAS use appears to be associated with a range of potentially prolonged psychiatric effects, including dependence syndromes, 19020:

Bitran D, Kellogg CK, Hilvers RJ (December 1993). "Treatment with an anabolic-androgenic steroid affects anxiety-related behavior and alters the sensitivity of cortical GABAA receptors in the rat".

12103:

in women. Topical androstanolone on the abdomen has been found to significantly decrease subcutaneous abdominal fat in women, and hence may be useful for improving body silhouette. However, men and

18296:

Hervey GR, Knibbs AV, Burkinshaw L, Morgan DB, Jones PR, Chettle DR, Vartsky D (April 1981). "Effects of methandienone on the performance and body composition of men undergoing athletic training".

795:

and also showed stronger endorsement of more conventional male roles. A recent study in the Journal of Health Psychology showed that many users believed that steroids used in moderation were safe.

22330: 21774:

whereas androgenic refers to the induction and maintenance of male secondary sexual characteristics (which in principle includes the anabolic action, thereby rendering the term an oxymoron (1)).

19241:

Schwartzer JJ, Ricci LA, Melloni RH (October 2009). "Interactions between the dopaminergic and GABAergic neural systems in the lateral anterior hypothalamus of aggressive AAS-treated hamsters".

2344:, and progression to other forms of substance use, but the prevalence and severity of these various effects remains poorly understood. There is no evidence that steroid dependence develops from 22642:

Nieschlag E, Kumar N, Sitruk-Ware R (March 2013). "7α-methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENTR): the population council's contribution to research on male contraception and treatment of hypogonadism".

6428: 2996:

the marketing of some compounds claimed to have anabolic activity with weak androgenic effects. This disassociation is less marked in humans, where all AAS have significant androgenic effects.

294:. These risks are further increased when athletes take steroids alongside other drugs, causing significantly more damage to their bodies. The effect of anabolic steroids on the heart can cause 19511:"Dimethandrolone (7alpha,11beta-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone) and 11beta-methyl-19-nortestosterone are not converted to aromatic A-ring products in the presence of recombinant human aromatase" 19343:"The potent synthetic androgens, dimethandrolone (7α,11β-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone) and 11β-methyl-19-nortestosterone, do not require 5α-reduction to exert their maximal androgenic effects" 4831: 22933:

McRobb L, Handelsman DJ, Kazlauskas R, Wilkinson S, McLeod MD, Heather AK (May 2008). "Structure-activity relationships of synthetic progestins in a yeast-based in vitro androgen bioassay".

15907:

Solimini R, Rotolo MC, Mastrobattista L, Mortali C, Minutillo A, Pichini S, et al. (March 2017). "Hepatotoxicity associated with illicit use of anabolic androgenic steroids in doping".

7341:. Testosterone, via conversion into DHT, also produces 3α-androstanediol as a metabolite and hence has similar activity. Some AAS that are or can be 5α-reduced, including testosterone, DHT, 23035: 22685: 20297:

Alm-Eldeen A, Tousson E (May 2012). "Deterioration of glomerular endothelial surface layer and the alteration in the renal function after a growth promoter boldenone injection in rabbits".

10192: 6993:) tend to have reduced activity as AR agonists, resulting in reduced androgenic activity in tissues that express 5α-reductase. In addition, some 19-nortestosterone derivatives, including 3204:

Natural AAS like testosterone and DHT and synthetic AAS are analogues and are very similar structurally. For this reason, they have the capacity to bind to and be metabolized by the same

18437:

Imperato-McGinley J, Peterson RE, Gautier T, Sturla E (May 1979). "Androgens and the evolution of male-gender identity among male pseudohermaphrodites with 5alpha-reductase deficiency".

1460:

Table from the 2010 ISCD study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. Anabolic steroids was found to be the 15th overall most dangerous drug.

17720:

Brodsky IG, Balagopal P, Nair KS (October 1996). "Effects of testosterone replacement on muscle mass and muscle protein synthesis in hypogonadal men--a clinical research center study".

7593: 3660: 20887:

David K, Dingemanse E, Freud J, Laqueur L (1935). "Uber krystallinisches mannliches Hormon aus Hoden (Testosteron) wirksamer als aus harn oder aus Cholesterin bereitetes Androsteron".

12150: 12301:

De Piccoli B, Giada F, Benettin A, Sartori F, Piccolo E (August 1991). "Anabolic steroid use in body builders: an echocardiographic study of left ventricle morphology and function".

11482:(IOC) in 1976, and a decade later, the committee introduced "out-of-competition" doping tests because many athletes used AAS in their training period rather than during competition. 11812: 6732: 6330: 2727: 21928:

Sobolevsky T, Ahrens B (February 2021). "High-throughput liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry assay as initial testing procedure for analysis of total urinary fraction".

17581:"Comparison of crystal structures of human androgen receptor ligand-binding domain complexed with various agonists reveals molecular determinants responsible for binding affinity" 11998: 9632: 2349:

dependence or withdrawal effects seem to occur only in a small number of AAS users. Large-scale long-term studies of psychiatric effects on AAS users are not currently available.

22357: 10185: 24238: 17492:

Sagoe D, Molde H, Andreassen CS, Torsheim T, Pallesen S (May 2014). "The global epidemiology of anabolic-androgenic steroid use: a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis".

12204:

Endogenous anabolic steroids such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone and synthetic anabolic steroids mediate their effects by binding to and activating androgen receptors.

7012:

for a given AAS. AAS that are not potentiated by 5α-reductase or that are weakened by 5α-reductase in androgenic tissues have a reduced risk of androgenic side effects such as

25951: 7586: 3653: 1395:

and only about one-sixth is available in active form. In order to be sufficiently active when given by mouth, testosterone derivatives are alkylated at the 17α position, e.g.

19143:

Rivera-Arce JC, Morales-Crespo L, Vargas-Pinto N, Velázquez KT, Jorge JC (June 2006). "Central effects of the anabolic steroid 17alpha methyltestosterone in female anxiety".

3235:(1α-methyl-DHT) are all described as very poorly anabolic due to inactivation by 3α-HSD in skeletal muscle, whereas other DHT derivatives with other structural features like 24492: 7008:

The capacity to be metabolized by 5α-reductase and the AR activity of the resultant metabolites appears to be one of the major, if not the most important determinant of the

2960:

The androgenic effects of AAS are numerous. Depending on the length of use, the side effects of the steroid can be irreversible. Processes affected include pubertal growth,

2270:, a type of scarring within the kidneys. The kidney damage in the bodybuilders has similarities to that seen in morbidly obese patients, but appears to be even more severe. 22075: 19113:

Masonis AE, McCarthy MP (October 1996). "Effects of the androgenic/anabolic steroid stanozolol on GABAA receptor function: GABA-stimulated 36Cl- influx and TBPS binding".

15969:

Grace F, Sculthorpe N, Baker J, Davies B (September 2003). "Blood pressure and rate pressure product response in males using high-dose anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS)".

13968:

Allegra JC, Bertino J, Bonomi P, Byrne P, Carpenter J, Catalano R, et al. (December 1985). "Metastatic breast cancer: preliminary results with oral hormonal therapy".

13824: 7260:, and all 17α-alkylated AAS have been associated, albeit uncommonly and only after prolonged use (different estimates between 1 and 17%), with hepatotoxicity. In contrast, 3072:

as a result of long-term AAS self-administration. After drug withdrawal, the effects fade away slowly, but may persist for more than 6–12 weeks after cessation of AAS use.

2003:

Depending on the length of drug use, there is a chance that the immune system can be damaged. Most of these side-effects are dose-dependent, the most common being elevated

16622:

Meriggiola MC, Costantino A, Bremner WJ, Morselli-Labate AM (2002). "Higher testosterone dose impairs sperm suppression induced by a combined androgen-progestin regimen".

6323: 2720: 798:

AAS have been used by men and women in many different kinds of professional sports to attain a competitive edge or to assist in recovery from injury. These sports include

17979:

Giorgi A, Weatherby RP, Murphy PW (December 1999). "Muscular strength, body composition and health responses to the use of testosterone enanthate: a double blind study".

12064:

seized 11.4 million units of AAS in the largest U.S. seizure ever. In the first three months of 2008, Australian customs reported a record 300 seizures of AAS shipments.

11855:, and others. In the Controlled Substances Act, AAS are defined to be any drug or hormonal substance chemically and pharmacologically related to testosterone (other than 26114: 16030:

Bagatell CJ, Knopp RH, Vale WW, Rivier JE, Bremner WJ (June 1992). "Physiologic testosterone levels in normal men suppress high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels".

13193:

Li H, Guo Y, Yang Z, Roy M, Guo Q (June 2016). "The efficacy and safety of oxandrolone treatment for patients with severe burns: A systematic review and meta-analysis".

9625: 20226:

Kaufmann G, Schumann G, Hörhold C (October 1986). "Influence of 1-double bond and 11 beta-hydroxy group on stereospecific microbial reductions of 4-en-3-oxo-steroids".

24482: 13897: 22300: 16221: 11331:

pre-dates their identification and isolation. Use of cow urine for treatment of ascites, heart failure, renal failure and vitiligo has been elaborately described in

7370: 3538:(PR) is antigonadotropic similarly to activation of the AR. The combination of sufficient AR and PR activation can suppress circulating testosterone levels into the 2573:. AAS consumption leads to dose-dependent suppression of gonadotropin release through suppression of GnRH from the hypothalamus (long-loop mechanism) or from direct 24806: 3526:

Changes in endogenous testosterone levels may also contribute to differences in myotrophic–androgenic ratio between testosterone and synthetic AAS. AR agonists are

16282:

Dickerman RD, Schaller F, McConathy WJ (October 1998). "Left ventricular wall thickening does occur in elite power athletes with or without anabolic steroid Use".

13168: 1354:

are AAS that have not been approved and marketed for medical use but have been distributed through the black market. Examples of notable designer steroids include

650:. Testosterone is now nearly the only androgen used for this purpose and has been shown to increase height, weight, and fat-free mass in boys with delayed puberty. 18101:

Hershberger LG, Shipley EG, Meyer RK (May 1953). "Myotrophic activity of 19-nortestosterone and other steroids determined by modified levator ani muscle method".

17321:

Bahrke MS, Yesalis CE, Wright JE (December 1996). "Psychological and behavioural effects of endogenous testosterone and anabolic-androgenic steroids. An update".

11339:

extract began in the late 19th century while its effects on strength were still being studied. The isolation of gonadal steroids can be traced back to 1931, when

12017:

respectively, both testified. The documents stated that 75 wrestlers—roughly 40 percent—had tested positive for drug use since 2006, most commonly for steroids.

18267: 14714:

Grogan S, Shepherd S, Evans R, Wright S, Hunter G (November 2006). "Experiences of anabolic steroid use: in-depth interviews with men and women body builders".

24180: 18391:

Bhasin S, Woodhouse L, Casaburi R, Singh AB, Bhasin D, Berman N, et al. (December 2001). "Testosterone dose-response relationships in healthy young men".

11926: 3120:, or mARs). Support for the latter two theories is limited and more hypothetical, but there is a good deal of support for the intracellular metabolism theory. 487:

is approved for this use. Although they have been indicated for this indication, AAS saw very little use for this purpose due to their virilizing side effects.

10638:

Conversion to DHT, nandrolone, metandienone (Dianabol), chlorodehydromethyltestosterone (Turinabol), fluoxymesterone (Halotestin), and boldenone (Equipoise):

23096: 6725: 211: 97: 3488:

are ineffective competitors for the receptor similarly. This indicates that AAS do show differential interactions with the AR and mARs. However, women with

3019:

for an AAS is calculated as the ratio of LA/VP weight gains produced by the treatment with that compound using castrated but untreated rats as baseline: (LA

17465:

Stromme SB, Meen HD, Aakvaag A (1974). "Effects of an androgenic-anabolic steroid on strength development and plasma testosterone levels in normal males".

17156:

Lindström M, Nilsson AL, Katzman PL, Janzon L, Dymling JF (June 1990). "Use of anabolic-androgenic steroids among body builders--frequency and attitudes".

13505: 9608: 22147: 3267:

enzyme is defective, production of DHT is impaired, and DHT levels are low while testosterone levels are normal. Males with this condition are born with

2196:

Prolonged use of androgenic-anabolic steroids by men results in temporary shut down of their natural testosterone production due to an inhibition of the

13452: 22322: 16368:

Dickerman RD, Schaller F, Zachariah NY, McConathy WJ (April 1997). "Left ventricular size and function in elite bodybuilders using anabolic steroids".

19598: 16151:

Vierhapper H, Maier H, Nowotny P, Waldhäusl W (July 2003). "Production rates of testosterone and of dihydrotestosterone in female pattern hair loss".

3011:. The VP weight is an indicator of the androgenic effect, while the LA weight is an indicator of the anabolic effect. Two or more batches of rats are 25928: 17757:"Androgens stimulate myogenic differentiation and inhibit adipogenesis in C3H 10T1/2 pluripotent cells through an androgen receptor-mediated pathway" 17274:"Anabolic-androgenic steroid use and involvement in violent behavior in a nationally representative sample of young adult males in the United States" 15934:

Brenu EW, McNaughton L, Marshall-Gradisnik SM (May 2011). "Is there a potential immune dysfunction with anabolic androgenic steroid use?: A review".

13129: 3093:

Endogenous/natural AAS like testosterone and DHT and synthetic AAS mediate their effects by binding to and activating the AR. On the basis of animal

24612: 22379: 20789:

Randhawa, G. K., & Sharma, R. (2015). Chemotherapeutic potential of cow urine: A review. Journal of intercultural ethnopharmacology, 4(2), 180.

14285: 6718: 6444: 23039: 22677: 18058:

Roselli CE (May 1998). "The effect of anabolic-androgenic steroids on aromatase activity and androgen receptor binding in the rat preoptic area".

14513:"A league of their own: demographics, motivations and patterns of use of 1,955 male adult non-medical anabolic steroid users in the United States" 17: 13554:

Shah K, Montoya C, Persons RK (April 2007). "Clinical inquiries. Do testosterone injections increase libido for elderly hypogonadal patients?".

25500: 25490: 22415: 16108:

Melnik B, Jansen T, Grabbe S (February 2007). "Abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids and bodybuilding acne: an underestimated health problem".

14030:

Kotz K, Alexander JL, Dennerstein L (October 2006). "Estrogen and androgen hormone therapy and well-being in surgically postmenopausal women".

19316: 7093:, and for this reason, 17α-alkylated AAS can actually have high estrogenicity and comparatively greater estrogenic effects than testosterone. 3583:. It has been suggested that this may contribute as an alternative or additional mechanism to the neurological and behavioral effects of AAS. 25933: 23068: 22195: 21007: 3060:

have been observed. The hydration of lean mass remains unaffected by AAS use, although small increments of blood volume cannot be ruled out.

332:

are controversial because of their adverse effects and the potential to gain advantage in physical competitions. Their use is referred to as

16802: 16065:

Mewis C, Spyridopoulos I, Kühlkamp V, Seipel L (February 1996). "Manifestation of severe coronary heart disease after anabolic drug abuse".

2037:

A number of severe side effects can occur if adolescents use AAS. For example, AAS may prematurely stop the lengthening of bones (premature

25974: 25969: 25754: 25530: 25520: 16827:

Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse".

22259: 19943: 15192: 14918: 11532:

renotrophic to androgenic potency that differed significantly, which suggested that anabolic and androgenic effects might be dissociable.

26273: 26208: 26203: 26153: 25984: 25898: 25510: 21360: 21187: 20769:(8th ed.). Foster City, CA: Biomedical Publications. pp. 95, 393, 403, 649, 695, 952, 962, 1078, 1156, 1170, 1442, 1501, 1581. 20033: 19992: 19829: 19756: 19715: 19575: 19484: 19438: 18878: 18657: 18577: 18535: 18144:

Eriksson A, Kadi F, Malm C, Thornell LE (August 2005). "Skeletal muscle morphology in power-lifters with and without anabolic steroids".

15111: 14879: 14840: 14671:

Kanayama G, Barry S, Hudson JI, Pope HG (April 2006). "Body image and attitudes toward male roles in anabolic-androgenic steroid users".

13946: 13423: 13382: 13093: 12970: 12572: 2526: 2197: 2069: 333: 263:(AR). Anabolic steroids have a number of medical uses, but are also used by athletes to increase muscle size, strength, and performance. 21260: 20643:

Mareck U, Geyer H, Opfermann G, Thevis M, Schänzer W (July 2008). "Factors influencing the steroid profile in doping control analysis".

20191:

Meystre C, Frey H, Voser W, Wettstein A (January 1956). "Gewinnung von 1;4-Bisdehydro-3-oxo-steroiden. Über Steroide, 139. Mitteilung".

20093:

Büttner A, Thieme D (2009). "Side Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids: Pathological Findings and Structure–Activity Relationships".

20055:

Shahidi NT (September 2001). "A review of the chemistry, biological action, and clinical applications of anabolic-androgenic steroids".

18618: 14959: 13009: 26268: 26143: 26094: 25918: 25903: 25834: 25545: 25455: 24173: 24142: 23006: 22490: 22114: 19634:

seem to be necessary for the negative feedback effect of testosterone. (Rittmaster et al, 1992; Kumar et al, 1995a; Hayes et al, 2000).

16008: 15860:"Cardiac and metabolic effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse on lipids, blood pressure, left ventricular dimensions, and rhythm" 14760:

Hickson RC, Czerwinski SM, Falduto MT, Young AP (June 1990). "Glucocorticoid antagonism by exercise and androgenic-anabolic steroids".

7209:(methoxygonadiene) (although these are relatively weak AAS). AAS that are not orally active are used almost exclusively in the form of 2999:

A commonly used protocol for determining the androgenic:anabolic ratio, dating back to the 1950s, uses the relative weights of ventral

2298:

Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in

22353: 21853: 20565:

Catlin DH, Ahrens BD, Kucherova Y (5 June 2002). "Detection of norbolethone, an anabolic steroid never marketed, in athletes' urine".

7165:

due to extensive first-pass hepatic metabolism and hence are not orally active. A notable exception to this are AAS that are androgen

26475: 26427: 25734: 25729: 25719: 25560: 25390: 23089: 22227: 20432:

Ringold HJ, Batres E, Halpern O, Necoechea E (January 1959). "Steroids. CV. 2-Methyl and 2-Hydroxymethylene-androstane Derivatives".

13581:

Yassin AA, Saad F (March 2007). "Improvement of sexual function in men with late-onset hypogonadism treated with testosterone only".

11628: 2332:

on discontinuation of AAS". High concentrations of AAS, comparable to those likely sustained by many recreational AAS users, produce

199: 20385:"Harm Reduction in Male Patients Actively Using Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) and Performance-Enhancing Drugs (PEDs): a Review" 17052: 26263: 26084: 25435: 22620: 21790: 11971:, there have been quite a few cases that have led back to police officers," says Lawrence Payne, a spokesman for the United States 10688: 3489: 22449: 22023: 15691:"MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Medical consequences of doping with anabolic androgenic steroids: effects on reproductive functions" 26432: 24912: 22710:

Gruber CJ, Wieser F, Gruber IM, Ferlitsch K, Gruber DM, Huber JC (December 2002). "Current concepts in aesthetic endocrinology".

22169: 22082: 13832: 2394: 2014:

AAS have been shown to alter fasting blood sugar and glucose tolerance tests. AAS such as testosterone also increase the risk of

16457: 14614: 13793: 26505: 25425: 13704:"Testosterone treatment in adolescents with delayed puberty: changes in body composition, protein, fat, and glucose metabolism" 11994: 11891:. AAS are in Schedule 4, which is divided in 2 parts; Part 1 contains most of the benzodiazepines and Part 2 contains the AAS. 11785: 11465:

worked with synthetic chemists to develop an AAS with reduced androgenic effects. Ziegler's work resulted in the production of

2216:. A short (1–2 months) use of androgenic-anabolic steroids by men followed by a course of testosterone-boosting therapy (e.g. 3201:

and the brain, and is also expressed significantly in skeletal muscle. 3α-HSD is highly expressed in skeletal muscle as well.

26422: 25374: 24166: 24132: 24099: 22847: 22566: 22484: 21674: 21626: 21589: 21354: 21296: 21254: 21222: 21181: 21129: 20982: 20774: 20549: 20110: 20027: 19986: 19937: 19823: 19791: 19750: 19709: 19569: 19478: 19432: 19403: 18872: 18651: 18612: 18571: 17140: 15834: 15462: 15186: 15105: 15031: 14953: 14912: 14873: 14834: 14799: 14396: 13940: 13417: 13376: 13087: 13003: 12964: 12566: 12125: 11836: 11595: 2691:

that promote the breakdown of muscles. AAS also affect the number of cells that develop into fat-storage cells, by favouring

24507: 23268: 21302: 20538:

Lu FC, Rendel J, Abou Akkada AR, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization (1976).

15037: 14636:

Pope HG, Kanayama G, Ionescu-Pioggia M, Hudson JI (September 2004). "Anabolic steroid users' attitudes towards physicians".

13905: 2011:. In addition to morphological changes of the heart which may have a permanent adverse effect on cardiovascular efficiency. 26417: 24413: 24137: 23082: 22590: 22292: 15558:

Casavant MJ, Blake K, Griffith J, Yates A, Copley LM (August 2007). "Consequences of use of anabolic androgenic steroids".

2302:

regarding 20 popular recreational drugs. AAS were ranked 19th in dependence, 9th in physical harm, and 15th in social harm.

16753:"Fetal programming: prenatal testosterone excess leads to fetal growth retardation and postnatal catch-up growth in sheep" 12107:

women have higher amounts of abdominal fat than healthy women, and androgens have been found to increase abdominal fat in

1403:. This modification reduces the liver's ability to break down these compounds before they reach the systemic circulation. 24762: 24147: 23357: 22053: 21812: 16597: 16186:

Irving LM, Wall M, Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M (April 2002). "Steroid use among adolescents: findings from Project EAT".

14610: 14350:

Yesalis CE, Kennedy NJ, Kopstein AN, Bahrke MS (September 1993). "Anabolic-androgenic steroid use in the United States".

13157: 12684:"Oxandrolone in the treatment of HIV-associated weight loss in men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study" 11918: 11624: 7362: 7101: 1240: 1169: 18779:

Thomas P, Converse A, Berg HA (February 2018). "ZIP9, a novel membrane androgen receptor and zinc transporter protein".

12389:

Turillazzi E, Perilli G, Di Paolo M, Neri M, Riezzo I, Fineschi V (May 2011). "Side effects of AAS abuse: an overview".

11815:

Steroid pills intercepted by the US Drug Enforcement Administration during the Operation Raw Deal bust in September 2007

3708: 223: 26510: 25169: 25164: 17897:

Azziz R, Carmina E, Dewailly D, Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Escobar-Morreale HF, Futterweit W, et al. (February 2009).

16877:"Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse: a looming public health concern?" 14307:

Sjöqvist F, Garle M, Rane A (May 2008). "Use of doping agents, particularly anabolic steroids, in sports and society".

14067:"Role of androgens, progestins and tibolone in the treatment of menopausal symptoms: a review of the clinical evidence" 12026: 11909: 11640:

in the United Kingdom. AAS are readily available without a prescription in some countries such as Mexico and Thailand.

2433:

A 2005 review determined that some, but not all, randomized controlled studies have found that AAS use correlates with

2267: 1972: 1677: 768: 342: 24602: 13854:

Warne GL, Grover S, Zajac JD (2005). "Hormonal therapies for individuals with intersex conditions: protocol for use".

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Cooper, Noakes, Dunne, Lambert, and Rochford identified that AAS-using individuals are more likely to score higher on

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DHT to stanozolol (Winstrol), metenolone acetate (Primobolan), oxymetholone (Anadrol), and methasterone (Superdrol):

7924: 2687:

that this reduction in muscle breakdown may occur through AAS inhibiting the action of other steroid hormones called

2398: 2073: 25614: 12731:

Berger JR, Pall L, Hall CD, Simpson DM, Berry PS, Dudley R (December 1996). "Oxandrolone in AIDS-wasting myopathy".

7398: 2139:

AAS use in adolescents quickens bone maturation and may reduce adult height in high doses. Low doses of AAS such as

2096:, and therefore reducing ejected blood volume. Possible effects of these alterations in the heart are hypertension, 26480: 26013: 24918: 24881: 24711: 24676: 24116: 23422: 23402: 23323: 16675:

Alén M, Reinilä M, Vihko R (June 1985). "Response of serum hormones to androgen administration in power athletes".

11446:

The development of muscle-building properties of testosterone was pursued in the 1940s, in the Soviet Union and in

6588: 2386: 24607: 23994: 19854:

van Amsterdam J, Opperhuizen A, Hartgens F (June 2010). "Adverse health effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids".

19191:"Steroid modulation of GABAA receptor-mediated transmission in the hypothalamus: effects on reproductive function" 15403:"Designer steroids - over-the-counter supplements and their androgenic component: review of an increasing problem" 14226: 12503:

Kicman AT, Gower DB (July 2003). "Anabolic steroids in sport: biochemical, clinical and analytical perspectives".

8846: 6998: 2056:, increased frequency and duration of erections, and premature sexual development. AAS use in adolescence is also 266:

Health risks can be produced by long-term use or excessive doses of AAS. These effects include harmful changes in

24836: 23377: 23122: 21973:"Click, click, buy: The market for novel synthetic peptide hormones on mainstream e-commerce platforms in the UK" 20541:

Anabolic agents in animal production: FAO/WHO Symposium on Anabolic Agents in Animal Production, Rome, March 1975

17899:"The Androgen Excess and PCOS Society criteria for the polycystic ovary syndrome: the complete task force report" 13477: 12061: 12036: 11972: 11934: 11824: 11479: 10645:

Red arrows show molecular differences from testosterone structural conversion to six different anabolic steroids.

7946: 6297: 4936: 3125: 2390: 2374: 743:; currently experimental, but potential for use as effective, safe, reliable, and reversible male contraceptives. 185: 16712:"Hormonal doping and androgenization of athletes: a secret program of the German Democratic Republic government" 11418:

government forced Butenandt to decline the honor, although he accepted the prize after the end of World War II.

10677:

Red arrows show molecular differences from nandrolone structural conversion to four different anabolic steroids.

2173:

effects, some of them paradoxically results in feminization, such as breast tissue in males, a condition called

24366: 23613: 12776:"Effects of transdermal testosterone on bone and muscle in older men with low bioavailable testosterone levels" 8188: 7330: 7161:

Non-17α-alkylated testosterone derivatives such as testosterone itself, DHT, and nandrolone all have poor oral

6989:

by 5α-reductase similarly to testosterone, but 5α-reduced metabolites of 19-nortestosterone derivatives (e.g.,

3700: 3607: 3576: 2530: 1585: 25604: 22139: 13445: 2704:

pathways; this results in increased protein synthesis, enhanced muscle growth, and reduced muscle catabolism.

2652:

of that cell. From there, the compound hormone-receptor diffuses into the nucleus, where it either alters the

698:

in women, although they are now very rarely used for this purpose due to their marked virilizing side effects.

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Inside dope: how drugs are the biggest threat to sports, why you should care, and what can be done about them

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Eisenberg ER, Galloway GP (1992). "Anabolic androgenic steroids". In Lowinson JH, Ruiz P, Millman RB (eds.).

14414:"Trends in non-medical use of anabolic steroids by U.S. college students: results from four national surveys" 11942: 11410:

of the Testicular Hormone Testosterone (Androsten-3-one-17-ol)." Ruzicka and Butenandt were offered the 1939

9880: 6687: 6396: 2382: 1538: 653: 24273: 24253: 21170:"Dissociation of the Androgenic and Other Hormonal Activities from the Protein Anabolic Effects of Steroids" 1292:(methandrostenolone). Others that have also been available and used commonly but to a lesser extent include 26490: 26412: 26382: 25947: 25241: 24629: 24044: 23636: 19617: 17630:"Structure and function of steroid receptor AF1 transactivation domains: induction of active conformations" 13482: 11867:) that promote muscle growth. The act was amended by the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004, which added 11470: 11469:, which Ciba Pharmaceuticals marketed as Dianabol. The new steroid was approved for use in the U.S. by the 8890: 7025: 6284: 4926: 3614:, in whether their potency as AR agonists is potentiated or diminished by 5α-reduction, in their ratios of 3505:

despite having testosterone levels in the high end of the normal male range. These women have little or no

2550: 2221: 2089: 1832: 632: 618:

for faster gains in muscle mass for higher yields of meat from livestock and higher milk production in the

291: 25102: 24455: 24268: 21112:

Kochakian CD (1946). "The Protein Anabolic Effects of Steroid Hormones". In Harris RS, Thimann KV (eds.).

20537: 19467:"Side Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids: Pathological Findings and Structure-Activity Relationships" 17229:

Thiblin I, Petersson A (February 2005). "Pharmacoepidemiology of anabolic androgenic steroids: a review".

15505:

Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD (November 2010). "Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis".

13753:"Endocrine treatment of transsexual people: a review of treatment regimens, outcomes, and adverse effects" 13118: 3417: 25319: 24681: 24283: 24052: 23577: 23331: 23156: 22390: 14277: 12093: 11548: 10971: 10661:

Red arrows show molecular differences from DHT structural conversion to four different anabolic steroids.

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Some AAS, such as testosterone, DHT, stanozolol, and methyltestosterone, have been found to modulate the

2964:

oil production, and sexuality (especially in fetal development). Some examples of virilizing effects are

2577:

on the anterior pituitary to inhibit gonadotropin release (short-loop mechanism), leading to AAS-induced

2030:

by increased testosterone levels. Conversion of testosterone to DHT can accelerate the rate of premature

1522: 1281: 1001: 702: 418: 329: 25304: 25299: 25107: 22407: 20503:

Counsell RE, Klimstra PD, Colton FB (January 1962). "Anabolic Agents. Derivatives of 5α-Androst-1-ene".

153: 26445: 24841: 24460: 24002: 23236: 20348:

Clinton RO, Manson AJ, Stonner FW, Beyler AL, Potts GO, Arnold A (March 1959). "Steroidal pyrazoles".

15595:"Adverse health consequences of performance-enhancing drugs: an Endocrine Society scientific statement" 14252: 7968: 6271: 4916: 3117: 2443:

experienced mental disturbance severe enough to result in clinical treatments or medical case reports.

2258:

by causing the development of male features in the female fetus and female features in the male fetus.

1886: 1512: 25609: 16792:

Herlitz LC, Markowitz GS, Farris AB, Schwimmer JA, Stokes MB, Kunis C, et al. (29 October 2009).

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have also been studied as male contraceptives, with the latter under active investigation as of 2018.

3260: 26485: 24671: 24398: 24344: 23817: 23211: 23186: 12164: 11848: 11620: 11540: 10584: 10117: 9932: 9697: 7855: 6663: 6364: 6228: 6215: 6009: 4868: 4598: 3460: 3335: 2757: 2361: 1705: 1333: 1246: 1078: 63: 24450: 23828: 18821:

Mongan NP, Tadokoro-Cuccaro R, Bunch T, Hughes IA (August 2015). "Androgen insensitivity syndrome".

18282: 15519: 13519:

Snyder P (December 2022). "Testosterone treatment of late-onset hypogonadism - benefits and risks".

12539: 11606: 26495: 25261: 25230: 24950: 24891: 24624: 24402: 24278: 24228: 23407: 23232: 21526:

Handelsman DJ (September 2013). "Mechanisms of action of testosterone--unraveling a Gordian knot".

20999: 19285: 17364:

Uzych L (February 1992). "Anabolic-androgenic steroids and psychiatric-related effects: a review".

17005:"A high prevalence of abnormal personality traits in chronic users of anabolic-androgenic steroids" 12145: 11950: 11946: 11844: 11559:

became the preferred term to refer to such steroids (over "androgen"), and entered widespread use.

11411: 11375: 11142: 10028: 9806: 9769: 8575: 7250: 7166: 6880: 6858: 6792: 6693: 6675: 6508: 6412: 4814: 2692: 2471: 2144: 2128: 2101: 1942: 1895: 1802: 1763: 1367: 1254: 1146: 673: 615: 535: 430: 275: 166: 25599: 25334: 25314: 22202: 21821: 16110:

Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft = Journal of the German Society of Dermatology

12219:

Barrett-Connor EL (June 1995). "Testosterone and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in men".

7249:

for a full list of testosterone and nandrolone esters). An exception is the very long-chain ester

26130: 25057: 24619: 24519: 24104: 23278: 23228: 21401:

Handelsman DJ (May 2011). "Commentary: androgens and "anabolic steroids": the one-headed janus".

20144:"Endogenous sex hormones and prostate cancer: a collaborative analysis of 18 prospective studies" 18344:"The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men" 18230:

Hervey GR, Hutchinson I, Knibbs AV, Burkinshaw L, Jones PR, Norgan NG, Levell MJ (October 1976).

16793: 16325:

George KP, Wolfe LA, Burggraf GW (May 1991). "The 'athletic heart syndrome'. A critical review".

14562:

Copeland J, Peters R, Dillon P (March 1998). "A study of 100 anabolic-androgenic steroid users".

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In the United Kingdom, AAS are classified as class C drugs, which puts them in the same class as

11426: 11199: 11123: 10781: 10607: 10296: 9732: 9604: 9333: 8868: 7513: 7366: 7234: 7214: 6814: 6681: 6669: 6651: 6640: 6380: 6258: 4906: 3128:". In this model, myotrophic or anabolic activity is measured by change in the weight of the rat 2641: 2124: 2019: 1793: 1309: 1266: 1131: 882: 747: 636: 422: 271: 122: 30:

This article is about exogenously administered androgens. For androgens as natural hormones, see

24801: 22558: 22552: 6990: 3374: 26122: 25257: 24896: 24767: 24639: 24487: 24356: 24305: 23412: 23318: 23224: 23220: 23161: 22266: 22011: 19925: 19779: 19657:"Dimethandrolone undecanoate: a new potent orally active androgen with progestational activity" 18682:

Basaria S, Dobs AS (May 2001). "Hypogonadism and androgen replacement therapy in elderly men".

15514: 15174: 14902: 13995:

Bachmann GA (March 1999). "Androgen cotherapy in menopause: evolving benefits and challenges".

12601:"Clinical review 138: Anabolic-androgenic steroid therapy in the treatment of chronic diseases" 11938: 11450:

countries such as East Germany, where steroid programs were used to enhance the performance of

11104: 11085: 10743: 10611: 10599: 10257: 10136: 10065: 9991: 9954: 9917: 7517: 7505: 7391: 7350: 7230: 7226: 7174: 6927: 6902: 6836: 6699: 6524: 6476: 6460: 6309:= 1-hour incubation time (4 hours is standard for this assay; may affect affinity value). 6241: 3129: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3081: 2294: 2164: 2015: 1938: 1840: 1785: 1671: 1612: 1337: 1262: 1258: 1116: 1101: 714: 586: 25594: 22548: 21342: 21210: 21169: 20015: 19966: 19811: 19738: 19697: 19559: 19466: 19420: 19391: 18860: 18641: 18561: 18519: 18342:

Bhasin S, Storer TW, Berman N, Callegari C, Clevenger B, Phillips J, et al. (July 1996).

17938:

Schroeder ET, Vallejo AF, Zheng L, Stewart Y, Flores C, Nakao S, et al. (December 2005).

15095: 14863: 14822: 13928: 13405: 13364: 13075: 12952: 12554: 7138: 3264: 26500: 25654: 25142: 24992: 24886: 24551: 24233: 24036: 23697: 21242: 18723:"G protein-coupled receptors: extranuclear mediators for the non-genomic actions of steroids" 18600: 15817:

Vanberg P, Atar D (2009). "Androgenic Anabolic Steroid Abuse and the Cardiovascular System".

14941: 12993: 12135: 11922: 11856: 11616: 11519:

Androgens were discovered in the 1930s and were characterized as having effects described as

11473:(FDA) in 1958. It was most commonly administered to burn victims and the elderly. The drug's 11458: 10140: 9843: 9515: 8685: 7635: 7568: 7129: 7065: 6767: 6657: 6219: 6211: 5608: 4876: 4794: 3714: 3627: 3535: 3513:, or body hair growth (including in the pubic and axillary areas). Moreover, CAIS women have 2665: 2507: 2378: 2105: 2042: 1868: 1681: 1569: 1407: 803: 539: 347: 295: 23018: 22472: 22107: 20730:

Blackledge RD (August 2009). "Bad science: the instrumental data in the Floyd Landis case".

16247:

Sullivan ML, Martinez CM, Gallagher EJ (1999). "Atrial fibrillation and anabolic steroids".

16004: 11895:

substance is in the form of a medicinal product and is for self-administration by a person.

2159:

22-year-old man with gynecomastia not due to AAS use. Before and after gynecomastia surgery.

2034:

for males genetically predisposed, but testosterone itself can produce baldness in females.

25814: 25282: 25253: 25226: 25092: 24980: 24789: 24757: 24723: 24361: 24332: 24048: 23856: 23747: 23342: 23327: 23303: 23196: 23181: 22753:

Sam S (February 2015). "Adiposity and metabolic dysfunction in polycystic ovary syndrome".

21857: 20815: 20652: 20574: 20306: 19341:

Attardi BJ, Hild SA, Koduri S, Pham T, Pessaint L, Engbring J, et al. (October 2010).

17677:

Cheskis BJ (September 2004). "Regulation of cell signalling cascades by steroid hormones".

11872: 11828: 11356: 10952: 10914: 10530: 10469: 10413: 10374: 9895: 9509: 7509: 7242: 6620: 6556: 3580: 3205: 3144:), in response to exposure to the AAS. The measurements are then compared to form a ratio. 2965: 2934: 2672: 2406: 2325: 2243: 2109: 1976: 1917: 1908: 1872: 1757: 1632: 1589: 1557: 1545: 1476: 1371: 1363: 1321: 1277: 988: 962: 887: 706: 677: 566: 484: 24445: 22234: 12885:

Nair KS, Rizza RA, O'Brien P, Dhatariya K, Short KR, Nehra A, et al. (October 2006).

11823:

considered placing AAS under the Controlled Substances Act following the controversy over

7318: 3572: 3185: 3181: 2930:), meaning that they affect the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics. 2671:

The effect of AAS on muscle mass is caused in at least two ways: first, they increase the

8: 26337: 26332: 26064: 26024: 25869: 25789: 25689: 25679: 25624: 25204: 24740: 24497: 24351: 24248: 24081: 24040: 23944: 23890: 23872: 23732: 23707: 23702: 23684: 23673: 23627: 23347: 22612: 21786: 17056: 12048:

trade. These steroids are usually manufactured in other countries, and therefore must be

11497:

created POly active compounds because it slows the degradation of the drug by the liver;

11462: 7464: 7387: 7170: 7090: 7017: 6780: 6754: 4802: 3728: 3639: 3268: 2661: 2554: 2519: 2467: 2254:

and ovarian cysts can also occur in females. When taken during pregnancy, AAS can affect

1983: 1968: 1882: 1508: 1472: 1345: 872: 543: 465: 283: 22655: 22027: 20819: 20656: 20578: 20310: 19600:

7α-Methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENT) Pharmacokinetics and Antigonadotropic Effects in Men

17940:"Six-week improvements in muscle mass and strength during androgen therapy in older men" 16527: 15478:

Mutzebaugh C (December 1998). "Does the choice of alpha-AAS really make a difference?".

15146: 14575: 14214: 1410:, but it has more irregular prolonged absorption time and greater activity in muscle in 25174: 25037: 24997: 24975: 24908: 24811: 24784: 24752: 24585: 24475: 24327: 24192: 23986: 23948: 23417: 23352: 23308: 23298: 23273: 23201: 23176: 22958: 22921: 22778: 22735: 22529: 21953: 21905: 21880: 21817: 21759: 21732: 21551: 21060: 20712: 20409: 20384: 20330: 20168: 20143: 20124: 19535: 19510: 19367: 19342: 19266: 19215: 19190: 19168: 19092: 19045: 18953: 18928: 18749: 18722: 18495: 18478: 18416: 18373: 18321: 18259: 18212: 18169: 18126: 18083: 17879: 17830: 17702: 17654: 17629: 17605: 17580: 17579:

Pereira de Jésus-Tran K, Côté PL, Cantin L, Blanchet J, Labrie F, Breton R (May 2006).

17561: 17517: 17442: 17415: 17389: 17346: 17298: 17273: 17254: 17181: 17169: 17104: 17079: 17029: 17004: 16949: 16901: 16876: 16852: 16801:. 42nd Annual Meeting and Scientific Exposition of the American Society of Nephrology. 16751:

Manikkam M, Crespi EJ, Doop DD, Herkimer C, Lee JS, Yu S, et al. (February 2004).

16657: 16635: 16393: 16350: 16307: 16133: 16090: 15884: 15859: 15799: 15671: 15619: 15594: 15540: 15432: 15375: 15350: 14739: 14696: 14587: 14539: 14512: 14479: 14462: 14438: 14413: 14332: 14144: 14132: 14093: 14066: 13879: 13733: 13684: 13641: 13629: 13310: 13262: 13237: 13218: 13056: 12926: 12867: 12756: 12713: 12700: 12683: 12528: 12480: 12326: 12280: 12249:

Yamamoto Y, Moore R, Hess HA, Guo GL, Gonzalez FJ, Korach KS, et al. (June 2006).

12081: 11466: 11461:. In response to the success of Russian weightlifters, the U.S. Olympic Team physician 11422: 11406: 11386: 11352: 11161: 10933: 10895: 10603: 10491: 10335: 9223: 9204: 8729: 8166: 7521: 7435: 7402: 7261: 7142: 7128:(R-1881), trestolone, 11β-MNT, dimethandrolone, and others, are potent agonists of the 7085:

is testosterone. However, it is notable that estrogens that are 17α-substituted (e.g.,

7069: 7033: 6604: 5575: 5113: 4245: 3472:

Testosterone signals not only through the nuclear AR, but also through mARs, including

3053: 2953:

AAS stimulate the formation of muscle cells and hence cause an increase in the size of

2781: 2542: 2439: 2201: 2097: 1991: 1987: 1767: 1663: 1655: 1581: 1549: 1500: 1396: 1341: 1317: 1293: 1250: 975: 949: 827: 740: 734: 611: 597: 299: 27:

Steroidal androgen that is structurally related and has similar effects to testosterone

22173: 21879:

Solomon ZJ, Mirabal JR, Mazur DJ, Kohn TP, Lipshultz LI, Pastuszak AW (January 2019).

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Kidney tests revealed that nine of the ten steroid users developed a condition called

26188: 25804: 25764: 25629: 25405: 25324: 25127: 25032: 24851: 24568: 24430: 24339: 24322: 24290: 24243: 24200: 24189: 24056: 23880: 23737: 23727: 23665: 23171: 23137: 22993: 22950: 22913: 22881: 22862: 22843: 22824: 22805: 22770: 22727: 22659: 22562: 22533: 22480: 21994: 21957: 21945: 21910: 21881:"Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators: Current Knowledge and Clinical Applications" 21764: 21709: 21670: 21632: 21622: 21585: 21543: 21508: 21466: 21418: 21350: 21325: 21292: 21250: 21218: 21177: 21135: 21125: 21052: 20978: 20869: 20865: 20852:

Freeman ER, Bloom DA, McGuire EJ (February 2001). "A brief history of testosterone".

20831: 20770: 20747: 20704: 20668: 20625: 20621: 20608:

Camerino B, Sciaky R (1 January 1975). "Structure and effects of anabolic steroids".

20590: 20545: 20520: 20485: 20449: 20414: 20365: 20334: 20322: 20279: 20243: 20239: 20208: 20173: 20116: 20106: 20072: 20023: 19982: 19933: 19906: 19871: 19819: 19787: 19746: 19705: 19678: 19607: 19565: 19540: 19474: 19428: 19399: 19372: 19308: 19258: 19220: 19206: 19160: 19122: 19084: 19080: 19037: 18999: 18958: 18868: 18838: 18796: 18754: 18699: 18647: 18608: 18567: 18525: 18500: 18454: 18408: 18404: 18365: 18313: 18251: 18216: 18204: 18161: 18118: 18075: 18040: 17996: 17961: 17920: 17915: 17898: 17871: 17822: 17778: 17737: 17694: 17659: 17610: 17553: 17509: 17474: 17447: 17381: 17338: 17334: 17303: 17246: 17242: 17209: 17173: 17136: 17109: 17095: 17034: 16941: 16906: 16892: 16844: 16774: 16733: 16692: 16688: 16649: 16567: 16531: 16496: 16453: 16434: 16429: 16412: 16385: 16381: 16342: 16338: 16299: 16264: 16203: 16168: 16125: 16121: 16082: 16047: 15986: 15951: 15916: 15889: 15840: 15830: 15791: 15787: 15774:

Trenton AJ, Currier GW (2005). "Behavioural manifestations of anabolic steroid use".

15753: 15712: 15663: 15624: 15575: 15532: 15487: 15458: 15424: 15380: 15182: 15150: 15101: 15076: 15027: 14949: 14908: 14869: 14830: 14777: 14773: 14731: 14688: 14653: 14649: 14606: 14579: 14544: 14484: 14443: 14429: 14392: 14367: 14324: 14218: 14171: 14136: 14098: 14047: 14012: 13977: 13936: 13871: 13867: 13801: 13774: 13725: 13676: 13672: 13633: 13598: 13594: 13563: 13536: 13499: 13413: 13372: 13345: 13314: 13302: 13267: 13210: 13083: 13048: 12999: 12960: 12918: 12859: 12824: 12797: 12748: 12744: 12705: 12661: 12622: 12562: 12520: 12472: 12468: 12455:

Hartgens F, Kuipers H (2004). "Effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids in athletes".

12416: 12366: 12318: 12272: 12228: 12195: 12009:), asking for documentation of their companies' drug policies. WWE CEO and chairman, 11976: 10591:

fatty acids. = Relative androgen/anabolic steroid content by weight (i.e., relative

9603:

Esters of androgens and anabolic steroids are mostly not included in this table; see

9578: 9245: 8852: 8012: 7767: 7349:

receptor, and this may contribute as an alternative or additional mechanism to their

7274: 6245: 6232: 5080: 4896: 4886: 3280:. They also notably do not develop gynecomastia as a consequence of their condition. 3273: 2645: 2605: 2574: 2312:

determined that "significant psychiatric symptoms including aggression and violence,

2255: 1960: 1934: 1811: 1721: 1526: 1441: 1433: 792: 758:, which can significantly improve bloodflow in individuals prone to vasoconstriction. 710: 503: 359: 260: 114: 109: 22925: 22782: 22739: 21555: 20716: 20128: 19270: 19172: 19096: 19049: 18377: 18325: 18263: 18087: 17883: 17834: 17706: 17565: 17521: 17393: 17350: 17185: 16953: 16397: 16354: 16311: 16137: 16094: 15803: 15675: 14700: 14336: 13883: 13688: 13645: 13222: 13060: 12930: 12871: 12717: 12532: 12484: 12330: 12284: 7952: 26074: 26054: 25002: 24866: 24425: 24263: 24223: 23998: 23929: 23252: 22983: 22962: 22942: 22909: 22905: 22762: 22719: 22651: 22521: 21984: 21937: 21900: 21892: 21754: 21744: 21662: 21614: 21577: 21535: 21500: 21458: 21410: 21117: 21064: 21042: 20952: 20924: 20900: 20896: 20861: 20823: 20739: 20696: 20660: 20617: 20582: 20512: 20477: 20441: 20404: 20396: 20357: 20314: 20271: 20235: 20200: 20163: 20155: 20098: 20097:. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 195. Springer. pp. 459–84. 20064: 19974: 19898: 19863: 19668: 19530: 19522: 19362: 19354: 19300: 19250: 19210: 19202: 19152: 19076: 19029: 18989: 18948: 18940: 18909: 18830: 18788: 18744: 18734: 18691: 18490: 18446: 18420: 18400: 18355: 18305: 18243: 18196: 18173: 18153: 18130: 18110: 18067: 18030: 17988: 17951: 17910: 17861: 17812: 17768: 17729: 17686: 17649: 17641: 17600: 17592: 17545: 17501: 17437: 17427: 17373: 17330: 17293: 17285: 17258: 17238: 17165: 17099: 17091: 17024: 17016: 16983: 16933: 16896: 16888: 16856: 16836: 16764: 16723: 16684: 16661: 16639: 16631: 16559: 16523: 16488: 16424: 16377: 16334: 16291: 16256: 16195: 16160: 16117: 16074: 16039: 15978: 15943: 15879: 15871: 15822: 15821:. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 195. Springer. pp. 411–57. 15783: 15743: 15702: 15659: 15655: 15614: 15606: 15567: 15544: 15524: 15436: 15414: 15370: 15362: 15142: 15072: 15068: 14769: 14743: 14723: 14680: 14645: 14591: 14571: 14534: 14524: 14474: 14433: 14425: 14359: 14316: 14210: 14148: 14128: 14088: 14078: 14039: 14004: 13863: 13764: 13737: 13715: 13668: 13625: 13590: 13528: 13337: 13294: 13257: 13249: 13202: 13040: 12908: 12898: 12851: 12787: 12760: 12740: 12695: 12653: 12612: 12512: 12464: 12406: 12398: 12358: 12310: 12262: 12104: 12035:

Several large buckets containing tens of thousands of AAS vials confiscated by the

12006: 11586: 11332: 10274: 9821: 8751: 8194: 8078: 7150: 7086: 7081: 6970: 3568: 3527: 3141: 3069: 3065: 2972:

in male children (the adult penis size does not change due to steroids), increased

2954: 2918:

As their name suggests, AAS have two different, but overlapping, types of effects:

2621: 2475: 2430:

From the mid-1980s onward, the media reported "roid rage" as a side effect of AAS.

2410: 2402: 2283: 2038: 1950: 1852: 1375: 1351: 1273: 681: 25339: 22441: 20806:

Hoberman JM, Yesalis CE (February 1995). "The history of synthetic testosterone".

15875: 14795: 12251:"Estrogen receptor alpha mediates 17alpha-ethynylestradiol causing hepatotoxicity" 11485:

Three major ideas governed modifications of testosterone into a multitude of AAS:

8428:

2α,3α-Epithio-3-deketo-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone 17β-(1-methoxycyclopentane) ether

7089:

and methylestradiol) are of markedly increased estrogenic potency due to improved

2664:

to other parts of the cell. Different types of AAS bind to the AAR with different

355: 26459: 25999: 25884: 25739: 25410: 25077: 25052: 24903: 24856: 24666: 24526: 24022: 23587: 23497: 23382: 22988: 22971: 21666: 21581: 21286: 20102: 19978: 19304: 18200: 17129: 16728: 16711: 16043: 15826: 15059:

Burkett LN, Falduto MT (1984). "Steroid Use by Athletes in a Metropolitan Area".

15021: 13794:"Genderqueer, Pansexual, LGBTQ: Will Gender Exist 100 Years From Now? – Rebooted" 13253: 12362: 12140: 12112: 12053: 12001:

investigated steroid usage in the wrestling industry. The Committee investigated

11904: 11888: 11819:

The history of the U.S. legislation on AAS goes back to the late 1980s, when the

11637: 11536: 11502: 11435: 11340: 10990: 10819: 10125: 10043: 9784: 9607:

instead. Weakly androgenic progestins are mostly not included in this table; see

9421: 9311: 9022: 8144: 8034: 7679: 7459: 7447: 7426: 7410: 7218: 7182: 7162: 7077: 7029: 7002: 5740: 5542: 5245: 4367: 3966: 3701: 3402: 3277: 3194: 2988: 2961: 2891: 2801: 2653: 2625: 2595: 2570: 2534: 2515: 2463: 2329: 2247: 2209: 2205: 2027: 1820: 1771: 1749: 1745: 1667: 1640: 1604: 1600: 1593: 1488: 1400: 1325: 1014: 910: 811: 726: 669: 657: 647: 554: 499: 469: 460: 412: 311: 172: 22946: 22582: 20700: 19867: 19526: 19358: 18792: 18450: 18360: 18343: 17956: 17939: 13206: 12815:

Baum NH, Crespi CA (September 2007). "Testosterone replacement in elderly men".

12187: 6954: 4752: 3686: 3603: 3309:

Relative affinities of nandrolone and related steroids at the androgen receptor

3157: 2155: 25844: 25669: 25644: 25272: 25248: 25221: 25117: 25042: 24945: 24730: 24701: 24558: 24501: 24440: 24435: 24158: 24110: 24006: 23968: 23956: 23915: 23752: 23561: 23553: 23545: 23517: 23502: 23447: 23263: 22525: 22049: 21896: 21749: 21504: 20400: 18834: 17944:

The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences

17733: 17377: 16492: 15947: 15453:

Katzung BG, Chrousos GP, eds. (2012). "The Gonadal Hormones & Inhibitors".

14684: 13532: 12792: 12780:

The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences

12775: 12516: 12402: 11864: 11610:

Various compounds with anabolic and androgenic effects, their relation with AAS

11591: 11498: 11455: 10724: 10547: 10391: 10313: 10148: 9969: 9747: 9443: 9267: 9044: 8896: 8707: 8553: 8326: 8304: 7657: 7501: 7468: 7334: 7257: 7256:

In addition to oral activity, 17α-alkylation also confers a high potential for

7246: 7210: 7206: 7178: 6293: 6280: 6042: 5839: 5806: 5773: 5311: 4948: 4806: 3747: 3735: 3643: 3556: 3514: 3348: 3198: 3137: 3136:

muscle, and androgenic activity is measured by change in the weight of the rat

3008: 2946: 2941:, increased appetite, increased bone remodeling and growth, and stimulation of 2767: 2688: 2637: 2613: 2499: 2279: 2049: 2004: 1926: 1848: 1836: 1779: 1775: 1644: 1636: 1620: 1504: 1445: 1355: 1329: 661: 607: 562: 518: 480: 426: 408: 287: 25184: 23074: 21989: 21972: 20956: 20743: 19254: 19156: 19142: 18157: 18114: 17755:

Singh R, Artaza JN, Taylor WE, Gonzalez-Cadavid NF, Bhasin S (November 2003).

17549: 17505: 17432: 16988: 16971: 16937: 16586: 15748: 15731: 15571: 13478:""The Use Of Steroid Hormones For Growth Promotion In Food-Producing Animals"" 13341: 13298: 13285:

Bork K (August 2012). "Current management options for hereditary angioedema".

12855: 12644:

Ranke MB, Bierich JR (August 1986). "Treatment of growth hormone deficiency".

11913:

Legal status of AAS and other drugs with anabolic effects in Western countries

10458: 9886: 8018: 6108: 2675:; second, they reduce recovery time by blocking the effects of stress hormone 2177:. These side effect are caused by the natural conversion of testosterone into 1386: 26469: 26253: 26198: 26173: 25749: 25147: 25047: 24258: 23487: 22723: 21998: 21462: 21139: 20928: 20524: 20453: 20369: 20318: 20212: 20204: 17289: 16479:

Wit JM, Oostdijk W (June 2015). "Novel approaches to short stature therapy".

16454:"Liver Damage And Increased Heart Attack Risk Caused By Anabolic Steroid Use" 16413:"Left ventricular size and function in body builders using anabolic steroids" 15080: 14727: 14363: 12156: 12108: 12052:

across international borders. As with most significant smuggling operations,

12014: 12010: 11930: 11820: 11474: 11451: 10800: 10508: 10430: 10352: 10164: 10144: 10080: 10006: 9858: 9289: 7974: 7451: 7430: 7121: 6254: 5212: 3903: 3596: 3387: 3098: 3057: 2881: 2629: 2341: 2299: 1956: 1878: 1753: 1659: 1484: 897: 695: 619: 601: 317: 310:

may also be caused by AAS. In women and children, AAS can cause irreversible

279: 102: 22766: 22512:

Black T (1996). "Does the Ban on Drugs in Sport Improve Societal Welfare?".

22323:"Anabolic Steroid Use and Abuse by Police Officers: Policy & Prevention" 16587:"Medical Issues Associated with Anabolic Steroid Use: Are they Exaggerated?" 14043: 13720: 13703: 12617: 12600: 11575:

is questionable, and this is the basis for the revised and more recent term

9427: 9028: 8040: 5910: 2147:, but this may only quicken maturation rather than increasing adult height. 26392: 26248: 26178: 26079: 26069: 26034: 26004: 25938: 25913: 25864: 25819: 25784: 25759: 25704: 25659: 25495: 25277: 25194: 25082: 25012: 24987: 24935: 24925: 24871: 24718: 24651: 24536: 24531: 24514: 24465: 24012: 23900: 23807: 23792: 23782: 23777: 23767: 23722: 23717: 23656: 23623: 23609: 23595: 23507: 23472: 23437: 23427: 23392: 23337: 23288: 23283: 23109: 22954: 22917: 22894: 22774: 22731: 22663: 22613:"The Drug Enforcement Administration's International Operations (Redacted)" 22437: 21949: 21914: 21768: 21713: 21636: 21547: 21512: 21470: 21422: 21056: 21047: 21030: 20873: 20751: 20708: 20685: 20672: 20594: 20489: 20418: 20326: 20177: 20120: 20076: 19875: 19682: 19544: 19509:

Attardi BJ, Pham TC, Radler LC, Burgenson J, Hild SA, Reel JR (June 2008).

19376: 19262: 19224: 19164: 19033: 18994: 18977: 18962: 18842: 18800: 18758: 18703: 18504: 18412: 18208: 18187:

Reyes-Vallejo L (June 2020). "Current use and abuse of anabolic steroids".

18165: 18122: 18044: 18000: 17965: 17924: 17875: 17866: 17849: 17826: 17782: 17698: 17663: 17614: 17557: 17513: 17451: 17307: 17250: 17113: 16945: 16910: 16848: 16778: 16653: 16500: 16268: 16207: 16172: 16129: 16078: 15990: 15955: 15920: 15893: 15844: 15795: 15757: 15716: 15667: 15644: 15628: 15579: 15536: 15491: 15428: 15384: 14735: 14692: 14657: 14548: 14529: 14488: 14447: 14328: 14222: 14175: 14140: 14102: 14051: 14016: 13875: 13778: 13769: 13752: 13680: 13602: 13567: 13540: 13349: 13306: 13271: 13214: 13052: 12922: 12863: 12828: 12801: 12709: 12626: 12524: 12476: 12420: 12370: 12314: 12276: 12267: 12250: 12199: 12130: 12045: 11636:

Australia, Argentina, Brazil, and Portugal, and are listed as Class C

11447: 11430: 11415: 11381: 11371: 11348: 11028: 10876: 10641: 10615: 10034: 9812: 9775: 9465: 9229: 9088: 8956: 8795: 8663: 8581: 8414: 8392: 8370: 8254: 8210: 8100: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7532: 7492: 7472: 7418: 7406: 7326: 7290: 7097: 7073: 7037: 5905: 5509: 5410: 5146: 4486: 4137: 3851: 3635: 3564: 3248: 3244: 3224: 3216: 2992: 2841: 2821: 2811: 2684: 2633: 2609: 2578: 2558: 2546: 2538: 2511: 2483: 2459: 2233: 2174: 2113: 2008: 1844: 1828: 1789: 1689: 1628: 1573: 1561: 1496: 1359: 1305: 1289: 1040: 936: 799: 755: 751: 574: 558: 547: 528: 476: 351: 325: 307: 303: 252: 23358:

Trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate (trenbolone cyclohexylmethylcarbonate)

22997: 22380:"Talent Wellness Program Program Summary Report 1 July 2007 31 March 2008" 22042: 20835: 20539: 20283: 20247: 20159: 19910: 19312: 19126: 19088: 19041: 19003: 18976:

Wu FC, Balasubramanian R, Mulders TM, Coelingh-Bennink HJ (January 1999).

18739: 18369: 18317: 18079: 17850:"Sex steroids and the construction and conservation of the adult skeleton" 17741: 17478: 17385: 17342: 17177: 17038: 17020: 16737: 16696: 16621: 16571: 16563: 16438: 16389: 16346: 16303: 16086: 16051: 15154: 14781: 14583: 14371: 13981: 13729: 13637: 13328:

Choi G, Runyon BA (May 2012). "Alcoholic hepatitis: a clinician's guide".

12752: 12665: 12322: 12232: 11988: 10302: 9738: 9339: 8874: 7145:(or, put in another way, increased potency and effectiveness in producing 3255:

are all poor substrates for 3α-HSD and are described as potent anabolics.

668:

people, by producing masculine secondary sexual characteristics such as a

527:

improves both short-term and long-term outcomes in people recovering from

26377: 26258: 26243: 26238: 26168: 26104: 26059: 25963: 25959: 25955: 25908: 25854: 25849: 25829: 25769: 25714: 25684: 25674: 25664: 25634: 25619: 25535: 25515: 25420: 25344: 25236: 25189: 25154: 25072: 25062: 25007: 24965: 24930: 24876: 24861: 24826: 24821: 24575: 24546: 24032: 24016: 23964: 23960: 23952: 23937: 23910: 23851: 23846: 23841: 23836: 23802: 23762: 23617: 23557: 23541: 23467: 23462: 23432: 23397: 23387: 23372: 23367: 23293: 23240: 21846: 21657:

Handelsman DJ (26 July 2012). "Androgen therapy in non-gonadal disease".

21539: 21414: 20997: 20629: 19902: 19673: 19656: 18900:

Rahwan RG (1988). "The Pharmacology of Androgens and Anabolic Steroids".

18458: 18232:""Anabolic" effects of methandienone in men undergoing athletic training" 17817: 17800: 17773: 17756: 17596: 16769: 16752: 16535: 15610: 15366: 13167:. BTG Pharmaceuticals, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 21 April 2003. 12913: 12903: 12886: 12411: 12077: 11835:. AAS were added to Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act in the 11494: 11351:

from tens of thousands of litres of urine. This steroid was subsequently

11009: 10857: 10838: 10673: 10263: 10071: 9997: 9960: 9923: 9399: 9355: 8773: 8641: 8502: 8458: 8260: 8232: 8122: 8056: 7902: 7880: 7544: 7540: 7488: 7480: 7476: 7414: 7345:, and methyltestosterone, among many others, can or may modulate the GABA 7302: 7298: 7266: 7146: 7133: 7125: 6572: 6267: 5872: 5641: 5476: 5377: 5344: 5179: 4430: 4085: 4029: 3631: 3531: 3481: 3432: 3325: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3212: 3133: 3077: 3004: 2984: 2942: 2851: 2791: 2213: 2140: 2120: 1964: 1946: 1733: 1701: 1616: 1577: 1534: 1465: 1456: 1415: 1332:(DHT), known as androstanolone or stanolone when used medically, and its 1301: 1297: 1027: 923: 815: 593: 524: 507: 491: 397: 393: 267: 256: 22678:"Dimethandrolone undecanoate shows promise as a male birth control pill" 22520:(4). Faculty of Business, Queensland University of Technology: 367–381. 21733:"Anabolic-androgenic steroids: How do they work and what are the risks?" 20998:

Suarez R, Senior Correspondent, Kelman J, physician (18 November 2002).

20516: 20445: 20361: 18975: 18255: 18035: 18018: 17414:

El Osta R, Almont T, Diligent C, Hubert N, Eschwège P, Hubert J (2016).

17003:

Cooper CJ, Noakes TD, Dunne T, Lambert MI, Rochford K (September 1996).

15707: 15690: 10128:

fatty acids. = Relative testosterone content by weight (i.e., relative

9849: 8940: 8691: 7795: 7641: 26347: 26314: 26163: 26158: 26138: 26109: 26029: 25994: 25989: 25979: 25874: 25809: 25744: 25694: 25550: 25445: 25400: 25359: 25267: 25216: 25067: 25017: 24970: 24960: 24779: 24747: 24706: 24656: 24646: 24592: 24580: 24541: 24393: 24388: 24383: 24378: 24373: 24295: 24026: 23982: 23905: 23885: 23797: 23772: 23742: 23549: 23532: 23492: 23477: 23457: 23206: 23191: 21491:

Handelsman DJ (July 2022). "History of androgens and androgen action".

20466: 18944: 17896: 17645: 17578: 14253:"Testosterone can be part of your treatment plan for Raynaud's Disease" 13658: 12089: 11868: 11552: 11486: 11066: 11047: 10536: 10419: 10380: 10156: 9534: 9383: 9377: 9154: 9138: 9132: 9066: 8978: 8934: 8817: 8619: 8528: 8480: 8436: 7833: 7811: 7789: 7564: 7548: 7496: 7484: 7455: 7443: 7439: 7422: 7376: 7342: 7306: 7294: 7282: 7278: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7117: 7053: 6994: 6986: 6982: 6174: 6141: 6080: 5976: 5707: 5674: 5443: 5278: 4786: 4657: 4542: 4308: 4193: 3619: 3592: 3539: 3518:

testosterone, like modulation of prostate cancer risk and progression.

3485: 3361: 3252: 3236: 3189: 3153: 3101: 2981: 2973: 2938: 2871: 2861: 2831: 2698: 2680: 2479: 2321: 2170: 2057: 2045: 1856: 1824: 1693: 1685: 1624: 1313: 1285: 1270: 1055: 718: 635:

for men with low levels of testosterone, such as those associated with

590: 514: 131: 48: 21618: 20915:

to represent the testosterone from cholesterol (Vorläuf. msgs.)].

18436: 18309: 17690: 16295: 14195: 14083: 10670:

Nandrolone to trestolone, trenbolone, norboletone, and ethylestrenol:

9006: 5283: 3172:

and lacks significant AR affinity. In addition, DHT is metabolized by

3160:

into DHT, which is 3- to 10-fold more potent as an AR agonist, and by

2933:

Some examples of the anabolic effects of these hormones are increased

236: 26368: 26342: 26322: 26318: 26306: 26183: 26148: 26089: 26049: 26044: 25943: 25923: 25859: 25824: 25799: 25794: 25779: 25699: 25649: 25570: 25505: 25450: 25440: 25430: 25364: 25211: 25199: 24955: 24846: 24774: 24735: 24661: 24634: 24563: 24317: 24300: 23990: 23972: 23895: 23787: 23712: 23692: 23603: 23599: 23537: 23452: 23166: 22605: 22100: 21941: 20664: 20481: 18823:

Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism

17534: 16644: 16481:

Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism

15593:

Pope HG, Wood RI, Rogol A, Nyberg F, Bowers L, Bhasin S (June 2014).

15419: 15402: 14412:

McCabe SE, Brower KJ, West BT, Nelson TF, Wechsler H (October 2007).

12991: 12774:

Kenny AM, Prestwood KM, Gruman CA, Marcello KM, Raisz LG (May 2001).

12100: 12085: 12049: 11860: 11544: 10497: 10341: 9198: 9176: 9110: 9000: 8912: 8735: 8597: 8172: 7990: 7745: 7701: 7576: 7572: 7536: 7528: 7289:(Δ-testosterone), and testosterone, respectively), the DHT 17-ethers 7286: 7190: 7061: 7057: 7041: 7021: 5981: 5047: 4981: 4798: 4756: 3799: 3721: 3693: 3611: 3502: 3497: 3165: 3161: 3052:

effects on lean body mass have been shown to be dose-dependent. Both

3012: 2649: 2434: 2333: 2317: 2308: 2251: 2239: 2217: 2186: 2182: 2093: 1904: 1741: 1729: 1709: 1608: 1565: 1492: 1480: 1419: 1411: 823: 730: 578: 570: 375: 147: 21700:

Stratakis CA, Trence DL, Wilson DP, Handelsman DJ (5 October 2020).

20586: 17078:

Kanayama G, Brower KJ, Wood RI, Hudson JI, Pope HG (December 2009).

13236:

Rojas Y, Finnerty CC, Radhakrishnan RS, Herndon DN (December 2012).

9449: 9251: 8450:

1-Dehydro-4,5α-Dihydrotestosterone 17β-(1-methoxycyclohexane) ether

7773: 5250: 3591:

AAS differ in a variety of ways including in their capacities to be

26354: 26233: 26228: 26223: 26218: 26213: 26019: 25774: 25709: 25525: 25480: 25475: 25470: 25465: 25460: 25415: 25354: 25349: 25289: 24470: 24312: 24076: 23978: 23567: 23244: 23117: 23105: 22932: 21087: 19786:(7th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1360–. 16972:"Anabolic androgenic steroids: What the psychiatrist needs to know" 16924:

Brower KJ (October 2002). "Anabolic steroid abuse and dependence".

16367: 15906: 13408:. In Yagiela JA, Dowd FJ, Johnson B, Mariotti A, Neidle EA (eds.). 11790: 11336: 10592: 10588: 10160: 10129: 10121: 9556: 9361: 8757: 8713: 8348: 8084: 7723: 7186: 6966: 6075: 4790: 4782: 3623: 3615: 3493: 3169: 3094: 3000: 2676: 2600: 2495: 2491: 2455: 2178: 2084:

Other side-effects can include alterations in the structure of the

2053: 2031: 2026:

is fairly common among AAS users, mostly due to stimulation of the

1930: 1860: 1737: 1717: 1697: 1553: 1427: 835: 819: 807: 773: 665: 445: 437: 404: 31: 20264:

Journal of Chromatography. B, Biomedical Sciences and Applications

16795:

Development of FSGS Following Anabolic Steroid Use in Bodybuilders

12151:

List of androgens/anabolic steroids available in the United States

11811: 10657: 9317: 8150: 3015:

and given no treatment and respectively some AAS of interest. The

531:, and is well-established as a safe treatment for this indication. 26310: 26099: 26039: 25839: 25724: 25565: 25540: 25395: 25137: 25087: 25027: 24688: 23527: 23145: 22575: 22354:"WWE steroid investigation: A controversy McMahon 'doesn't need'" 20732:

Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry

18820: 17754: 15933: 14635: 13235: 12099:

Topical androgens have been used and studied in the treatment of

11968: 11438:

was administered steroids both before and during his presidency.

11344: 11328: 11325: 10762: 10152: 9584: 9487: 9273: 9058:

2,5(10)-Didehydro-18-methyl-19-norepiandrosterone 3-methyl ether

9050: 8559: 8332: 8310: 8279: 7383: 7380: 7222: 7064:, and many other AAS can be metabolized into their corresponding 5938: 5014: 4860: 1725: 1336:

are also notable, although they are not widely used in medicine.

867: 839: 643: 495: 433:, which has fewer side effects, makes this a secondary treatment. 135: 127: 77: 21176:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 370–373, 380. 19853: 18229: 18103:

Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine

16064: 15457:. New York London: McGraw-Hill Medical McGraw-Hill distributor. 12842:

Francis RM (October 2001). "Androgen replacement in aging men".

12682:

Grunfeld C, Kotler DP, Dobs A, Glesby M, Bhasin S (March 2006).

9295: 7685: 7663: 6113: 5948: 5316: 5118: 2224:) usually results in return to normal testosterone production.) 26361: 26302: 26287: 26193: 23063: 21572:

Iyer R, Handelsman DJ (2017). "Testosterone Misuse and Abuse".

20917:

Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (A and B Series)

17366:

Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie

16791: 16185: 16150: 12887:"DHEA in elderly women and DHEA or testosterone in elderly men" 11852: 11490: 11401: 11395: 11367: 11360: 10577: 10110: 9471: 9094: 8962: 8801: 8669: 8420: 8398: 8376: 8216: 8106: 6974: 5877: 3599: 3477: 3208: 2977: 2562: 2518:. Male recreational athletes take AAS to achieve an "enhanced" 2503: 2357: 2337: 1864: 1530: 831: 783: 722: 582: 449: 441: 400: 396:

stimulation: For decades, AAS were the mainstay of therapy for

321: 19606:(Ph.D. thesis). Helsinki: University of Helsinki. p. 14. 18560:

Hanno PM, Guzzi TJ, Malkowicz SB, J Wein A (26 January 2014).

17080:"Anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence: an emerging disorder" 16514:

Marcus R, Korenman SG (1976). "Estrogens and the human male".

13031:

Davis SR (1999). "The therapeutic use of androgens in women".

12995:

Osteoporosis: Clinical Guidelines for Prevention and Treatment

12300: 11644:

Legal status of anabolic substances in most western countries

10628: 9703: 9405: 8779: 8647: 8508: 8464: 8238: 8128: 8062: 7908: 7886: 7861: 7353:

effects in terms of mood, anxiety, aggression, and sex drive.

6704:. = Studied but never marketed. = Developmental code names. 5514: 2422:

who used AAS, 27 (51%) reported unspecified mood disturbance.

341:-accredited laboratories. Anabolic steroids are classified as 57: 25893: 25575: 25485: 25416:

Andarine (acetamidoxolutamide, androxolutamide, GTx-007, S-4)

25375: 24259:

Adrenosterone (11-ketoandrostenedione, 11-oxoandrostenedione)

21787:"Title 21 United States Code (USC) Controlled Substances Act" 21576:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 375–402. 21145:

have greater renotrophic (anabolic?) than androgenic effects.

20431: 19425:

Brocklehurst's Textbook of Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology

19396:

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3506: 3317: 3042: 2969: 2566: 2487: 2313: 2085: 2052:. Other effects include, but are not limited to, accelerated 1713: 1648: 1516: 1422: 1223:

Studied for human use but never marketed, for comparison only

251:(AAS), are a class of drugs that are structurally related to 22170:"NHL/NHLPA performance-enhancing substances program summary" 21698: 21347:

Handbook of Drug Interactions: A Clinical and Forensic Guide

21341:

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21323: 19564:. Molecular Nutrition Llc. pp. 533–, 402–412, 460–467. 18393:

American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism

18390: 18295: 17937: 17491: 14349: 12773: 9182: 9116: 8918: 8603: 7996: 7751: 7707: 7386:. They include testosterone (androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one) and 7301:(which are also prodrugs), the 1-methylated DHT derivatives 5811: 5613: 5019: 2628:. Water-soluble peptide hormones cannot penetrate the fatty 2494:. AAS are testosterone derivatives designed to maximize the 646:: Androgens are given to many boys distressed about extreme 26326: 25639: 22709: 22442:"'Raw Deal' busts labs across U.S., many supplied by China" 21856:. Australian Institute of Criminology. 2006. Archived from 21031:"Popular ergogenic drugs and supplements in young athletes" 20886: 18341: 17413: 17272:

Beaver KM, Vaughn MG, Delisi M, Wright JP (December 2008).

15100:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 176–177. 10580: 10113: 9562: 8743:

2α,3α-Epithio-3-deketo-4,5α-dihydro-17α-methyltestosterone

8354: 7930: 7729: 7269:

of testosterone and DHT have been found to be cholestatic.

7116:

Many 19-nortestosterone derivatives, including nandrolone,

7013: 6978: 6958: 5646: 3510: 3473: 3036: 2657: 2365:

misdiagnosed by a psychiatrist not told about their habit.

2023: 453: 22293:"Steroid abuse among law enforcement a problem nationwide" 20642: 20382: 20347: 19508: 16826: 16750: 16281: 16214: 15968: 15557: 14510: 14162:

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to obtain different anabolic-to-androgenic effect ratios.

9493: 8520:-5α-Androst-2-enopyrazol-17β-ol 17β-tetrahydropyran ether 8285: 7068:

metabolites as well. As an example, the 17α-alkylated AAS

5679: 5448: 2352: 1245:

The AAS that have been used most commonly in medicine are

733:. Testosterone is usually used for this purpose, although 26009: 22935:

The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

22641: 21779: 21340: 20689:

The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

20190: 19515:

The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

19347:

The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

19115:

The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics

18559: 16246: 15181:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1185–1186. 14713: 14511:

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13967: 13406:"Steroid Hormones of Reproduction and Sexual Development" 13033:

The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

12002: 7032:, while incidence and magnitude of other effects such as 5349: 2922:, meaning that they promote anabolism (cell growth), and 2616:

in red, green, and blue, with the steroid shown in white.

1198:

Unless otherwise noted, given as a once daily/weekly dose

338: 25100:

17α-Alkylated 5α-dihydro-19-nortestosterone derivatives:

23038:. St. Louis, MO: St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Archived from 21805: 21449:

Handelsman DJ (July 2021). "Androgen Misuse and Abuse".

21349:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 651–. 20142:

Roddam AW, Allen NE, Appleby P, Key TJ (February 2008).

20022:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 166–. 19704:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 458–. 19473:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 470–. 19394:. In Orwoll ES, Bilezikian JP, Vanderschueren D (eds.). 18863:. In Orwoll ES, Bilezikian JP, Vanderschueren D (eds.). 18601:"The Tea Beverage in Chemoprevention of Prostate Cancer" 18143: 17271: 17206:

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17077: 17002: 15909:

European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences

14517:

Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition

14029: 13615: 12681: 11421:

Clinical trials on humans, involving either PO doses of

9548:

9,11-Didehydro-17α-ethynyl-18-methyl-19-nortestosterone

5547: 5382: 5151: 24603:

7α-Methyl-19-norandrostenedione (MENT dione, trestione)

23011:

Prevention Researcher Integrated Research Services, Inc

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Somboonporn W (August 2006). "Androgen and menopause".

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5(10)-Dehydro-7α-methyl-17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone

8809:

2-Hydroxymethylene-4,5α-dihydro-17α-methyltestosterone

8589:

2-Dehydro-3-deketo-4,5α-dihydro-17α-methyltestosterone

6298: 4937: 4770: 4761: 1444:. However, the orally available forms of AAS may cause 639:; also effective in improving libido for elderly males. 25297:

5α-Dihydro-17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives:

22315: 21288:

Altered States: The Use and Abuse of Anabolic Steroids

20502: 19240: 15093: 14411: 13128:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1 December 2006. 13076:"Current and Future Medical Uses of Anabolic Steroids" 11594:. Aside from AAS, Handelsman has criticized the term " 11374:, and three groups of scientists, funded by competing 10208:

Structural properties of major anabolic steroid esters

9523:

9,11-Didehydro-17α-ethyl-18-methyl-19-nortestosterone

8070:

1-Dehydro-2-formyl-11α-hydroxy-17α-methyltestosterone

5942: 5778: 5607: 3675:

Pharmacological properties of major anabolic steroids

2565:

to produce testosterone which is required to form new

2286:

has been increasingly recognised with the use of AAS.

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Bain J, Schill WB, Schwarzstein L (6 December 2012).

14907:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1358–. 14463:"Anabolic androgenic steroids: a survey of 500 users" 13798:

Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (IEET)

13701: 12730: 11189:

DHT = dihydrotestosterone; 19-NT = 19-nortestosterone

7803:

5-Dehydroepiandrosterone (androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)

7609:

Structural aspects of androgens and anabolic steroids

7371:

Structure–activity relationships of anabolic steroids

6688: 5844: 754:. Testosterone and other anabolics tend to be potent 26383: 23637: 23264:

Androstanolone (stanolone, dihydrotestosterone, DHT)

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Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation

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Wilson JD (May 1988). "Androgen abuse by athletes".

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