221:
20:
110:
133:, can be ingested in the gastrointestinal tract (barium) or injected in the artery or veins to highlight these vessels. The contrast compounds have high atomic numbered elements in them that (like bone) essentially block the X-rays and hence the once hollow organ or vessel can be more readily seen. In the pursuit of nontoxic contrast materials, many types of high atomic number elements were evaluated. Some elements chosen proved to be harmful – for example,
272:
557:, called electron-hole pairs. Since the number of charge carriers produced will vary with the intensity of incoming light photons, an electrical pattern is created that can be swiftly converted to a voltage and then a digital signal, which is interpreted by a computer to produce a digital image. Although silicon has outstanding electronic properties, it is not a particularly good absorber of X-ray photons. For this reason, X-rays first impinge upon
314:
589:
224:
223:
228:
227:
222:
229:
226:
230:
247:
gained the ability to store and display enough data to make digital imaging possible. Since the 1990s, computerized radiography and digital radiography have been replacing photographic film in medical and dental applications, though film technology remains in widespread use in industrial radiography
540:
The TFT array consists of a sheet of glass covered with a thin layer of silicon that is in an amorphous or disordered state. At a microscopic scale, the silicon has been imprinted with millions of transistors arranged in a highly ordered array, like the grid on a sheet of graph paper. Each of these
117:
To obtain an image with any type of image detector the part of the patient to be X-rayed is placed between the X-ray source and the image receptor to produce a shadow of the internal structure of that particular part of the body. X-rays are partially blocked ("attenuated") by dense tissues such as
242:
The first radiographs (X-ray images) were made by the action of X-rays on sensitized glass photographic plates. X-ray film (photographic film) soon replaced the glass plates, and film has been used for decades to acquire (and display) medical and industrial images. Gradually, digital
657:
greatly increasing the output signal. Since every electron cause an avalanche of approximately the same size the collected charge is proportional to the number of ion pairs created by the absorbed x-ray. This makes it possible to measure the energy of each incoming photon.
141:) – which turned out to be toxic, causing a very high incidence of cancer decades after use. Modern contrast material has improved and, while there is no way to determine who may have a sensitivity to the contrast, the incidence of serious allergic reactions is low.
426:, provide a cost-effective and high resolving power radiation measurem ent. Unlike conventional X-ray detectors, such as Si(Li), they do not need to be cooled with liquid nitrogen. These detectors are rarely used for imaging and are only efficient at low energies.
225:
370:
to read out and convert the electronic signal to a digital image. Unlike film or CR no manual scanning or development step is required to obtain a digital image, and so in this sense both systems are "direct". Both types of system have considerably higher
668:
are created. These start new avalanches, eventually resulting in a total ionization of the gas around the anode wire. This makes the signal very strong, but causes a dead time after each event and makes it impossible to measure the X-ray energies.
1537:
Zang, A.; Anton, G.; Ballabriga, R.; Bisello, F.; Campbell, M.; Celi, J.C.; Fauler, A.; Fiederle, M.; Jensch, M.; Kochanski, N.; Llopart, X.; Michel, N.; Mollenhauer, U.; Ritter, I.; Tennert, F.; Wölfel, S.; Wong, W.; Michel, T. (16 April 2015).
299:, and the resulting signal is converted into a digital image by computer technology. The PSP plate can be reused, and existing X-ray equipment requires no modification to use them. The technique may also be known as computed radiography (CR).
652:
wire in the center of a cylindrical chamber. Most of the gas volume will act as an ionization chamber, but in the region closest to the wire the electric field is high enough to make the electrons ionize gas molecules. This will create an
672:
Gas detectors are usually single pixel detectors measuring only the average dose rate over the gas volume or the number of interacting photons as explained above, but they can be made spatially resolving by having many crossed wires in a
361:
to detect x-rays. Direct digital detectors are so-called because they directly convert x-ray photons to electrical charge and thus a digital image. Indirect systems may have intervening steps for example first converting x-ray photons to
1133:
Watt, Kristina N.; Yan, Kuo; DeCrescenzo, Giovanni; Rowlands, J. A. (15 November 2005). "The physics of computed radiography: Measurements of pulse height spectra of photostimulable phosphor screens using prompt luminescence".
532:
to convert x-rays to visible light, which is read by a TFT array. This can provide sensitivity advantages over current (amorphous selenium) direct detectors, albeit with a potential trade-off in resolution. Indirect
256:
although silver can easily be reclaimed from spent X-ray film. Where X-ray films required wet processing facilities, newer digital technologies do not. Digital archiving of images also saves physical storage space.
207:
atoms which form the viewable image, darkest where the most radiation was detected. Further developing steps stabilise the sensitised grains and remove unsensitised grains to prevent further exposure (e.g. from
399:
have been developed. X-ray photons are converted to electron-hole pairs in the semiconductor and are collected to detect the X-rays. When the temperature is low enough (the detector is cooled by
287:
in the 1980s. A photostimulable phosphor plate (PSP) is used in place of the photographic plate. After the plate is X-rayed, excited electrons in the phosphor material remain 'trapped' in '
1180:
Chotas, Harrell G.; Dobbins, James T.; Ravin, Carl E. (March 1999). "Principles of
Digital Radiography with Large-Area, Electronically Readable Detectors: A Review of the Basics".
445:
due to its high spatial resolution and x-ray absorbing properties. However
Selenium's low atomic number means a thick layer is required to achieve sufficient sensitivity.
118:
bone, and pass more easily through soft tissues. Areas where the X-rays strike darken when developed, causing bones to appear lighter than the surrounding soft tissue.
1755:
Photovoltaic Effect
Produced in Silicon Solar Cells by x-ray and Gamma-Rays, Karl Scharf, January 25, 1960, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards
871:
634:
use a relatively low electric field of about 100 V/cm to extract all ions and electrons before they recombine. This gives a steady current proportional to the
719:
Self-developing radiochromic film can provide very high resolution measurements, for dosimetry and profiling purposes, particularly in radiotherapy physics.
478:
but flat panel detectors suitable for radiographic imaging are not yet in production. Current research and development is focused around energy resolving
705:, and a visible light filter on top of the solar cell that allows the ionizing radiation to hit the solar cell while blocking unwanted wavelengths.
1637:
845:
761:
904:
Seco, Joao; Clasie, Ben; Partridge, Mike (21 October 2014). "Review on the characteristics of radiation detectors for dosimetry and imaging".
1579:
Jones, Lawrence; Seller, Paul; Wilson, Matthew; Hardie, Alec (June 2009). "HEXITEC ASIC—a pixellated readout chip for CZT detectors".
1098:
Sonoda, M; Takano, M; Miyahara, J; Kato, H (September 1983). "Computed radiography utilizing scanning laser stimulated luminescence".
491:
343:, medical interventions of the arterial system, rely heavily on X-ray-sensitive contrast to identify potentially treatable lesions.
786:
Jensen, T; Aljundi, T; Gray, J N; Wallingford, R (1996). "A Model of X-Ray Film
Response". In Thompson, D O; Chimenti, D E (eds.).
113:
Fish bone pierced in the upper esophagus. Right image without contrast medium, left image during swallowing with contrast medium.
1581:
Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
1827:
1715:
1437:"Progress in the Development of CdTe and CdZnTe Semiconductor Radiation Detectors for Astrophysical and Medical Applications"
1435:
Del Sordo, Stefano; Abbene, Leonardo; Caroli, Ezio; Mancini, Anna Maria; Zappettini, Andrea; Ubertini, Pietro (12 May 2009).
1341:
855:
803:
569:. The scintillator absorbs the X-rays and converts them into visible light photons that then pass onto the photodiode array.
979:
Körner, Markus; Weber, Christof H.; Wirth, Stefan; Pfeifer, Klaus-Jürgen; Reiser, Maximilian F.; Treitl, Marcus (May 2007).
408:
879:
1740:
1361:
1257:
1232:
828:
470:
and high quantum number resulting in room temperature operation with high efficiency. Current applications include
1822:
1766:
613:
513:
193:
628:
and the geometry of the chamber. This gives rise to a few different types of gas detectors described below.
583:
280:
266:
661:
1540:"The Dosepix detector—an energy-resolving photon-counting pixel detector for spectrometric measurements"
620:
in the gas chamber ions and electrons will move in different directions and thereby cause a detectable
466:, is considered one of the most promising semiconductor materials for x-ray detection due to its wide
956:
423:
235:
1273:
Kotter, E.; Langer, M. (19 March 2002). "Digital radiography with large-area flat-panel detectors".
1832:
317:
168:. Grain size and composition can be adjusted to affect the film properties, for example to improve
24:
736:"Contrast Medium Reactions: Overview, Types of Iodinated Contrast Media, Adverse Reactions to ICM"
592:
Plot of ion current as function of applied voltage for a wire cylinder gaseous radiation detector.
1020:
Benjamin S (2010). "Phosphor plate radiography: an integral component of the filmless practice".
537:(FPDs) are in widespread use today in medical, dental, veterinary, and industrial applications.
308:
234:
A video discussing a study that showed that digital x-rays were equally effective in identifying
697:, a process where ionizing radiation strikes an atom and releases a free electron. This type of
463:
419:
396:
253:
1615:
1631:
562:
479:
367:
291:' in the crystal lattice until stimulated by a laser beam passed over the plate surface. The
1817:
1778:
1588:
1551:
1503:
1448:
1401:
1316:
Lança, LuĂs; Silva, Augusto (2013). "Digital
Radiography Detectors: A Technical Overview".
1143:
1056:
913:
735:
645:
542:
98:
90:
8:
1564:
1539:
534:
517:
407:), it is possible to directly determine the X-ray energy spectrum; this method is called
352:
74:
1782:
1592:
1555:
1515:
1507:
1452:
1405:
1147:
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917:
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1391:
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78:
58:
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19:
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1115:
1084:
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1002:
929:
851:
824:
799:
714:
471:
448:
155:
62:
1382:
Takahashi, T.; Watanabe, S. (2001). "Recent progress in CdTe and CdZnTe detectors".
1302:
1209:
1111:
958:
Review of Silver
Recovery Techniques from Radiographic Effluent and X-ray Film Waste
1786:
1703:
1596:
1559:
1511:
1466:
1456:
1421:
1409:
1329:
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621:
201:
169:
1842:
795:
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430:
404:
321:
296:
47:
28:
1707:
1369:
Proceedings of the Third
Conference on Medical Physicsand Biomedical Engineering
1325:
638:
rate the gas is exposed to. Ion chambers are widely used as hand held radiation
1600:
1494:
Iniewski, K. (4 November 2014). "CZT detector technology for medical imaging".
635:
617:
566:
554:
400:
181:
165:
82:
57:
Detectors can be divided into two major categories: imaging detectors (such as
1651:
1286:
109:
1811:
1798:
502:
363:
358:
209:
161:
94:
252:(formerly necessary to the radiographic & photographic industries) is a
172:
in the developed image. When the film is exposed to radiation the halide is
1480:
1294:
1201:
1163:
1076:
1033:
1006:
933:
844:
Dance, D R; Christofides, S; Maidment, A D A; McLean, I D; Ng, K H (2014).
674:
639:
558:
545:(TFTs) is attached to a light-absorbing photodiode making up an individual
529:
415:
332:
185:
130:
1679:
1119:
981:"Advances in Digital Radiography: Physical Principles and System Overview"
1396:
1333:
997:
980:
788:
Review of
Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation (Volume 15A)
686:
665:
442:
438:
340:
336:
328:
70:
1047:
Rowlands, J A (7 December 2002). "The physics of computed radiography".
847:
Diagnostic radiology physics : a handbook for teachers and students
689:
are suitable for detection of all forms of ionizing radiation including
690:
271:
138:
66:
1790:
1461:
1413:
1155:
313:
966:
Proceedings of the World
Congress on Engineering and Computer Science
609:
509:
455:
388:
177:
86:
693:, soft X-rays, and hard X-rays. This form of detection operates via
823:(2nd ed.). Weinheim: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 707–709.
588:
467:
434:
288:
284:
244:
1767:"Radiochromic Film Dosimetry and its Applications in Radiotherapy"
1656:
702:
625:
495:
487:
452:
392:
384:
279:
Phosphor plate radiography is a method of recording X-rays using
173:
134:
437:
is used in commercial large area flat panel X-ray detectors for
843:
601:
550:
249:
204:
126:
122:
1618:[Development of an X-ray detector using photodiodes].
649:
546:
505:
475:
292:
189:
101:
equipment and procedures are effective on an ongoing basis).
51:
43:
1434:
785:
612:. An incoming photon will create a number of such ion pairs
366:, and then an electronic signal. Both systems typically use
605:
483:
459:
197:
39:
1536:
1132:
597:
1735:(1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press. p. 182.
1616:"Desarrollo de un detector de rayos X usando fotodiodos"
1097:
1578:
978:
327:
X-rays are also used in "real-time" procedures such as
624:. The behaviour of the gas will depend on the applied
295:
given off during laser stimulation is collected by a
1702:(4th ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 79–90.
248:
processes (e.g. to inspect welded seams). The metal
97:, and/or dose rate, for example, for verifying that
903:
200:. In the developing process these are converted to
1223:Lowe, Barrie Glyn; Sareen, Robert Anthony (2013).
1179:
188:). Silver ions are attracted to these defects and
1765:Williams, Matthew; Metcalfe, Peter (5 May 2011).
1381:
685:It was demonstrated in the 1960s that silicon PN
1809:
1764:
1681:X-Ray Data Booklet, Section 4-5: X-ray detectors
16:Instrument that can measure properties of X-rays
1698:Saha, Gopal B. (2012). "Gas-Filled Detectors".
954:
553:striking the photodiode are converted into two
331:or contrast studies of the hollow organs (e.g.
1733:Physics and engineering of radiation detection
1677:
850:. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.
648:use a geometry with a thin positively charged
1318:Digital imaging systems for plain radiography
1175:
1173:
955:Masebinu, Samson O.; Muzenda, Edison (2014).
1700:Physics and radiobiology of nuclear medicine
1636:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1272:
1227:. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 106.
821:Physics for Radiation Protection: A Handbook
516:, will produce a small amount of current in
260:
1355:
1353:
1247:
837:
1315:
1250:Handbook of particle detection and imaging
1222:
1170:
664:use an even higher electric field so that
346:
1563:
1470:
1460:
1395:
996:
680:
492:Science and Technology Facilities Council
275:A piece of photostimulable phosphor plate
1613:
1493:
1362:"The digital flat-panel X-Ray detectors"
1350:
1046:
1019:
899:
897:
587:
411:(EDX or EDS); it is often used in small
312:
270:
219:
108:
77:) and dose measurement devices (such as
18:
335:of the small or large intestine) using
1810:
1359:
818:
433:started in the early 2000s. Amorphous
164:crystal "grains", typically primarily
1730:
894:
790:. Boston, MA: Springer. p. 441.
523:
302:
1697:
1384:IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science
1248:Grupen, Claus; Buvat, Irène (2012).
708:
528:Indirect detectors are made up of a
409:energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
137:was once used as a contrast medium (
1652:"1n4007 diode as an X-Ray detector"
699:broadband ionizing radiation sensor
572:
378:
13:
1360:Ristić, S G (18–19 October 2013).
1194:10.1148/radiology.210.3.r99mr15595
65:), now mostly replaced by various
14:
1854:
1252:. Berlin: Springer. p. 443.
422:(SDDs), produced by conventional
1614:Gonzalez, G, J. (October 2016).
642:to check radiation dose levels.
577:
104:
38:are devices used to measure the
1758:
1749:
1724:
1691:
1671:
1644:
1607:
1572:
1530:
1487:
1428:
1375:
1371:. Skopje: IAEA. pp. 65–71.
1309:
1266:
1241:
1216:
1126:
1112:10.1148/radiology.148.3.6878707
1091:
1049:Physics in Medicine and Biology
1040:
1013:
906:Physics in Medicine and Biology
1565:10.1088/1748-0221/10/04/C04015
972:
968:. Vol. II. San Francisco.
948:
864:
812:
779:
754:
728:
616:to its energy. If there is an
520:when placed in an X-ray beam.
215:
121:Contrast compounds containing
1:
1516:10.1088/1748-0221/9/11/C11001
1225:Semiconductor X-Ray Detectors
722:
555:carriers of electrical charge
144:
50:, and/or other properties of
1828:Ionising radiation detectors
926:10.1088/0031-9155/59/20/R303
796:10.1007/978-1-4613-0383-1_56
584:Gaseous ionization detectors
561:made from such materials as
281:photostimulated luminescence
267:Photostimulated luminescence
160:Typical x-ray film contains
149:
7:
1708:10.1007/978-1-4614-4012-3_7
1326:10.1007/978-1-4614-5067-2_2
1069:10.1088/0031-9155/47/23/201
10:
1859:
1771:AIP Conference Proceedings
1731:Ahmed, Syed Naeem (2007).
1601:10.1016/j.nima.2009.01.046
1544:Journal of Instrumentation
1496:Journal of Instrumentation
712:
701:requires a solar cell, an
581:
357:Solid state detectors use
350:
306:
264:
236:occupational lung diseases
153:
89:used to measure the local
1287:10.1007/s00330-002-1350-1
819:Martin, James E. (2006).
429:Practical application in
424:semiconductor fabrication
261:Photostimulable phosphors
31:and an imaging detector.
25:projectional radiography
604:it, producing positive
596:X-rays going through a
420:Silicon drift detectors
397:semiconductor detectors
347:Semiconductor detectors
309:X-ray image intensifier
192:, creating clusters of
1320:. New York: Springer.
681:Silicon PN solar cells
662:Geiger–Müller counters
593:
464:cadmium zinc telluride
458:), and its alloy with
324:
276:
254:non-renewable resource
239:
114:
32:
1823:X-ray instrumentation
646:Proportional counters
591:
563:gadolinium oxysulfide
543:thin-film transistors
368:thin film transistors
316:
274:
233:
112:
22:
1678:Albert C. Thompson.
998:10.1148/rg.273065075
535:flat panel detectors
297:photomultiplier tube
283:(PSL), pioneered by
99:radiation protection
75:flat panel detectors
1783:2011AIPC.1345...75W
1593:2009NIMPA.604...34J
1556:2015JInst..10C4015Z
1508:2014JInst...9C1001I
1453:2009Senso...9.3491D
1406:2001ITNS...48..950T
1148:2005MedPh..32.3589W
1061:2002PMB....47R.123R
918:2014PMB....59R.303S
876:NDT Resource Centre
766:NDT Resource Center
762:"Radiographic Film"
632:Ionization chambers
549:(picture element).
395:(Si(Li) or Ge(Li))
353:Digital radiography
79:ionization chambers
59:photographic plates
1275:European Radiology
882:on 7 February 2020
594:
524:Indirect detectors
413:X-ray fluorescence
373:quantum efficiency
325:
303:Image intensifiers
277:
240:
115:
91:radiation exposure
33:
1791:10.1063/1.3576160
1717:978-1-4614-4012-3
1462:10.3390/s90503491
1414:10.1109/23.958705
1343:978-1-4614-5067-2
1281:(10): 2562–2570.
1156:10.1118/1.2122587
1142:(12): 3589–3598.
1055:(23): R123–R166.
912:(20): R303–R347.
872:"Developing Film"
857:978-92-0-131010-1
805:978-1-4613-0383-1
715:Radiochromic film
709:Radiochromic film
518:photovoltaic mode
472:bone densitometry
449:Cadmium telluride
383:Since the 1970s,
231:
156:Photographic film
63:photographic film
1850:
1803:
1802:
1762:
1756:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1635:
1627:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1567:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1474:
1464:
1447:(5): 3491–3526.
1432:
1426:
1425:
1399:
1397:astro-ph/0107398
1379:
1373:
1372:
1366:
1357:
1348:
1347:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1177:
1168:
1167:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1044:
1038:
1037:
1017:
1011:
1010:
1000:
976:
970:
969:
963:
952:
946:
945:
901:
892:
891:
889:
887:
878:. Archived from
868:
862:
861:
841:
835:
834:
816:
810:
809:
783:
777:
776:
774:
772:
758:
752:
751:
749:
747:
732:
655:avalanche effect
573:Dose measurement
379:Direct detectors
232:
61:and X-ray film (
1858:
1857:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1833:Medical imaging
1808:
1807:
1806:
1763:
1759:
1754:
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1729:
1725:
1718:
1696:
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1628:
1612:
1608:
1577:
1573:
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1433:
1429:
1380:
1376:
1364:
1358:
1351:
1344:
1314:
1310:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1221:
1217:
1178:
1171:
1136:Medical Physics
1131:
1127:
1096:
1092:
1045:
1041:
1018:
1014:
977:
973:
961:
953:
949:
902:
895:
885:
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870:
869:
865:
858:
842:
838:
831:
817:
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806:
784:
780:
770:
768:
760:
759:
755:
745:
743:
734:
733:
729:
725:
717:
711:
695:photoionization
683:
586:
580:
575:
526:
510:PIN photodiodes
480:pixel detectors
431:medical imaging
405:liquid nitrogen
403:or even cooler
381:
355:
349:
322:cholecystectomy
311:
305:
269:
263:
238:as film x-rays.
220:
218:
182:crystal defects
180:are trapped in
158:
152:
147:
107:
83:Geiger counters
36:X-ray detectors
29:X-ray generator
23:Acquisition of
17:
12:
11:
5:
1856:
1846:
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359:semiconductors
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307:Main article:
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289:colour centres
265:Main article:
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530:scintillator
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333:barium enema
326:
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186:latent image
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129:, which are
120:
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886:16 December
771:16 December
746:17 December
687:solar cells
443:radiography
439:mammography
391:doped with
341:Angioplasty
337:fluoroscopy
329:angiography
216:Replacement
194:transparent
184:(forming a
1812:Categories
1663:4 December
1028:(11): 89.
1022:Dent Today
723:References
691:extreme UV
666:UV-photons
508:, such as
498:detector.
482:, such as
351:See also:
318:Radiograph
170:resolution
154:See also:
145:X-ray film
139:Thorotrast
131:radiopaque
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67:digitizing
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1838:Detectors
1799:0094-243X
1524:121382729
1182:Radiology
1100:Radiology
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610:electrons
608:and free
389:germanium
375:than CR.
245:computers
178:electrons
176:and free
150:Mechanism
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740:Medscape
468:band-gap
435:selenium
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1779:Bibcode
1657:YouTube
1589:Bibcode
1552:Bibcode
1504:Bibcode
1472:3297127
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1441:Sensors
1422:5829568
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1144:Bibcode
1120:6878707
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703:ammeter
626:voltage
622:current
551:Photons
501:Common
496:HEXITEC
488:Medipix
393:lithium
385:silicon
196:silver
190:reduced
174:ionised
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250:silver
205:silver
202:opaque
127:iodine
123:barium
85:, and
52:X-rays
1685:(PDF)
1520:S2CID
1418:S2CID
1392:arXiv
1365:(PDF)
1299:S2CID
1206:S2CID
1081:S2CID
962:(PDF)
938:S2CID
650:anode
600:will
547:pixel
512:or a
476:SPECT
293:light
198:atoms
1795:ISSN
1775:1345
1737:ISBN
1712:ISBN
1665:2019
1638:link
1620:INIS
1477:PMID
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636:dose
606:ions
484:CERN
474:and
460:zinc
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