540:
written by expert logic designers and with input from the best designers on the team, excellent results were achieved. As the project progressed and new rules were written, SID-generated results became equal to or better than manual results for both area and timing. For example, SID produced a 64-bit adder that was faster than the manually-designed one. Manually-designed areas averaged 1 bug per 200 gates, whereas SID-generated logic averaged 1 bug per 20,000 gates. After finding a bug, SID rules were corrected, resulting in 0 bugs on subsequent runs. The SID-generated portion of the VAX 9000 was completed 2 years ahead of schedule, whereas other areas of the VAX 9000 development encountered implementation problems, resulting in a much delayed product release. Following the VAX 9000, SID was never used again.
357:, in charge of the PRISM design, then began to develop a high-end machine using it, immediately leading to fighting with the Aridus group who saw them as stepping on "their turf." The company's engineering committee, the Strategy Task Force, repeatedly advised cancelling Aridus. Every year they would attempt to cut the budget for the project, only to have the project lead, Bob Glorioso, go directly to Ken Olsen and the board and have it reinstated, saying "these engineers have no right to tell us business people what to do."
1769:
1779:
405:
constant maintenance in the field. By 1991 the company had an order book of only 350 systems. At $ 1.5 million per machine, the system had recouped only 25% of the development costs, excluding actual manufacturing. In
February 1991, they announced a low-end version, the Model 110 at $ 920,000, appealing to customers looking for CPU power without the need for extensive storage or other options.
377:, would perform as well as the 9000 by 1988, even though the 9000 was not slated to launch until 1989. There are several quotes by prominent engineers on the NVAX project that describe Olsen's unwillingness to kill the 9000 even after being told point-blank that it would not be competitive by the early 1990s, and his outright rejection that such a thing was even possible.
285:(ECL) system. However, ECL’s density was lower, and its feature sizes about a generation behind CMOS. DEC had to choose between building either a very fast ECL machine with a high chip count, or a somewhat slower CMOS machine using fewer chips. Using ECL was more complex, but consistent with DEC's long history of multi-chip and multi-card CPU designs.
315:
mainframes and competing with IBM directly, DEC would use similar technology to produce a VAX outperforming IBM's offerings at a lower price point. Trilogy's wiring technologies were used to create card-sized "multi-chip units" (MCUs) working together like earlier multi-card CPU designs. In the final
489:
The vector register unit, also known as the vector register file, implemented the 16 vector registers defined by the VAX vector architecture. The vector register file was multi-ported and contained three write ports and five read ports. Each register consisted of 64 elements, and each element was 72
485:
The V-box implementation comprised 25 Motorola
Macrocell Array III (MCA3) devices spread over three multichip units (MCUs), which resided on the planar module. The V-box was optional and was field-installable. The V-box consisted of six subunits: the vector register unit, the vector add unit, vector
428:
Adding to the woes, in early 1992 it was reported that installed systems had begun to suffer a series of hardware failures that appeared to start in the second half of 1991. A study suggested 37% of the installed systems suffered "hard failure", mostly on the 9420 models. A follow-up survey gave the
261:
The VAX was a more complex system, beyond the capabilities of LSI of 1970s in a single-chip format. Early models resembled the PDP's of the earlier generations, but with multiple LSI chips on printed circuit boards building up the more complex CPU rather than SSI chips on wire-wrapped boards. By the
404:
The development of the 9000 eventually ran to about $ 3 billion. Slated for release in 1989, delays in the chip manufacturing delayed it by a year, and further delays in building the complete machine meant only tiny numbers were delivered in 1990. The systems were plagued with problems and required
380:
As the company continued to back the 9000 while it became more and more clear it would not be competitive, various groups within the company began developing RISC-based systems. The unlikely outcome of this was that all of the RISC projects were instead killed off with the exception of some ongoing
337:
microprocessor which allowed desktop machines to outperform even the fastest of DEC's existing machines. This eroded DEC's value in its other traditional market of Unix systems. With the company being squeezed in the low and midrange, the 9000 became the company's main focus; they referred to it as
481:
with a maximum theoretical performance of 125 MFLOPS. The vector processor circuitry was present in all units shipped and disabled via a software switch on units sold 'without' the vector processor. The vector processor was referred to as the V-box, and it was
Digital's first ECL implementation of
332:
systems, a new mid-range line that was much more cost-competitive than previous offerings. DEC's price advantage was seriously eroded, and their formerly rapid market growth ended almost immediately. IBM would ultimately generate roughly $ 14 billion in annual revenue from the line, which was more
420:
In
October 1991, DEC announced that the division would be reorganized as the Production System Business Unit, along with cuts on the prices of the current 9000 models of 30%, and 38% on its server software. They also announced three new models based on CMOS chips, the 9X15, 9600 and 9800, none of
539:
Initially it was somewhat controversial but was accepted in order to reduce the overall VAX 9000 project budget. Some engineers refused to use it. Others compared their own gate-level designs to those created by SID, eventually accepting SID for the gate-level design job. Since SID rules were
83:
The 9000 was positioned within DEC as an "IBM killer", a machine with unmatched performance at a much lower price point than IBM systems. DEC intended the 9000 to allow the company to move back into the mainframe market, which it had abandoned starting in 1983, as it watched the low end of the
574:
capable model, the value of "x" (1, 2, 3 or 4) denoting the number of CPUs present. These models supported the vector processor, with one vector processor supported per CPU. A maximal configuration had 512 MB of memory. The number of I/O buses supported varied, with the Model 410 and 420
408:
Meanwhile, the engineering team's predictions about the relentless march of CMOS proved true. By 1991, the NVAX was also on the market, offering roughly the same performance for a tiny fraction of the cost and size. At lower performance settings the same design was available in desktop form,
203:. During the second half of the 1980s, Sun increasingly pitched itself as the replacement for DEC in the technical market, branding DEC as a closed, proprietary "bloodsucker". This was aided by DEC's own 1985 decision to abandon the technical market in favor of the higher margins in the
553:
The VAX 9000 Model 110 was an entry-level model with the same performance as the Model 210 but had a smaller memory capacity and was bundled with less software and services. On 22 February 1991, it was priced from US$ 920,000, and if fitted with a vector processor, from US$ 997,000.
319:
Initially, the system required water cooling to meet its performance goals, leading to the codename
Aquarius, the water-bearer. During development, a newly introduced air cooling system replaced water cooling. The air-cooled version was codenamed Aridus, for "dry".
165:
programs, but instead demonstrated itself incapable of doing either very well while costing about as much as buying two separate machines. As the PC market expanded, DEC abandoned their PC offerings and increasingly turned their attention to the midrange market.
372:
While the battle between the RISC and ECL groups continued, the CMOS team building VAX processors was continuing to improve as well. Bob Supnik claims that it was clear to senior technical people as early as 1987 that the next generation of CMOS chips, the
469:'s "MOSAIC III" process, a bipolar process with a drawn width of 1.75 micrometres and three layers of interconnect. The MCUs were installed into a CPU planar module, which accommodated 16 MCUs and was 24 by 24 inches (610 mm) in size.
79:
systems using air cooling. During development, engineers so improved the air cooling system that
Aquarius was not offered; the Aridus models were "field-upgradeable" to Aquarius, but they did not offer it.
169:
As part of this change in focus, a number of longstanding policies were changed, causing friction with their customer base, and especially with their third-party developers. In one example, their new
250:(LSI) was allowing simpler CPUs to be implemented in a single IC (or "chip"). By the late 1970s, a number of LSI versions of the PDP-11 were available, first as multi-chip units like DEC's own
98:
machines. The company invested an estimated $ 1 billion in the development of the 9000, in spite of considerable in-company concern about the concept in the era of rapidly improving
300:
to solve problems in high-performance ECL-based mainframe production. Trilogy's developments included a new inter-chip connection system using copper conductors embedded in
409:
outperforming all previous VAX machines. The 9000 managed not only to lose billions of dollars, but also led to the ending of several much more promising designs.
562:
The VAX 9000 Model 210 was an entry-level model with one CPU that could be upgraded. If a vector processor was present, it was known as the VAX 9000 Model 210VP.
345:
field. This opinion was turned upside down in 1986 when an experimental RISC developed at DEC's
Western Research Lab was compared head-to-head with the latest
65:, who had introduced a new way to densely pack ECL chips into complex modules. Development of the 9000 design began in 1986, intended as a replacement for the
270:(VLSI). VLSI ICs could hold hundreds of thousands or millions of transistors, enough to implement an entire VAX system on a single chip. This led to 1985's
768:
536:
tools. As the program ran, it generated and expanded its own rule-base to 384,000 low-level rules. A complete synthesis run for the VAX 9000 took 3 hours.
109:
Roughly four dozen systems were delivered before production was discontinued, a massive failure. One representative example CPU sits in storage at the
903:
1808:
417:
By 1991, industry observers were describing the 9000 as "stalled" and "disappointing". In August, Glorisoso left DEC, claiming family issues.
362:"I just don't understand it, I don't see how this is possible, how this one chip can replace these racks of electronics, I just don't get it"
102:
performance. Production problems pushed back its release, by which time these fears had come true and newer microprocessors like DEC's own
482:
the VAX Vector
Architecture. The design of the vector processor began in 1986, two years after development of the VAX 9000 CPU had begun.
621:
DEC codenames of the time referenced Greek deities and heroes, or were reminiscent thereof; a mid-range VAX of the same era was
Argonaut.
401:
systems. Five systems were announced, from $ 1.2 to $ 3.9 million, spanning a performance range from 30 to 117 times that of the 11/780.
1092:
Brunner, Richard A.; Bhandarkar, Dileep P.; McKeen, Francis X.; Patel, Bimal; Rogers Jr., William J.; Yoder, Gregory L. (Fall 1990).
389:
DEC formally announced the 9000's in
October 1989, claiming at the time that it would ship "next spring." Comparing it to a low-end
288:
A related ECL issue was inter-chip wiring proliferation proportional to the massive pin count increase required by modern machines’
274:, which implemented a subset of the VAX, but it was clear it would not be long before the "full" VAX would fit on a single chip.
1782:
1335:
341:
DEC had initially been sceptical of RISC, believing it worked on trivial five-line programs but would not be successful in the
349:
and outperformed it 2-to-1. This led to a program to develop a production-quality scalable RISC design, which emerged as the
307:
In 1984, DEC licensed parts of Trilogy's technologies and began development of practical versions of these concepts at their
130:
was released in 1970 and continued strong sales that would ultimately reach 600,000 machines, while their newly introduced
532:
creation, SID took the design to the wiring level, allocating loads to nets and providing parameters for place and route
1093:
599:, one card of nine that made up the CPU of the 11/750. Compare that with the image of the LSI-11 CPU in the User Manual.
449:(I/O) controllers and a service processor connected. I/O was provided by four Extended Memory Interconnect (XMI) buses.
441:
and supported one, two, three or four CPUs clocked at 62.5 MHz (16 ns cycle time). The system was based around a
69:
family, at that time the high-end VAX offering. The initial plans called for two general models, the high-performance
1301:
1280:
1214:
815:
697:
421:
which shipped. They also announced that existing users of the 9000 would be offered a discounted upgrade path to new
787:
277:
Remaining relevant to data centers required a new architecture ill-suited to single-chip fabrication. At that time,
1803:
173:
could not be used by other developers unless they signed a development agreement. This was a stark contrast to the
184:
As these policies were "closing" DEC, new companies were quick to take advantage of this. Notable among these was
1739:
429:
system high marks for service and compatibility with other DEC systems, but low marks for reliability and cost.
1693:
1135:
1344:
28:
1723:
1637:
267:
39:
1513:
1328:
181:
was quoted as saying "We spent millions developing this bus. I don't know why we didn't do it before."
1353:
1256:
243:
518:
507:
311:. This was the birth of the 9000 project. In contrast to Trilogy's goal of introducing their own
247:
239:
220:
177:
standard of the PDP and earlier VAX machines, which had a thriving market of 3rd party products.
110:
1772:
1594:
394:
342:
1754:
1321:
1074:
1055:
1036:
979:
834:
533:
458:
445:
in the system control unit (SCU), to which the one to four CPUs, two memory controllers, two
282:
32:
1017:
998:
805:
1744:
1165:
457:
Each CPU was implemented with 13 Multi-Chip Units (MCUs), with each MCU containing several
106:
offered a significant fraction of the 9000's performance for a tiny fraction of the price.
1703:
1313:
1120:
Proceedings of the 17th annual international symposium on Computer Architecture (ISCA '90)
8:
146:
and a wide variety of other popular peripherals that all generated significant cashflow.
905:
Comments on "The Case for the Reduced Instruction Set Computer," by Patterson and Ditzel
490:
bits wide, with 64 bits used to store data and 8 bits used to store parity information.
1220:
1141:
223:
24:
1652:
1297:
1276:
1210:
1131:
811:
693:
521:
150:
143:
88:
85:
61:
The systems trace their history to DEC's 1984 licensing of several technologies from
1224:
1145:
1500:
1472:
1409:
1371:
1202:
1123:
478:
200:
185:
113:, not on public display. Another is in storage at the Large Scale Systems Museum.
43:
486:
multiply unit, vector mask unit, vector address unit and the vector control unit.
70:
1749:
1291:
1270:
1242:
952:
499:
462:
442:
312:
297:
62:
1642:
571:
438:
271:
263:
189:
1797:
1698:
525:
289:
227:
47:
1660:
1206:
66:
1718:
1688:
1683:
1490:
446:
1627:
1127:
1713:
1612:
1564:
1258:
Digital Equipment Corporation: R.I.P. or Future Lean and Mean Competitor?
1173:
VAX 9000 Series, Digital Technical Journal, Digital Equipment Corporation
503:
354:
293:
204:
154:
134:
picked up where the PDP ended and was beginning to make major inroads to
95:
75:
using water cooling as seen on IBM systems, and the midrange-performance
50:
space as well. As with other VAX systems, they were sold with either the
1118:
Bhandarkar, Dileep; Brunner, Richard (1990). "VAX vector architecture".
126:
As the 1980s opened, DEC had been moving from strength to strength. The
1708:
1632:
1559:
1199:
Proceedings 1988 IEEE International Conference on Computer Design: VLSI
579:; while the Model 430 and 440 supported four XMI, ten CI and 14 VAXBI.
529:
333:
than DEC's entire company income. Meanwhile, Sun was introducing their
308:
216:
193:
1675:
1665:
1569:
422:
350:
301:
235:
231:
178:
170:
1579:
1574:
1554:
1549:
466:
398:
390:
346:
255:
596:
465:
which contained the CPU logic. The gate arrays were fabricated in
1617:
1451:
1439:
215:
During the 1960s, DEC computers had been built out of individual
51:
1166:"Synthesis in the CAD System Used to Design the VAX 9000 System"
1544:
1508:
1485:
1456:
1446:
1422:
1399:
704:
514:
scalar and vector units, over 700,000 gates, were synthesized.
329:
328:
While development was ongoing, in late 1988 IBM introduced its
304:
insulation to produce a thin-film with extremely dense wiring.
251:
174:
158:
127:
55:
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
875:
1622:
1589:
1480:
1434:
1429:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
576:
334:
281:
fabrication typically produced slower ICs than the competing
139:
1091:
493:
153:
field, but these all failed. Best known among these was the
149:
Through this period, DEC made several attempts to enter the
1417:
1343:
872:
609:
393:, IBM's flagship mainframe, DEC positioned the machine for
374:
278:
197:
162:
103:
99:
92:
1197:
Hooper, D.F. (1988). "SID: synthesis of integral design".
1604:
1536:
1122:. Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 204–215.
511:
135:
131:
36:
934:
932:
919:
917:
915:
850:
848:
692:. West Sussex, England: Wiley, Chichester. p. 391.
959:
929:
912:
860:
845:
138:'s midrange market. DEC also introduced their famous
902:
Clark, Douglas; Strecker, William (September 1980).
751:
749:
747:
745:
732:
730:
717:
715:
192:-based systems offered performance similar to DEC's
84:computer market being taken over by ever-improving
980:"DEC nudges into IBM mart with intro of mainframe"
528:with over 1000 hand-written rules. In addition to
1117:
742:
727:
712:
506:for the VAX 9000. From high-level behavioral and
226:(SSI ICs). These would be built onto a number of
1795:
653:
157:, which aimed to offer the ability to run both
1240:
889:
793:. Digital Equipment Corporation. July 1, 1982.
1329:
1164:Hooper, Donald F.; Eck, John C. (Fall 1990).
901:
667:
254:, and later in single-chip versions like the
381:work at the Hudson Fab on a low-end PRISM.
1336:
1322:
1244:DEC: The mistakes that led to its downfall
1094:"Vector Processing on the VAX 9000 System"
803:
687:
1250:(Technical report). University of London.
1163:
1159:
1157:
1155:
498:SID (Synthesis of Integral Design) was a
494:SID Scalar and Vector Processor Synthesis
1037:"DEC restarts failed mainframe strategy"
971:
1740:Compaq Professional Workstation 1000 XP
1241:Goodwin, David; Johnson, Roger (2009).
1190:
1111:
1034:
1015:
996:
829:
827:
661:Computer & Communications Decisions
1809:Computer-related introductions in 1989
1796:
1289:
1268:
1196:
1152:
1072:
997:Johnson, Maryfran (25 February 1991).
965:
950:
938:
923:
866:
854:
776:. Digital Equipment Corporation. 1976.
690:Artificial intelligence in engineering
477:The VAX 9000's CPU was coupled with a
1317:
1293:Organizational Culture and Leadership
1264:(Technical report). Scott Consulting.
1254:
1053:
1035:Johnson, Maryfran (21 October 1991).
1016:Johnson, Marryanne (26 August 1991).
977:
755:
736:
721:
575:supporting two XMI, ten CI and eight
565:
557:
548:
262:mid-1980s, the relentless effects of
242:(CPU). By the early-1970s, small and
1778:
1075:"HDS mainframe users most satisfied"
824:
677:. Cahners Publishing Company. 1992.
472:
452:
121:
35:-based processors implementing the
13:
1073:Slater, Darek (21 November 1992).
663:. Hayden Publishing Company. 1988.
510:sources, approximately 93% of the
14:
1820:
1056:"VAX 9000 users suffer headaches"
323:
266:had pushed LSI into what was now
1777:
1768:
1767:
1054:Cusak, Sally (20 January 1992).
316:design, 13 MCUs formed the CPU.
196:series while being based on the
1234:
1085:
1066:
1047:
1028:
1009:
990:
944:
895:
841:. 15 June 1981. pp. 11–12.
797:
615:
602:
589:
1694:DEC 7000 AXP and DEC 10000 AXP
978:Brown, Jim (30 October 1989).
788:"J-11 Data Chip Specification"
780:
761:
681:
639:
432:
46:, they were marketed into the
42:(ISA). Equipped with optional
27:developed and manufactured by
1:
1345:Digital Equipment Corporation
770:LSI-11, PDP-11/03 User Manual
649:. Cahners Publishing Company.
628:
570:The VAX 9000 Model 4x0 was a
29:Digital Equipment Corporation
1724:Digital Personal Workstation
1638:Digital Personal Workstation
633:
268:very large scale integration
40:instruction set architecture
23:is a discontinued family of
7:
807:Digital CMOS Circuit Design
804:Annaratone, Silvia (1986).
707:...was discontinued in 1983
688:Winstanley, Graham (1991).
647:Semiconductor International
219:and began to move to using
91:systems and the new 32-bit
16:Mainframe computer from DEC
10:
1825:
1272:DEC is dead, long live DEC
890:Goodwin & Johnson 2009
412:
384:
116:
1763:
1732:
1674:
1651:
1603:
1535:
1499:
1471:
1408:
1370:
1361:
1352:
1296:. John Wiley & Sons.
1101:Digital Technical Journal
597:this image of the VAX DPM
543:
502:program used to generate
246:ICs were being used, and
582:
244:medium scale integration
1804:DEC mainframe computers
1207:10.1109/ICCD.1988.25691
1018:"Glorisoso departs DEC"
810:. Springer. p. 2.
519:artificial intelligence
508:register-transfer level
248:large scale integration
240:central processing unit
221:small scale integration
111:Computer History Museum
1595:VAX 7000 and VAX 10000
1290:Schein, Edgar (2010).
1269:Schein, Edgar (2003).
835:"Trilogy Systems Corp"
395:transaction processing
364:
343:transaction processing
230:, which would then be
210:
1755:List of VAX computers
1128:10.1145/325164.325145
953:"Sketch of DEC PRISM"
608:Which emerged as the
459:emitter-coupled logic
360:
283:emitter-coupled logic
1745:Itsy Pocket Computer
1255:Scott, Greg (1994).
1275:. Berrett-Koehler.
908:(Technical report).
595:See, for instance,
437:The VAX 9000 was a
338:the "IBM killer".
224:integrated circuits
58:operating systems.
31:(DEC) using custom
1201:. pp. 204–8.
951:Smotherman, Mark.
566:VAX 9000 Model 4x0
558:VAX 9000 Model 210
549:VAX 9000 Model 110
144:computer terminals
1791:
1790:
1666:DECsystem servers
1531:
1530:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1465:
1464:
1043:. pp. 1, 12.
986:. pp. 2, 64.
522:rule-based system
292:growth. In 1980,
151:personal computer
89:personal computer
44:vector processors
1816:
1781:
1780:
1771:
1770:
1514:DEC Professional
1469:
1468:
1368:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1359:
1358:
1338:
1331:
1324:
1315:
1314:
1307:
1286:
1265:
1263:
1251:
1249:
1229:
1228:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1170:
1161:
1150:
1149:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1098:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1070:
1064:
1063:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1013:
1007:
1006:
994:
988:
987:
975:
969:
963:
957:
956:
948:
942:
936:
927:
921:
910:
909:
899:
893:
887:
870:
864:
858:
852:
843:
842:
831:
822:
821:
801:
795:
794:
792:
784:
778:
777:
775:
765:
759:
753:
740:
734:
725:
719:
710:
709:
685:
679:
678:
671:
665:
664:
657:
651:
650:
643:
622:
619:
613:
606:
600:
593:
479:vector processor
473:Vector processor
463:macrocell arrays
453:Scalar processor
425:-based systems.
368:
201:operating system
186:Sun Microsystems
122:DEC in the 1980s
1824:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1759:
1750:Jupiter project
1728:
1670:
1647:
1599:
1527:
1518:
1495:
1461:
1404:
1348:
1342:
1311:
1304:
1283:
1261:
1247:
1237:
1232:
1217:
1195:
1191:
1182:
1180:
1168:
1162:
1153:
1138:
1116:
1112:
1096:
1090:
1086:
1071:
1067:
1052:
1048:
1033:
1029:
1014:
1010:
999:"Computerworld"
995:
991:
976:
972:
964:
960:
949:
945:
937:
930:
922:
913:
900:
896:
888:
873:
865:
861:
853:
846:
833:
832:
825:
818:
802:
798:
790:
786:
785:
781:
773:
767:
766:
762:
754:
743:
735:
728:
720:
713:
700:
686:
682:
673:
672:
668:
659:
658:
654:
645:
644:
640:
636:
631:
626:
625:
620:
616:
607:
603:
594:
590:
585:
568:
560:
551:
546:
500:logic synthesis
496:
475:
455:
443:crossbar switch
435:
415:
387:
370:
366:
326:
313:plug-compatible
298:Trilogy Systems
238:to produce the
213:
124:
119:
63:Trilogy Systems
17:
12:
11:
5:
1822:
1812:
1811:
1806:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1775:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1729:
1727:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1680:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1669:
1668:
1663:
1657:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1541:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1505:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1494:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1477:
1475:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1432:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1414:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1341:
1340:
1333:
1326:
1318:
1309:
1308:
1302:
1287:
1281:
1266:
1252:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1215:
1189:
1151:
1136:
1110:
1084:
1065:
1046:
1027:
1008:
989:
970:
968:, p. 210.
958:
943:
941:, p. 314.
928:
926:, p. 307.
911:
894:
871:
869:, p. 209.
859:
857:, p. 313.
844:
823:
816:
796:
779:
760:
741:
726:
711:
698:
680:
666:
652:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
624:
623:
614:
601:
587:
586:
584:
581:
572:multiprocessor
567:
564:
559:
556:
550:
547:
545:
542:
495:
492:
474:
471:
454:
451:
439:multiprocessor
434:
431:
414:
411:
386:
383:
359:
325:
324:Market changes
322:
272:MicroVAX 78032
234:together on a
228:circuit boards
212:
209:
190:Motorola 68000
123:
120:
118:
115:
86:IBM compatible
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1821:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1784:
1776:
1774:
1766:
1765:
1762:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1699:DECpc AXP 150
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1498:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1339:
1334:
1332:
1327:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1303:9780470185865
1299:
1295:
1294:
1288:
1284:
1282:9781576752258
1278:
1274:
1273:
1267:
1260:
1259:
1253:
1246:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1216:0-8186-0872-2
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1095:
1088:
1081:. p. 48.
1080:
1079:ComputerWorld
1076:
1069:
1062:. p. 33.
1061:
1060:ComputerWorld
1057:
1050:
1042:
1041:ComputerWorld
1038:
1031:
1023:
1022:ComputerWorld
1019:
1012:
1004:
1003:Computerworld
1000:
993:
985:
984:Network World
981:
974:
967:
962:
954:
947:
940:
935:
933:
925:
920:
918:
916:
907:
906:
898:
891:
886:
884:
882:
880:
878:
876:
868:
863:
856:
851:
849:
840:
839:ComputerWorld
836:
830:
828:
819:
817:9781461322856
813:
809:
808:
800:
789:
783:
772:
771:
764:
757:
752:
750:
748:
746:
738:
733:
731:
723:
718:
716:
708:
706:
701:
699:9780471926030
695:
691:
684:
676:
670:
662:
656:
648:
642:
638:
618:
611:
605:
598:
592:
588:
580:
578:
573:
563:
555:
541:
537:
535:
531:
527:
526:expert system
523:
520:
515:
513:
509:
505:
501:
491:
487:
483:
480:
470:
468:
464:
460:
450:
448:
444:
440:
430:
426:
424:
418:
410:
406:
402:
400:
397:and high-end
396:
392:
382:
378:
376:
369:
363:
358:
356:
352:
348:
344:
339:
336:
331:
321:
317:
314:
310:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
290:address space
286:
284:
280:
275:
273:
269:
265:
259:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
222:
218:
208:
206:
202:
199:
195:
191:
187:
182:
180:
176:
172:
167:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
114:
112:
107:
105:
101:
97:
94:
90:
87:
81:
78:
74:
73:
68:
64:
59:
57:
53:
49:
48:supercomputer
45:
41:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1719:AlphaStation
1704:DEC 2000 AXP
1689:DEC 4000 AXP
1684:DEC 3000 AXP
1584:
1491:DECSYSTEM-20
1310:
1292:
1271:
1257:
1243:
1235:Bibliography
1198:
1192:
1181:. Retrieved
1179:(4): 118–129
1176:
1172:
1119:
1113:
1104:
1100:
1087:
1078:
1068:
1059:
1049:
1040:
1030:
1024:. p. 6.
1021:
1011:
1005:. p. 4.
1002:
992:
983:
973:
961:
946:
904:
897:
892:, p. 6.
862:
838:
806:
799:
782:
769:
763:
758:, p. 9.
739:, p. 8.
724:, p. 7.
703:
689:
683:
674:
669:
660:
655:
646:
641:
617:
604:
591:
569:
561:
552:
538:
516:
497:
488:
484:
476:
456:
447:input/output
436:
427:
419:
416:
407:
403:
388:
379:
371:
365:
361:
340:
327:
318:
306:
287:
276:
260:
232:wire wrapped
214:
183:
168:
148:
125:
108:
82:
76:
71:
60:
20:
18:
1714:AlphaServer
1613:Rainbow 100
1107:(4): 61–79.
966:Schein 2010
939:Schein 2010
924:Schein 2010
867:Schein 2010
855:Schein 2010
517:SID was an
504:logic gates
433:Description
355:Dave Cutler
294:Gene Amdahl
264:Moore's law
217:transistors
205:data center
155:Rainbow 100
96:workstation
1798:Categories
1661:DECstation
1628:DECstation
1560:VAXstation
1183:2022-11-28
1137:0897913663
756:Scott 1994
737:Scott 1994
722:Scott 1994
675:Datamation
629:References
530:logic gate
367:—Ken Olsen
309:Hudson Fab
194:VAXstation
25:mainframes
1570:VAXserver
1347:computers
634:Citations
423:DEC Alpha
351:DEC PRISM
302:polyimide
236:backplane
179:Ken Olsen
171:VAXBI Bus
1773:Category
1733:See also
1585:VAX 9000
1580:VAX 4000
1575:VAX 6000
1555:VAX 8000
1550:MicroVAX
1225:62241940
1146:17866614
467:Motorola
399:database
391:IBM 3090
347:VAX 8800
188:, whose
72:Aquarius
67:VAX 8800
21:VAX 9000
1783:Commons
1618:VAXmate
1565:Firefly
1452:DECmate
1440:PDP-8/e
413:Refocus
385:Release
296:formed
142:series
117:History
1709:Multia
1643:HiNote
1633:Multia
1545:VAX-11
1509:PDP-11
1501:16-bit
1486:PDP-10
1473:36-bit
1457:PDP-14
1447:PDP-12
1423:LINC-8
1410:12-bit
1400:PDP-15
1372:18-bit
1300:
1279:
1223:
1213:
1144:
1134:
814:
705:PDP-10
696:
544:Models
461:(ECL)
330:AS/400
252:LSI-11
175:Unibus
159:MS-DOS
132:VAX-11
128:PDP-11
77:Aridus
56:Ultrix
1676:Alpha
1623:DECpc
1590:VAXft
1481:PDP-6
1435:PDP-8
1430:PDP-5
1395:PDP-9
1390:PDP-7
1385:PDP-4
1380:PDP-1
1262:(PDF)
1248:(PDF)
1221:S2CID
1169:(PDF)
1142:S2CID
1097:(PDF)
791:(PDF)
774:(PDF)
583:Notes
577:VAXBI
335:SPARC
1653:MIPS
1418:LINC
1298:ISBN
1277:ISBN
1211:ISBN
1132:ISBN
812:ISBN
694:ISBN
610:CVAX
524:and
375:NVAX
279:CMOS
256:J-11
198:UNIX
163:CP/M
161:and
104:NVAX
100:RISC
93:Unix
19:The
1605:x86
1537:VAX
1354:PDP
1203:doi
1124:doi
534:CAD
512:CPU
211:ECL
136:IBM
54:or
52:VMS
37:VAX
33:ECL
1800::
1219:.
1209:.
1175:.
1171:.
1154:^
1140:.
1130:.
1103:.
1099:.
1077:.
1058:.
1039:.
1020:.
1001:.
982:.
931:^
914:^
874:^
847:^
837:.
826:^
744:^
729:^
714:^
702:.
353:.
258:.
207:.
140:VT
1337:e
1330:t
1323:v
1306:.
1285:.
1227:.
1205::
1186:.
1177:2
1148:.
1126::
1105:2
955:.
820:.
612:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.