1669:, but its character is unmistakably Tanacross. Another short (three typescript pages) word list was collected by J.T. Geoghegan (Geoghegan & Geoghegan 1904). David Shinen compiled a somewhat longer Tanacross word list from Mary Charlie and Oscar Isaac in Tanacross village, and a portion of this list was later published under the heading “Nabesna” in Hoijer (1963). More substantive documentation of Tanacross began with exploratory fieldwork by Krauss, who first called it “transitional Tanana”. In the early 1970s Nancy McRoy compiled some textual materials with speaker Mary Charlie and a short wordlist containing about 400 items, mostly nouns, as well as some basic literacy materials. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Jeff Leer compiled further notes on
1500:
486:, p.c.). As the significance of this distinction grew to justify a language rather than dialect boundary, the name Tanacross was applied to the Tanacross linguistic region, appearing for example in Krauss’ 1973 survey of the Athabaskan languages. The preferred self-designation for the language is simply “Indian”, though “Native Language” is sometimes used in more formal contexts. The term “Athabaskan” is disliked. The indigenous word neò/aòneg, usually translated as ‘our language’, is also sometimes heard, though this is likely a neologism.
2783:
232:
169:
1685:. Kari has compiled a preliminary stem list based on information collected from several speakers in the 1980s, but tone is not marked. Alice Brean has compiled lexical and paradigmatic information. Minoura has compiled a short word list and information on tone. In spite of the various sources of lexical documentation, Krauss (p.c.) estimates than only twenty percent of the extant body of
532:. As might be expected, Salcha shares many features with Healy Lake, the westernmost dialect of Tanacross, though the two are readily distinguished as separate languages (in particular by the presence of high marked tone in Healy Lake). With the passing of the Salcha dialect, the nearest Lower Tanana villages are located more than one hundred miles downstream at
578:) and Kechumstuk, until those bands combined and later moved to Tanacross village. This is the dialect spoken in Tanacross village and the dialect upon which this study is based. Unless indicated otherwise reference to Tanacross language should be assumed to mean the MK dialect. A second dialect of Tanacross is spoken by the Healy Lake-Joseph Village bands at
497:, spoken in the villages of Tetlin, Northway, Scottie Creek, Beaver Creek, and (formerly) Chisana. Tanacross and Upper Tanana share a high degree of mutual intelligibility, though the tonal patterns (with the exception of the Tetlin dialect, which is apparently toneless) are reversed. To the south near the headwaters of the Copper River in Mentasta is the
1468:, a unique type of segment which appear to begin voiceless and transition to fully voiced. Acoustically, semi-voiced fricatives are characterized by lower intensity of high-frequency frication. Semi-voiced fricatives occur in stem-initial position in lieu of fully voiced fricatives. Even though they are essentially
442:
migration and remove a major incentive for river settlement (de Laguna & McClellan 1960). In contrast, land travel in this region is relatively easy, and extensive networks of trails connect the villages of the
Tanacross region. Many of these trails are still used for hunting access. And at least
1568:
of this area has not been completely unraveled, but it is clear that
Tanacross of course shares many features with neighboring languages and dialects, especially the Mentasta dialect of Ahtna, the (now extinct) Salcha dialect of Lower Tanana, the Tetlin dialect of Upper Tanana, and the Han language.
1596:
of the language. Tanacross shares close linguistic, geographical and social ties with Upper Tanana to the east. In fact, the close social ties which have bound
Tanacross with other groups in the upper Tanana drainage area argue for the definition of a Tanana Uplands language and culture area. This
621:
speakers of
Tanacross are at least fifty years old. Only among the oldest speakers is Tanacross the language of daily communication. Based on the age of the youngest speakers, Krauss (1997) estimates 65 speakers out of a total population of 220. In spite of the relatively small number of speakers,
1653:
told by Chief Andrew Isaac, the last traditional chief of
Tanacross. Though much of the text has been translated into English, the translation maintains much of the speech style of the original Tanacross language. The text contains many references to Tanacross flora and fauna, as well as cultural
404:
from the present-day village of
Tanacross. A telegraph station followed in 1902, and an Episcopal mission in 1909. Both the Mansfield-Kechumstuk and Healy Lake-Joseph Village bands eventually settled in Tanana Crossing, eventually shortened to Tanacross (McKennan 1959). The village was relocated
1984:
Minoura, Nobukatsu. 1991. . Ms, Alaska Native
Language Center Archives, Fairbanks. 1994. A comparative phonology of the Upper Tanana Athabaskan dialects. Languages of the North Pacific Rim, ed. by O. Miyaoka, 159-96. (Hokkaido University Publications in Linguistics 7.). Sapporo: Department of
430:“In considering the Tanana River as a whole, however, the Crossing and Upper Tanana natives should be lumped together, for between the Crossing and Healy River occur a whole series of rapids which today make navigation exceedingly dangerous and in earlier days practically prevented it.” (23)
1709:
phenomena. Phonology and morphology are described in Holton's 2000 University of
California Santa Barbara dissertation. Semi-voiced fricatives are described by Holton (2001). The interaction of tone and intonation is described in Holton (2005). Additional sound recordings and field notes are
417:
have been used. Wrangell's 1839 wordlist refers to the language as the “Copper River
Kolchan”, though Wrangell certainly had no notion of the linguistic geography of the Tanacross region. The first extensive ethnographic research in the area was conducted by McKennan in 1929-30, who excludes
1540:, the largest North American language in terms of number of speakers. Apachean is a very tightly related and well-defined branch. The Pacific Coast group is much less closely related than Apachean and is perhaps more of a geographic subgroup containing perhaps six languages. Of these only
1692:
During the early 1990s John Ritter of the Yukon Native
Language Center (YNLC) began a comprehensive study of Tanacross phonology in the early 1990s and developed a practical orthography. Tanacross speakers Irene Solomon Arnold and Jerry Isaac have participated in literacy workshops in
474:. Shinen's list is clearly of Tanacross, not Upper Tanana origin. De Laguna & McClellan (1960) use the term Tanacross language, but only in a restricted sense referring to the language of Tanacross village proper. Krauss originally included Tanacross with
1840:
Krauss, Michael E. 1997. The indigenous languages of the north: A report on their present state. Northern Minority Languages: Problems of Survival, ed. by H. Shoji & J. Janhunen, 1-34. (Senri Ethological Studies 44). Osaka, Japan: National Museum of
1677:, including the three-way fricative voicing contrast. Marilyn Paul (1978) presents some notes compiled from a class taught by Leer at ANLC. Ron Scollon transcribed and translated a collection of texts from speaker Gaither Paul using a revised
1662:. Ethnographies of the eastern Alaska Athabaskan region, though not specific to Tanacross, can be found in McKennan (1959) and Andrews (1975). De Laguna & McClellan's (1960) field notes also contain extensive ethnographic information.
638:, Tanacross village maintains its own school, where Tanacross literacy is sometimes taught. In addition, most households in the village contain at least one fluent Tanacross speaker. Recently there has been an increase in interest in
630:
proper the percentage is much lower. Although 1990 census figures place the combined populations of Dot Lake and Healy Lake at 117, Kari (p.c.) estimates fewer than four speakers at Healy Lake and perhaps two or three at Dot Lake.
1871:
Wrangell, Ferdinand Petrovich von. 1839. Statistische und ethnographische Nachrichten über die Russische Besitzungen an der Norwestküste von Amerika, ed. by K.G. von Baer & G. von Helmersen, 101-03, 259. Osnabrück: Biblio
1563:
drainages, which form a continuum extending from Lower Tanana in the west (downriver) to Upper Tanana in the east (upriver). Tanacross itself was not defined as a distinct language until the late 1960s (Krauss 1973a). The
543:
The Tanacross linguistic region is geographically small by Alaska Athabaskan standards and hence contains little dialectal variation. A small number of phonological features distinguish two major dialects. The Mansfield
501:. The Mentasta dialect of Ahtna is the most divergent of the four main Ahtna dialects and shares many lexical and phonological features with Tanacross rather than with the other Ahtna dialects. McKennan remarks:
1794:
Hoijer, Harry. 1963. The Athapaskan languages. Studies in the Athapaskan Languages, ed. by H. Hoijer, 1-29. (University of California Publications in Linguistics 29). Berkeley: University of California
1501:
478:, but after a more extensive linguistic survey of the region in the 1960s, he began using the term “Transitional Tanana”, recognizing the distinction between Tanacross and the remainder of
1649:
In addition to the strictly linguistic resources to be discussed below, Isaac (1988) and Simeone (1995) provide important cultural background on the Tanacross community. The former is an
282:
470:(1963). Nabesna was actually Osgood's preferred term for Upper Tanana, so Shinen appears to have followed McKennan in lumping Tanacross and Upper Tanana together but adopted Osgood's
489:
Tanacross is part of a large language/dialect complex, and the Tanacross linguistic region is bordered by several other closely related Athabaskan languages. To the northwest is
1665:
The earliest written record by far of the Tanacross language is the “Copper River Kolchan” vocabulary recorded in Wrangell (1839). This list was probably collected at Nuchek in
866:
position the unaspirated/aspirated distinction reverts to a voiceless/voiced distinction, providing further motivation for the choice of symbols in the practical orthography.
505:“The Tanana Crossing people have always been in much closer contact with the Indians of Copper River, the valley of the Tok leading to the easy Mentasta Pass and thence down
343:
2824:
1572:
However, Tanacross is distinguished most dramatically from neighboring languages by the development of Proto-Athabaskan (PA) constricted vowels into high tone. In contrast,
642:, particularly among middle aged adults. A Tanacross Language Workshop was conducted in 1990, and several training sessions were held at the Yukon Native Language Centre in
466:(1958), who recorded a word list from Mary Charlie and Oscar Isaac in Tanacross village, refers to the language as the “Nabesna dialect”, and Shinen's term was repeated in
2761:
2756:
2751:
2057:
Arnold, Irene, Richard Thoman & Gary Holton. 2009. Tanacross Learners' Dictionary: Dihtâad Xt'een Iin Anděg Dínahtlǎa'. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.
563:
1739:
1705:, resulting in the production of literacy materials with accompanying cassette tapes. Solomon & Ritter (1997) provides crucial data for the description of
2039:
Holton, Gary. 2005. Pitch, tone and intonation in Tanacross. In Keren Rice & Sharon Hargus (eds.), Athabaskan Prosody, 249-75. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
1822:
McKennan, Robert A. 1959. The Upper Tanana Indians. (Yale University Publications in Anthropology 55). New Haven: Yale University Department of Anthropology.
1633:
of the Mentasta area. Mentasta is the most divergent dialect of Ahtna and shares many linguistic features with Tanacross and Upper Tanana. Due to extensive
1559:
Given the available data, it is difficult to discern linguistic subgroups within Northern Athabaskan. This is certainly true for the languages of the
434:
McKennan mistakenly assumes that the Tanana River was a major transportation corridor, when in fact the various Tanacross bands have never had a true
509:
to the Copper. The Upper Tanana natives maintain that the Crossing dialect is much more similar to that of the Copper River than is their own.” (23)
423:
2048:
Arnold, Irene Solomon, Gary Holton & Richard Thoman. 2003. Tanacross Phrase and Conversation Lessons. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.
2030:
Holton, Gary. 2000. The Phonology and Morphology of the Tanacross Athabaskan Language. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.
1785:
Shinen, David C. 1958. A word list of the Nabesna dialect of the Alaska Athapaskans. Manuscript, Alaska Native Language Center Archives. Fairbanks.
448:
2087:
1813:
Krauss, Michael E. 1973. Na-Dene. Linguistics in North America, ed. by T.A. Sebeok, 903-78. (Current Trends in Linguistics 10). The Hague: Mouton.
335:, located approximately ten miles east of the village on the highway. In addition several speakers now reside in the nearest commercial center of
1768:
2120:
463:
405:
across the river to its present location in the early 1970s, and most present-day Tanacross speakers live in or near the village of Tanacross.
458:
Osgood (1936) uses the term Tanana for the entire region of the Tanana River drainage below the Tok River to the confluence of the Tanana and
2584:
397:
842:
of the Tanacross practical orthography are shown below. This practical orthography follows standard Athabaskan conventions, in particular,
452:
371:
242:
1853:
Holton, Gary. 2001. Fortis and lenis fricatives in Tanacross Athapaskan. International Journal of American Linguistics 67 (4): 396-414.
1548:
are still spoken today, and these only by a handful of speakers. Of the roughly 24 Northern Athabaskan languages, eleven are spoken in
413:
The name Tanacross has only recently been applied to the language and still has limited currency outside academic circles. Many other
1957:
Paul, Gaither. 1979. The Story of How Dentalium Necklaces Came to the People. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
493:, spoken in Eagle and across the Canada–US border in Dawson and Moosehide. To the east is the language known by the geographic term
438:
culture, having only settled on the Tanana River in the twentieth century. The rapids referred to by McKennan serve as a barrier to
2829:
1804:
de Laguna, Frederica & Catherine McClellan. 1960. Tanacross fieldnotes. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
2814:
1930:
Leer, Jeff. 1977. Stem Syllable Development in Tanacross and Upper Tanana. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
949:
2819:
2834:
862:
consonants, while voiceless aspirated consonants are indicated using the IPA symbols for voiceless consonants. Note that in
1323:
959:
1109:
264:
2067:
2360:
2326:
2113:
1529:
1119:
678:. Tanacross is the only Alaska Athabaskan language to exhibit high tone as a reflex of Proto-Athabaskan constriction.
2577:
1177:
1921:
Leer, Jeff. 1982. Subject-classifier paradigms in Tanacross. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
1333:
969:
2092:
855:
740:
254:
98:
2619:
1711:
2292:
2467:
2462:
2447:
2137:
2106:
1715:
1533:
1525:
1440:
1187:
623:
117:
2787:
2570:
1524:, a well-established genetic grouping whose members occupy three discontinuous areas of North America: the
1303:
939:
754:
218:
1912:
McRoy, Nancy. 1973. Beginning Tanacross Dictionary. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
820:
816:
808:
797:
793:
789:
785:
2809:
1614:
1353:
1089:
717:
651:
647:
1401:
1313:
929:
770:
598:) to the west, and formerly at Joseph Village, and is linguistically distinguished by the retention of
1994:
Solomon, Irene. 1994. Tanacross Athabaskan Language Lessons. Whitehorse: Yukon Native Language Centre.
2766:
2307:
1722:, including a phrase book, a learners' dictionary, and a multimedia description of the sound system.
1343:
1157:
1099:
339:, located two hundred miles downstream from Tanacross village and accessible by all-weather highway.
2664:
2220:
2021:
Solomon, Irene. 1997. Tanacross Diagnostics. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
1593:
1424:
726:
634:
In spite of its small size (population 140) and proximity to predominantly non-native community of
2624:
2601:
2593:
2477:
1167:
979:
639:
2297:
426:
later appears to lump Tanacross and Upper Tanana together under the label Upper Tanana, noting:
2725:
2515:
1903:
Charlie, Mary & Nancy McRoy. 1972. . Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
1719:
1536:
in the desert southwest of the continental United States. The seven Apachean languages include
1197:
1079:
851:
2003:
Solomon, Irene. 1996. Tanacross Listening Exercises. Whitehorse: Yukon Native Language Centre.
1975:
Brean, Alice & James Kari. 1991. . Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
1966:
Kari, James. 1991. Tanacross Stem List. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
1939:
Leer, Jeff. 1982. Issues in Tanacross Orthography. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives.
2684:
2674:
2432:
2225:
2200:
1882:
1581:
1573:
1385:
1375:
2346:
2012:
Isaac, Jerry. 1997. Tanacross Listening Exercises. Whitehorse: Yukon Native Language Centre.
540:, and the linguistic boundary between Tanacross and Lower Tanana is now even more distinct.
2129:
1670:
1666:
1521:
618:
300:
112:
2699:
2649:
2178:
2157:
667:
104:
8:
2730:
2659:
2189:
1885:
dialect of the Alaska Athapaskans. Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
1862:
Hoijer, Harry. 1938. The Southern Athabaskan languages. American Anthropologist 40.75-87.
1674:
1610:
1472:
variants of the voiced fricatives, semi-voiced fricatives are indicated in the practical
1465:
1129:
1058:
1048:
1038:
1028:
1018:
1008:
847:
617:. Although most children have passive understanding of simple commands and phrases, most
614:
297:
2654:
2493:
2241:
2173:
1706:
1682:
879:
827:
663:
355:
351:
316:
70:
650:
certification for at least one speaker. Tanacross language classes are planned at the
210:
2689:
2340:
2251:
2210:
2205:
1698:
1659:
1588:
either did not develop or lost tone. The Tanacross tone system remains active in the
904:
894:
889:
859:
747:
643:
627:
483:
336:
324:
20:
260:
2746:
2669:
2634:
2629:
2614:
2538:
2418:
2395:
2388:
2302:
2276:
2195:
1638:
1637:
within the Tanana Uplands area, any study of Tanacross must account for the larger
1606:
884:
874:
479:
443:
until the construction of the Alaska Highway in 1942, foot and sled travel between
378:
359:
2709:
2472:
2425:
2412:
2333:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2246:
1894:
Krauss, Michael E. 1962. . Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
1831:
Krauss, Michael E. 1973. . Ms, Alaska Native Language Center Archives, Fairbanks.
1634:
1541:
1537:
899:
393:
389:
367:
320:
304:
90:
2694:
2183:
1658:
sketch written by an Episcopal lay worker who spent much of the 1970s living in
1577:
671:
490:
319:
Crossing") has been used to refer both to a village in eastern Alaska and to an
223:
2704:
2644:
2609:
2553:
2530:
2498:
2376:
2256:
2152:
1602:
1585:
843:
533:
519:
498:
328:
142:
826:
Vowels may be marked for high (á), rising (ǎ), falling (â) or extra-high (á́)
2803:
2639:
2382:
2071:
1618:
1545:
1461:
One of the distinguishing features of Tanacross is the presence of so-called
863:
805:
699:
562:- ″The Mansfield People's Language″, referring to the traditional village of
537:
622:
the percentage of speakers out of the total population is quite high for an
1650:
1630:
1565:
1560:
989:
675:
529:
494:
475:
467:
419:
401:
385:
363:
149:
58:
613:
As with all of the Athabaskan languages of Alaska, Tanacross is extremely
194:
1702:
1694:
1678:
1655:
1622:
1473:
801:
694:
635:
506:
459:
332:
854:
stops/affricates consonants are indicated using, for the most part, the
2098:
711:
704:
579:
444:
414:
2562:
1714:. Since 2000 Irene Solomon has worked as a language specialist at the
1589:
1469:
1276:
1262:
1248:
1234:
1220:
1142:
916:
839:
762:
734:
471:
358:
people, whose ancestral territory encompassed an area bounded by the
281:
203:
187:
350:
Tanacross is the ancestral language of the Mansfield-Kechumstuk and
231:
1598:
1597:
area would include all groups which have regularly participated in
1364:
589:
435:
272:
528:), just west of the Tanacross language area near the mouth of the
1948:
Paul, Marilyn. 1978. . Manuscript, Alaska Native Language Archive
1686:
1532:
in northern California, Oregon, and southern Washington, and the
911:
268:
2088:
Tanacross basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
342:
1553:
1549:
1476:
via an underscore beneath the corresponding voiceless segment.
602:
439:
239:
174:
54:
572:), north of Tanacross) was formerly spoken at Mansfield Lake (
1626:
815:. Thus, the practical orthography does not distinguish short
782:
599:
375:
800:
may be distinguished for length, indicated in the practical
1718:
and has collaborated on a number of projects with linguist
1478:
646:
throughout the 1990s. These training sessions resulted in
271:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
1601:
ceremonies with Tanacross, including the Upper Tanana of
331:, and some speakers now reside in the regional center of
238:
Tanacross is classified as Critically Endangered by the
1985:
Linguistics, Faculty of Letters, Hokkaido University.
850:
are grouped together phonologically. Also, voiceless
2825:
Indigenous languages of the North American Subarctic
1849:
1847:
1740:"ANLPAC 2020 Report to the Governor and Legislature"
1769:"Alaska OKs Bill Making Native Languages Official"
1515:
1844:
2801:
418:Tanacross from his map of what he labels as the
593:
583:
573:
567:
557:
551:
545:
523:
518:Until very recently Lower Tanana was spoken at
34:
1689:information has been documented by linguists.
1641:framework within which Tanacross is embedded.
327:is accessible by a short access road from the
2578:
2114:
2585:
2571:
2121:
2107:
1881:Shinen, David C. 1958. A word list of the
1552:, three of which straddle the border with
455:was extremely common (Ellen Demit, p.c.).
303:spoken by fewer than 60 people in eastern
230:
1456:
2128:
1766:
341:
280:
243:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
16:Endangered Athabaskan language of Alaska
2592:
1528:in northwestern Canada and Alaska, the
265:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
2802:
2566:
2102:
2066:Holton, Gary, and Rick Thoman. 2008.
662:Tanacross is one of four Athabaskan
346:Location of Tanacross language area
13:
14:
2846:
2081:
1644:
1439:
1423:
1400:
1384:
1374:
1352:
1342:
1332:
1322:
1312:
1302:
1275:
1261:
1247:
1233:
1219:
1196:
1186:
1176:
1166:
1156:
1128:
1118:
1108:
1098:
1088:
1078:
1057:
1047:
1037:
1027:
1017:
1007:
988:
978:
968:
958:
948:
938:
928:
769:
753:
746:
739:
725:
716:
666:spoken in Alaska. The others are
2782:
2781:
1767:Chappell, Bill (21 April 2014).
167:
2830:Endangered Athabaskan languages
2060:
2051:
2042:
2033:
2024:
2015:
2006:
1997:
1988:
1978:
1969:
1960:
1951:
1942:
1933:
1924:
1915:
1906:
1897:
1888:
1875:
1865:
1856:
1516:Relationship to other languages
686:There are six phonemic vowels:
513:
384:In the late nineteenth century
2815:Indigenous languages of Alaska
2093:Tanacross Learners' Dictionary
1834:
1825:
1816:
1807:
1798:
1788:
1779:
1760:
1732:
1712:Alaska Native Language Archive
1522:Athabaskan family of languages
1:
2820:Northern Athabaskan languages
1725:
1716:Alaska Native Language Center
1520:Tanacross is a member of the
833:
556:) (MK) dialect of Tanacross (
323:group. The modern village of
19:For the Alaskan village, see
2835:Official languages of Alaska
1654:items. Simeone's book is an
811:is indicated via the letter
657:
422:region (1959: 16). However,
408:
374:rivers to the east, and the
7:
804:by doubling the vowel. The
310:
10:
2851:
1710:available at YNLC and the
1584:developed low tone, while
624:Alaska Athabaskan language
315:The word Tanacross (from "
18:
2777:
2739:
2718:
2600:
2547:
2529:
2507:
2486:
2455:
2446:
2405:
2368:
2359:
2318:
2285:
2234:
2166:
2145:
2136:
1363:
1141:
910:
878:
871:
681:
608:
354:-Joseph Village bands of
251:
229:
217:
201:
185:
180:
162:Official language in
160:
155:
139:
87:
77:
65:
50:
42:
33:
28:
2286:Central British Columbia
830:. Low tone is unmarked.
654:regional center in Tok.
648:Native Language teaching
2068:The Sounds of Tanacross
640:language revitalization
594:
584:
574:
568:
559:Dihthaad Xt'een Aandeg'
558:
552:
546:
524:
35:
2726:American Sign Language
2319:Other North Athabaskan
1457:Semi-voiced fricatives
511:
432:
400:, directly across the
347:
286:
253:This article contains
2369:California Athabaskan
2327:Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie
1675:phonological features
1671:grammatical paradigms
503:
428:
345:
284:
2167:Central Alaska–Yukon
2130:Athabaskan languages
2070:. Archived from the
1667:Prince William Sound
1104:⟨tth'⟩
652:University of Alaska
388:were established at
2594:Languages of Alaska
2235:Northwestern Canada
1747:commerce.alaska.gov
1629:; and the Mentasta
1617:of the vicinity of
1124:⟨ch'⟩
1114:⟨tl'⟩
1094:⟨ts'⟩
1033:⟨tth⟩
954:⟨ddh⟩
301:Athabaskan language
294:Transitional Tanana
118:Northern Athabaskan
2810:Tanana Athabaskans
2731:Inuk Sign Language
2293:Babine–Witsuwitʼen
1445:⟨yh⟩
1429:⟨nh⟩
1338:⟨sh⟩
1318:⟨th⟩
1202:⟨gh⟩
1192:⟨zh⟩
1172:⟨dh⟩
1134:⟨k'⟩
1084:⟨t'⟩
1053:⟨ch⟩
1043:⟨tl⟩
1023:⟨ts⟩
964:⟨dl⟩
944:⟨dz⟩
366:to the south, the
348:
287:
285:Tanacross Mountain
83:<10 (2020)
2797:
2796:
2767:Ninilchik dialect
2560:
2559:
2554:extinct languages
2525:
2524:
2442:
2441:
2426:Upper Rogue River
2419:Lower Rogue River
2406:Oregon Athabaskan
2355:
2354:
2211:Southern Tutchone
2206:Northern Tutchone
1660:Tanacross village
1513:
1512:
1454:
1453:
1418:
1406:⟨y⟩
1390:⟨n⟩
1380:⟨m⟩
1371:
1358:⟨h⟩
1348:⟨x⟩
1328:⟨ł⟩
1308:⟨s⟩
1295:
1212:
1182:⟨l⟩
1162:⟨z⟩
1149:
1073:
1063:⟨k⟩
1013:⟨t⟩
1002:
994:⟨'⟩
984:⟨g⟩
974:⟨j⟩
934:⟨d⟩
923:
813:⟨e⟩
779:
778:
628:Tanacross village
362:to the west, the
356:Tanana Athabaskan
279:
278:
261:rendering support
257:phonetic symbols.
21:Tanacross, Alaska
2842:
2785:
2784:
2587:
2580:
2573:
2564:
2563:
2539:Proto-Athabaskan
2487:Eastern Apachean
2456:Western Apachean
2453:
2452:
2366:
2365:
2308:Southern Carrier
2146:Southern Alaskan
2143:
2142:
2123:
2116:
2109:
2100:
2099:
2075:
2064:
2058:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2040:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2022:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1958:
1955:
1949:
1946:
1940:
1937:
1931:
1928:
1922:
1919:
1913:
1910:
1904:
1901:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1879:
1873:
1869:
1863:
1860:
1854:
1851:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1829:
1823:
1820:
1814:
1811:
1805:
1802:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1755:
1754:
1744:
1736:
1681:which indicates
1639:socio-linguistic
1508:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1479:
1446:
1443:
1430:
1427:
1416:
1407:
1404:
1391:
1388:
1381:
1378:
1369:
1359:
1356:
1349:
1346:
1339:
1336:
1329:
1326:
1319:
1316:
1309:
1306:
1293:
1286:
1279:
1272:
1265:
1258:
1251:
1244:
1237:
1230:
1223:
1210:
1203:
1200:
1193:
1190:
1183:
1180:
1173:
1170:
1163:
1160:
1147:
1135:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1115:
1112:
1105:
1102:
1095:
1092:
1085:
1082:
1071:
1064:
1061:
1054:
1051:
1044:
1041:
1034:
1031:
1024:
1021:
1014:
1011:
1000:
995:
992:
985:
982:
975:
972:
965:
962:
955:
952:
945:
942:
935:
932:
921:
869:
868:
822:
818:
814:
810:
799:
795:
791:
787:
773:
757:
750:
743:
729:
720:
689:
688:
597:
595:Kelt’aaddh Menn’
587:
577:
571:
561:
555:
549:
527:
360:Goodpaster River
245:
234:
213:
197:
190:
173:
171:
170:
145:
93:
38:
26:
25:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2793:
2773:
2735:
2714:
2665:Upper Kuskokwim
2596:
2591:
2561:
2556:
2543:
2521:
2508:Plains Apachean
2503:
2482:
2438:
2401:
2351:
2314:
2281:
2230:
2221:Upper Kuskokwim
2162:
2132:
2127:
2084:
2079:
2078:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1845:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1765:
1761:
1752:
1750:
1742:
1738:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1647:
1635:multilingualism
1518:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1459:
1444:
1428:
1405:
1389:
1379:
1357:
1347:
1337:
1327:
1317:
1307:
1280:
1266:
1252:
1238:
1224:
1201:
1191:
1181:
1171:
1161:
1133:
1123:
1113:
1103:
1093:
1083:
1062:
1052:
1042:
1032:
1022:
1012:
993:
983:
973:
963:
953:
943:
933:
915:
836:
812:
684:
660:
611:
516:
411:
390:Tanana Crossing
321:ethnolinguistic
313:
305:Interior Alaska
259:Without proper
247:
246:
237:
209:
193:
186:
168:
166:
163:
156:Official status
146:
141:
135:
109:Athabaskan–Eyak
94:
91:Language family
89:
80:
79:Native speakers
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2848:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2740:Non-Indigenous
2737:
2736:
2734:
2733:
2728:
2722:
2720:
2719:Sign languages
2716:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2625:Siberian Yupik
2622:
2617:
2612:
2606:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2590:
2589:
2582:
2575:
2567:
2558:
2557:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2535:
2533:
2531:Proto-language
2527:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2496:
2490:
2488:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2478:Western Apache
2475:
2470:
2465:
2459:
2457:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2429:
2422:
2415:
2409:
2407:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2385:
2380:
2372:
2370:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2300:
2295:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2229:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2147:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2126:
2125:
2118:
2111:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2090:
2083:
2082:External links
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:on 2018-11-15.
2059:
2050:
2041:
2032:
2023:
2014:
2005:
1996:
1987:
1977:
1968:
1959:
1950:
1941:
1932:
1923:
1914:
1905:
1896:
1887:
1874:
1864:
1855:
1843:
1833:
1824:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1787:
1778:
1759:
1730:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1646:
1645:Early research
1643:
1534:Apachean group
1526:Northern group
1517:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1495:
1487:
1486:
1483:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1421:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1382:
1372:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1350:
1340:
1330:
1320:
1310:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1273:
1259:
1245:
1231:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1194:
1184:
1174:
1164:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1126:
1116:
1106:
1096:
1086:
1076:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1055:
1045:
1035:
1025:
1015:
1005:
1003:
997:
996:
986:
976:
966:
956:
946:
936:
926:
924:
919:
908:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
835:
832:
777:
776:
774:
767:
765:
759:
758:
751:
744:
737:
731:
730:
723:
721:
714:
708:
707:
702:
697:
692:
683:
680:
664:tone languages
659:
656:
610:
607:
550:)-Kechumstuk (
515:
512:
499:Ahtna language
410:
407:
381:to the north.
329:Alaska Highway
312:
309:
277:
276:
263:, you may see
249:
248:
236:
235:
227:
226:
221:
215:
214:
207:
199:
198:
191:
183:
182:
181:Language codes
178:
177:
164:
161:
158:
157:
153:
152:
147:
143:Writing system
140:
137:
136:
134:
133:
132:
131:
130:
129:
128:
127:
126:
125:
99:Dené–Yeniseian
97:
95:
88:
85:
84:
81:
78:
75:
74:
67:
63:
62:
52:
48:
47:
44:
43:Native to
40:
39:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2847:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2790:
2789:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2738:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2620:Central Yupik
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2583:
2581:
2576:
2574:
2569:
2568:
2565:
2555:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2518:
2517:
2516:Plains Apache
2513:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2445:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2428:
2427:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2361:Pacific Coast
2358:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2124:
2119:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2105:
2104:
2101:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2073:
2069:
2063:
2054:
2045:
2036:
2027:
2018:
2009:
2000:
1991:
1981:
1972:
1963:
1954:
1945:
1936:
1927:
1918:
1909:
1900:
1891:
1884:
1878:
1868:
1859:
1850:
1848:
1837:
1828:
1819:
1810:
1801:
1791:
1782:
1774:
1770:
1763:
1748:
1741:
1735:
1731:
1723:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1619:Eagle, Alaska
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1530:Pacific Coast
1527:
1523:
1505:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1450:
1448:
1442:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1426:
1422:
1420:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1403:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1351:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1321:
1315:
1311:
1305:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1292:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1195:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1137:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1117:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1087:
1081:
1077:
1075:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1036:
1030:
1026:
1020:
1016:
1010:
1006:
1004:
999:
998:
991:
987:
981:
977:
971:
967:
961:
957:
951:
947:
941:
937:
931:
927:
925:
920:
918:
913:
909:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
876:
873:
870:
867:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
831:
829:
824:
807:
806:reduced vowel
803:
784:
775:
772:
768:
766:
764:
761:
760:
756:
752:
749:
745:
742:
738:
736:
733:
732:
728:
724:
722:
719:
715:
713:
710:
709:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
690:
687:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
632:
629:
625:
620:
616:
606:
604:
601:
596:
591:
586:
585:Mendees Cheeg
581:
576:
570:
565:
560:
554:
548:
541:
539:
535:
531:
526:
521:
510:
508:
502:
500:
496:
492:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
456:
454:
450:
446:
441:
437:
431:
427:
425:
421:
416:
406:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
386:trading posts
382:
380:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
344:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
308:
306:
302:
299:
295:
291:
283:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
256:
250:
244:
241:
233:
228:
225:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
206:
205:
200:
196:
192:
189:
184:
179:
176:
165:
159:
154:
151:
148:
144:
138:
124:
121:
120:
119:
116:
115:
114:
111:
110:
108:
107:
106:
103:
102:
100:
96:
92:
86:
82:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
53:
49:
46:United States
45:
41:
37:
32:
27:
22:
2786:
2685:Upper Tanana
2679:
2675:Lower Tanana
2549:
2514:
2433:Upper Umpqua
2431:
2424:
2417:
2394:
2387:
2375:
2339:
2332:
2325:
2226:Upper Tanana
2215:
2201:Lower Tanana
2188:
2062:
2053:
2044:
2035:
2026:
2017:
2008:
1999:
1990:
1980:
1971:
1962:
1953:
1944:
1935:
1926:
1917:
1908:
1899:
1890:
1877:
1867:
1858:
1836:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1790:
1781:
1772:
1762:
1751:. Retrieved
1746:
1734:
1691:
1664:
1656:ethnographic
1651:oral history
1648:
1611:Beaver Creek
1582:Upper Tanana
1574:Lower Tanana
1571:
1566:dialectology
1561:Tanana River
1558:
1519:
1491:
1462:
1460:
1282:
1268:
1254:
1240:
1226:
858:symbols for
837:
825:
780:
685:
676:Upper Tanana
661:
633:
612:
553:Saages Cheeg
542:
530:Salcha River
517:
514:Dialectology
504:
495:Upper Tanana
488:
476:Lower Tanana
457:
433:
429:
420:Upper Tanana
412:
402:Tanana River
383:
364:Alaska Range
349:
314:
293:
289:
288:
252:
202:
150:Latin script
122:
59:Tanana River
2242:Dene Suline
1720:Gary Holton
1703:Dawson City
1679:orthography
1623:Dawson City
1474:orthography
1463:semi-voiced
1211:semi-voiced
852:unaspirated
802:orthography
525:Saagescheeg
507:Slana River
398:Eagle Trail
267:instead of
36:Neeʼaanděgʼ
2804:Categories
2660:Holikachuk
2602:Indigenous
2463:Chiricahua
2190:Holikachuk
2174:Deg Hitʼan
2095:iPhone app
1841:Ethnology.
1753:2023-07-19
1726:References
1699:Whitehorse
1594:morphology
1497:'my dog' (
1470:allophonic
1466:fricatives
922:unspirated
848:affricates
840:consonants
834:Consonants
644:Whitehorse
626:. Outside
615:endangered
580:Healy Lake
575:dihTa$ òd/
453:Kechumstuk
445:Healy Lake
415:linguonyms
396:along the
352:Healy Lake
298:endangered
113:Athabaskan
2710:Tsimshian
2680:Tanacross
2655:Deg Xinag
2552:indicate
2494:Jicarilla
2468:Mescalero
2347:Tsuutʼina
2298:Chilcotin
2216:Tanacross
1590:phonology
1417:voiceless
1294:voiceless
1143:Fricative
1001:aspirated
917:Affricate
658:Phonology
564:Mansfield
472:linguonym
449:Mansfield
409:Etymology
368:Fortymile
337:Fairbanks
325:Tanacross
290:Tanacross
224:Tanacross
204:Glottolog
188:ISO 639-3
123:Tanacross
66:Ethnicity
29:Tanacross
2788:Category
2700:Gwichʼin
2690:Tsetsaut
2650:Denaʼina
2448:Southern
2341:Tsetsaut
2179:Gwichʼin
2158:Denaʼina
2138:Northern
2072:original
1607:Northway
1599:potlatch
1365:Sonorant
1285:⟩
1281:⟨
1271:⟩
1267:⟨
1257:⟩
1253:⟨
1243:⟩
1239:⟨
1229:⟩
1225:⟨
1072:ejective
880:Alveolar
668:Gwichʼin
603:suffixes
590:Dot Lake
569:Dihthâad
547:Dihthâad
462:rivers.
436:riverine
424:McKennan
311:Overview
296:) is an
273:Help:IPA
211:tana1290
57:(middle
2762:Russian
2757:Tagalog
2752:Spanish
2747:English
2670:Koyukon
2635:Tlingit
2630:Inupiaq
2615:Alutiiq
2550:Italics
2396:Wailaki
2389:Mattole
2277:Tahltan
2252:Dunneza
2196:Koyukon
1883:Nabesna
1872:Verlag.
1687:lexical
912:Plosive
905:Glottal
895:Palatal
890:Lateral
700:Central
379:Uplands
269:Unicode
105:Na-Dené
2473:Navajo
2413:Tolowa
2334:Nicola
2303:Dakelh
2272:Tagish
2267:Slavey
2262:Sekani
2247:Dogrib
1795:Press.
1749:. 2020
1613:; the
1603:Tetlin
1554:Canada
1550:Alaska
1542:Tolowa
1538:Navajo
1503:listen
1485:'dog'
1370:voiced
1148:voiced
885:Dental
875:Labial
860:voiced
796:, and
783:vowels
682:Vowels
674:, and
619:fluent
609:Status
588:) and
534:Nenana
520:Salcha
484:Krauss
480:Tanana
468:Hoijer
464:Shinen
440:salmon
317:Tanana
292:(also
240:UNESCO
175:Alaska
172:
73:(2007)
71:Tanana
55:Alaska
51:Region
2705:Haida
2645:Ahtna
2610:Aleut
2499:Lipan
2257:Kaska
2153:Ahtna
1743:(PDF)
1631:Ahtna
1627:Yukon
1586:Ahtna
1494:ǐig'
900:Velar
844:stops
819:from
695:Front
600:schwa
538:Minto
460:Yukon
376:Yukon
2640:Eyak
2383:Hupa
2377:Kato
1707:tone
1701:and
1683:tone
1673:and
1621:and
1609:and
1592:and
1580:and
1546:Hupa
1544:and
1482:łii
1120:t͡ʃʼ
1110:t͡ɬʼ
1100:t͡θʼ
1090:t͡sʼ
1049:t͡ʃʰ
1039:t͡ɬʰ
1029:t͡θʰ
1019:t͡sʰ
864:coda
846:and
838:The
828:tone
781:The
712:High
705:Back
536:and
451:and
394:ford
392:, a
370:and
69:220
2695:Hän
2184:Hän
1773:NPR
1695:Tok
1615:Han
1578:Hän
970:t͜ʃ
960:t͜ɬ
950:t͜θ
940:t͜s
856:IPA
763:Low
735:Mid
672:Han
636:Tok
491:Han
372:Tok
333:Tok
255:IPA
219:ELP
195:tcb
2806::
1846:^
1771:.
1745:.
1697:,
1625:,
1605:,
1576:,
1556:.
1509:)
1490:sh
1441:j̊
1425:n̥
1277:ɣ̊
1269:sh
1263:ʒ̊
1249:ɮ̊
1241:th
1235:ð̥
1221:z̥
1130:kʼ
1080:tʼ
1059:kʰ
1009:tʰ
823:.
792:,
788:,
670:,
605:.
447:,
307:.
101:?
2586:e
2579:t
2572:v
2122:e
2115:t
2108:v
1775:.
1756:.
1492:ł
1402:j
1386:n
1376:m
1354:h
1344:x
1334:ʃ
1324:ɬ
1314:θ
1304:s
1283:x
1255:ł
1227:s
1198:ɣ
1188:ʒ
1178:ɮ
1168:ð
1158:z
990:ʔ
980:k
930:t
914:/
821:ə
817:e
809:ä
798:u
794:a
790:e
786:i
771:a
755:o
748:ə
741:e
727:u
718:i
592:(
582:(
566:(
544:(
522:(
482:(
275:.
61:)
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
