1037:
41:
194:
1350:
179:
1265:
persisted in trying to gather reinforcements, a sickness continued to take a heavy toll, and the expedition was abandoned on
November 8, 1780. The Spanish reoccupied the remains of the fort after the British blew it upon departure. In all, more than 2,500 men died, which "made the San Juan expedition the costliest British disaster of the entire war".
1249:, located five miles (8 km) upstream and manned with about 150 armed defenders and 86 others, began on April 13. Because of poor planning and lost supplies, the British soon began to run low on ammunition for the cannons as well as rations for the men. After the tropical rains started on April 20, men began to sicken and die, probably from
1376:
Spain was seen to have received tangible results out of the war, especially in contrast to its ally France. The French king had invested huge amounts of manpower, funds and material resources for little clear military or economic gain. France had been left with crippling debts which it struggled to
1323:
Although she was attracted by the prospect of a war for restitution and revenge, she was repelled by the specter of an independent and powerful
American republic. Such a new state might reach over the Alleghenies into the Mississippi Valley and grasp territory that Spain wanted for herself. Even
1083:
for support to supply his men with weapons and ammunition, and to provide credit for provisions. The credit lines that
Pollock established to purchase supplies for Clark were supposed to be backed by the state of Virginia. However, Pollock in turn had to rely on his own personal credit and Gálvez,
1306:
The involvement of France was decisive in the
British defeat. Spain's contribution was important too. By allying themselves with foreign monarchies, the United States took advantage of the power struggles within European imperialism and essentially formed a united front against Britain. The new
840:
by birth and a shrewdly calculating politician by nature, Grimaldi demurred, replying, "You have considered your own situation, and not ours. The moment is not yet come for us. The war with
Portugal – France being unprepared, and our cargo ships from South America not having arrived – makes it
1264:
Nelson was one of the first to become ill, and he was shipped downriver on April 28, the day before the
Spanish surrendered the fort. About 450 British reinforcements arrived on May 15, but the blacks and the Indians abandoned the expedition because of illness and discontent. Although Dalling
276:
841:
improper for us to declare immediately." Meanwhile, Grimaldi reassured Lee, stores of clothing and powder were deposited at New
Orleans and Havana for the Americans, and further shipments of blankets were being collected at Bilbao.
736:. Unzaga, concerned about overtly antagonizing the British before the Spanish were prepared for war, agreed to assist the rebels covertly. Unzaga authorized the shipment of desperately needed gunpowder in a transaction brokered by
1337:
was widely regarded as a successful one. The
Spanish took a gamble in entering the war, banking on Great Britain's vulnerability caused by the effort of fighting their rebellious colonists in North America while also conducting a
269:
721:, which "supplied the patriots with 215 bronze cannon – 30,000 muskets – 30,000 bayonets – 512,314 musket balls – 300,000 pounds of powder – 12,868 grenades – 30,000 uniforms – and 4,000 field tents during the war".
764:
status. Franklin also noted in the same report that three thousand barrels of gunpowder were waiting in New
Orleans and that the merchants in Bilbao "had orders to ship for us such necessaries as we might want".
759:
reported from Paris to the
Congressional Committee of Secret Correspondence in March 1777, the Spanish court quietly granted the rebels direct admission to the rich, previously restricted port of Havana under
1394:, of the Gardoqui trading company that had greatly assisted the rebels during the war, was appointed as Spain's first ambassador to the United States of America in 1784. Gardoqui became well acquainted with
262:
872:, June 16, 1779, to February 7, 1783, was the longest-lasting Spanish action in the war. Despite the larger size of the besieging Franco-Spanish army, at one point numbering 33,000, the British under
1290:
The reforms made by Spanish authorities as a result of Spain's poor performance in the Seven Years' War had proved generally successful. As a result, Spain retained Menorca and West Florida in the
1388:
One particular outcome of the war was the manner in which it enhanced the position of Prime Minister Floridablanca, and his government continued to dominate Spanish politics until 1792.
884:
met with more success; Menorca surrendered the following year, and was restored to Spain after the war, nearly eighty years after it was first captured by the British. In 1780 and 1781,
844:
By June 1779 the Spanish had finalized their preparations for war. The British cause seemed to be at a particularly low ebb. The Spanish joined France in the war, implementing the
650:. Spain declared war on Britain as an ally of France, itself an ally of the American colonies. Most notably, Spanish forces attacked British positions in the south and captured
1214:. Nelson was the highest-ranking officer present, but his authority was limited to naval operations. The overall commander was Captain (local rank of major) John Polson of the
1084:
who allowed the funds of the Spanish government to be at Pollock's disposal as loans. These funds were usually delivered in the cover of night by Gálvez's private secretary.
786:
1145:, the French admiral designated to assist the Colonists, asking him to raise money in the Caribbean to fund the campaign at Yorktown. With the assistance of Spanish agent
1381:
that broke out in 1789. Spain, in comparison, disposed of its debts more easily, partly due to the stunning increases in silver production from the mines in Mexico and
542:
658:. This secured the southern route for supplies and closed off the possibility of any British offensive through the western frontier of the United States via the
701:
Spanish aid was supplied to the new nation through four main routes: from French ports with the funding of Rodrigue Hortalez and Company, through the port of
1943:
1138:
1242:
997:. This secured the southern route for supplies and closed off the possibility of any British offensive into the western frontier of United States via the
1223:
1887:
Legacy: Spain and the United States in the Age of Independence, 1763-1848 / Legado: España y los Estados Unidos en la era de la Independencia, 1763-1848
1219:
745:
2324:
212:
1459:
821:), which was administered from Buenos Aires in 1778–1810. With these treaties, Portugal had left the war, and in 1781 Portugal even joined the
435:
1218:, who recognized young Nelson's abilities and worked closely with him. Polson had about three to four hundred regulars of the 60th and the
1153:, Cuba within 24 hours. This money was used to purchase critical supplies for the siege, and to fund the payroll for the Continental Army.
876:
were able to hold out in the fortress and were resupplied by sea three times. Luis de CĂłrdova y CĂłrdova was unable to prevent Howe's fleet
535:
242:
2219:
2563:
2468:
2199:
693:
wrote in March 1777, "the fate of the colonies interests us very much, and we shall do for them everything that circumstances permit".
836:, an American diplomat in Madrid who was trying to persuade the Spanish to declare an open alliance with the fledgling United States.
829:
1936:
2229:
774:
2156:
938:
528:
232:
2176:
1215:
989:, the capital of British West Florida, in 1780, Gálvez's forces achieved a decisive victory against the British in 1781 at the
685:
and the Revolution was an opportunity to confront their common enemy, Great Britain. As the newly appointed Chief Minister of
2478:
2254:
1894:
1682:
1433:
1312:
1092:
622:
2334:
2244:
2006:
1929:
1315:. Nevertheless, Spain maintained a level of support throughout the war in pursuit of its geopolitical interests. Historian
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2463:
2036:
1402:
continued communications with Washington, sending him livestock from Spain that Washington had requested for his farm at
1353:
North American borders proposed by the Spanish diplomacy near the end of the American Revolutionary War, August 3rd, 1782
1298:. The lands east of the Mississippi, however, were recognized as part of the newly independent United States of America.
1237:
After many delays, the expedition began to move up the San Juan River on March 17, 1780. On April 9, Nelson—in the first
2091:
1055:, France gave the Mississippi Valley to her ally Spain, in order to prevent it from coming under British control at the
1004:
When Spain entered the war, Britain also went on the offensive in the Caribbean, planning an expedition against Spanish
2553:
2543:
2533:
2523:
2513:
2473:
2362:
2352:
1960:
32:
717:
family trading company. Spain made loans to the United States to be used to furnish war supplies through the House of
2319:
2239:
1877:
1840:
1821:
1802:
1104:
617:
612:
592:
572:
567:
562:
344:
254:
2344:
1142:
2101:
822:
217:
2081:
1146:
911:
602:
1115:, which was thwarted diplomatically by Great Britain and the young United States in their separate peace in the
805:. In return, Spain acknowledged that Portuguese territories in Brazil extended far west of the line set in the
2458:
2329:
2314:
1983:
1630:
1291:
1013:
885:
666:
462:
440:
222:
2026:
1036:
888:'s fleet captured America-bound British convoys, doing much damage to British military supplies and commerce.
2483:
2289:
2146:
2141:
2131:
2016:
1269:
778:
741:
587:
582:
509:
499:
2309:
2274:
2269:
1901:
966:
403:
398:
2021:
2299:
2294:
2011:
1076:
324:
237:
40:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2304:
2136:
1786:
Empresarios españoles en el proceso de independencia norteamericana: La casa Gardoqui e hijos de Bilbao
1334:
1178:
1017:
990:
647:
577:
504:
472:
467:
369:
354:
334:
329:
247:
28:
2387:
2367:
2209:
2121:
2111:
2096:
2061:
2056:
2031:
1991:
1467:
1357:
The war gave a boost to the kingdom's prestige, which had suffered from the losses to Britain in the
1246:
881:
845:
810:
686:
669:, a trading company that provided critical military supplies. Spain provided financing for the final
494:
482:
359:
864:
from the British, who had owned them since 1704, and to damage British trade through the actions of
2279:
2189:
2106:
2046:
2041:
1060:
869:
643:
408:
339:
319:
312:
199:
2224:
2214:
2194:
2066:
1209:
873:
413:
374:
349:
1204:
The expedition sailed from Jamaica on February 3, 1780, escorted by twenty-one-year-old Captain
452:
2558:
2548:
2538:
2528:
2518:
2204:
1996:
1116:
1056:
877:
798:
690:
682:
597:
457:
379:
2126:
1423:
2397:
2392:
1634:
1391:
1285:
1096:
1088:
1024:
and other tropical diseases wiped out most of the force, which then withdrew and returned to
833:
806:
725:
138:
53:
1041:
946:
732:(the army of the United States) officers to request supplies from the New Orleans Governor,
45:
2357:
2076:
1399:
1166:
1009:
954:
393:
364:
154:
80:
1349:
1137:
in 1781, the critical and final major battle of the North America theater. French General
8:
2372:
2234:
2184:
2166:
2161:
2151:
2001:
1973:
1358:
1238:
1112:
1072:
1052:
897:
802:
761:
430:
386:
1889:. Catalogue of an Exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution.
477:
1198:
1186:
1079:
and secured the northern region of the Ohio for the rebels. Clark relied on Gálvez and
986:
974:
950:
782:
655:
418:
49:
1758:
In the mid-18th century, production in Mexico increased by about 600%, and by 250% in
284:
227:
2382:
2377:
2284:
2071:
1890:
1873:
1836:
1817:
1798:
1678:
1429:
1395:
1378:
1134:
1128:
998:
942:
837:
818:
756:
706:
670:
659:
627:
2264:
2086:
1968:
1852:
The French Navy and American Independence: A Study of Arms and Diplomacy, 1774–1787
1316:
729:
84:
2402:
2116:
1398:, and marched in the newly elected President Washington's inaugural parade. King
1190:
978:
919:
100:
76:
1952:
1231:
1227:
1205:
1182:
1141:, commanding his country's forces in North America, sent a desperate appeal to
1080:
814:
790:
737:
733:
307:
184:
88:
1241:
of his career—led an assault that captured a Spanish battery on the island of
2427:
1921:
1308:
1258:
1194:
1068:
962:
662:. Spain also provided money, supplies, and munitions to the American forces.
92:
1734:
Three victories and a defeat: the rise and fall of the first British Empire
1403:
1365:, remained out of its grasp, Spain had more than compensated by recovering
1295:
1162:
1021:
994:
927:
923:
678:
651:
150:
930:
in 1763), and the resolution of logging disputes involving the British in
1346:
of major powers. This helped Spain gain some relatively easy conquests.
970:
949:, led a series of successful offensives against the British forts in the
880:
after resupplying Gibraltar in October 1782. The combined Franco-Spanish
749:
702:
96:
1226:
raised by Dalling, as well as several hundred local recruits, including
2051:
1339:
906:, the main effort was directed to prevent possible British landings in
1311:, which could threaten Spain's own colonies, and later did so, in the
1370:
1369:
and by reducing the British threat to its colonies in and around the
1362:
1343:
1276:
from Cuba, but these plans were aborted when Britain sued for peace.
1254:
1174:
1005:
982:
958:
903:
865:
857:
828:
The former Spanish Diplomat and then-Ambassador to the French Court,
520:
104:
1045:
642:, through its alliance with France and as part of its conflict with
2412:
1324:
worse, it might eventually seize Spain's colonies in the New World.
1108:
1100:
1064:
1059:. The Spanish assisted the United States in their campaigns in the
718:
714:
124:
116:
112:
1833:
Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift
1425:
Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift
1272:
in 1782, without a battle. In 1783 Gálvez was preparing to invade
752:
in January 1777, he continued and expanded the supply operations.
2407:
1382:
1366:
1273:
1250:
1170:
1099:
in 1780. A year later, a detachment traveled through present-day
1025:
918:
in the Seven Years' War. Other goals included the reconquest of
861:
794:
158:
120:
108:
1377:
pay off, and which would become one of the major causes of the
1150:
1149:, the needed cash, over 500,000 in silver pesos, was raised in
931:
915:
710:
674:
1861:
Spain's Contribution to the independence of the United States
639:
1173:, proposed in 1780 an expedition to the Spanish province of
1759:
1721:
The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence
1532:(1948), Revised Edition, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 502.
1519:(1948), Revised Edition, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 501.
907:
1558:, Bognor Regis, West Sussex: Boydell & Brewer, p. 10.
1268:
Following these successes, an unauthorized Spanish force
288:
Battles involving Spain in the American Revolutionary War
1915:
The Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution
1373:, all of which were seen as vital to Spanish interests.
1201:
problems, the expedition proved to be a costly debacle.
825:
to resist British seizures of cargo from neutral ships.
1675:
The Nelson Touch: The Life and Legend of Horatio Nelson
724:
Smuggling from New Orleans began in 1776 when General
696:
1858:
1139:
Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau
1091:
repelled attacks from British units and the latter's
1677:. London, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 32.
1193:in half as well as provide potential access to the
801:, founded by Portugal in 1680. Spain also won the
1870:A Few Bloody Noses: The American Revolutionary War
1361:. Even though Spain's single most coveted target,
1783:
1466:. U.S. Department of the Interior. Archived from
832:, summarized the Spanish position in a letter to
2425:
1792:
1421:
1111:. This expedition gave Spain some claim to the
673:in 1781 with a collection of gold and silver in
16:18th-century war between Great Britain and Spain
1835:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
1795:Las Rutas de la Plata: La Primera GlobalizaciĂłn
190:
1951:
1902:"America's Spanish Savior: Bernardo de Gálvez"
1937:
1863:. Embassy of Spain: United States of America.
1556:The Battle of Yorktown, 1781: A Reassessment
1528:Robert S. Chamberlain, "Latin America", in
891:
856:The main goals of Spain were the recovery of
536:
270:
1515:Robert S. Chamberlain, "Latin America", in
746:Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez
1917:. Boston: Nathan Hale and Gray & Bowen.
1912:
1747:A diplomatic history of the American people
1161:After Spain entered the war, Major General
1018:an expedition in 1780 against Fort San Juan
1008:. A British attempt to gain a foothold at
681:. Spain was allied with France through the
1944:
1930:
1624:
1622:
1301:
1020:in Nicaragua was at first successful, but
709:, from the warehouses in Havana, and from
543:
529:
277:
263:
39:
1814:Bernardo de Gálvez in Louisiana 1776–1783
1415:
1899:
1854:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1348:
1035:
1859:Fernández y Fernández, Enrique (1985).
1811:
1672:
1631:"The Spanish Attack on Fort St. Joseph"
1619:
830:JerĂłnimo Grimaldi, 1st Duke of Grimaldi
175:
2426:
1867:
1830:
1816:. Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company.
1460:"Personal Information: Diego MarĂa de"
550:
1925:
1543:The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia
1031:
993:giving the Spanish control of all of
768:
665:Beginning in 1776, it jointly funded
524:
258:
1900:Mitchell, Barbara A. (Autumn 2012).
1849:
1762:and Bolivia. Castillero Calvo p. 193
1245:on the San Juan River. The siege of
1122:
922:(which the British had divided into
744:(Revolutionary) and financier. When
1699:Nelson: A Dream of Glory, 1758–1797
1628:
1313:Latin American wars of independence
697:Aid to the United States: 1776–1778
13:
1793:Castillero Calvo, Alfredo (2004).
1777:
1697:This account follows John Sugden,
1451:
851:
813:, signed 11 March 1778, Spain won
781:, signed on 1 October 1777, after
14:
2575:
1784:CalderĂłn Cuadrado, Reyes (2004).
1457:
1422:Thomas E. Chavez (January 2004).
1279:
1133:The Spanish also assisted in the
648:independence of the United States
425:Louisiana and Northwest Territory
1906:MHQ (Military History Quarterly)
1797:. Madrid: Ediciones San Marcos.
985:halted an expedition to capture
823:First League of Armed Neutrality
775:Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–77)
192:
177:
1788:. Madrid: Union Editorial, S.A.
1765:
1752:
1739:
1726:
1713:
1704:
1691:
1666:
1657:
1648:
1610:
1601:
1592:
1583:
1570:
1561:
1548:
1156:
1147:Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis
912:British expedition against Cuba
2368:Dominican Republic (1863–1865)
1535:
1522:
1509:
1500:
1491:
1482:
1442:
1189:, which would effectively cut
1177:. The goal was to sail up the
1143:François Joseph Paul de Grasse
667:Roderigue Hortalez and Company
1:
2564:Anglo-Spanish War (1779–1783)
2469:Spain–United States relations
1578:Gibraltar besieged, 1779–1783
1409:
1087:The Spanish garrisons in the
779:First Treaty of San Ildefonso
22:Anglo-Spanish War (1779–1783)
2479:Wars involving Great Britain
1328:
1071:authorized an expedition by
7:
1913:Sparks, Jared (1829–1830).
1448:Fernández y Fernández, p. 4
1333:Spain's involvement in the
1307:nation was eager to spread
882:invasion of Menorca in 1781
777:proved successful. In the
10:
2580:
2509:1783 in the British Empire
2504:1782 in the British Empire
2499:1781 in the British Empire
2494:1780 in the British Empire
2489:1779 in the British Empire
2464:American Revolutionary War
2200:Banda Oriental (1735–1737)
1953:Spanish colonial campaigns
1850:Dull, Jonathan R. (1975).
1831:Chávez, Thomas E. (2002).
1545:(1953), New York: Viking.
1530:An Encyclopedia of History
1517:An Encyclopedia of History
1428:. UNM Press. p. 225.
1335:American Revolutionary War
1283:
1169:and commander-in-chief of
1126:
981:in 1779 and 1780. While a
895:
892:West Indies and Gulf Coast
748:was appointed Governor of
67:June 1779 – September 1783
29:American Revolutionary War
2554:1783 in the United States
2544:1782 in the United States
2534:1781 in the United States
2524:1780 in the United States
2514:1779 in the United States
2474:Military history of Spain
2343:
2253:
2245:RĂo de la Plata (1806–07)
2205:North America (1739–1748)
2185:North America (1702–1713)
2175:
1982:
1959:
1812:Caughey, John W. (1998).
1554:John D. Grainger (2005),
1342:on many fronts against a
1197:. Because of disease and
1107:, in the modern state of
755:As the American diplomat
687:King Charles III of Spain
558:
298:
223:Luis de CĂłrdova y CĂłrdova
206:
169:
59:
38:
26:
21:
1749:(10th ed. 1980) p 32-33.
1185:and capture the town of
1014:rebuffed in October 1779
2393:Philippines (1896–1898)
2358:Cochinchina (1858–1862)
2102:Philippines (1567–1872)
2097:Philippines (1565–1900)
1868:Harvey, Robert (2004).
1673:Coleman, Terry (2004).
1302:Contribution to victory
1222:, about 300 men of the
874:George Augustus Elliott
646:, played a role in the
2373:Chile/Peru (1864–1866)
2235:Gulf Coast (1779–1783)
1354:
1117:Treaty of Paris (1783)
1057:Treaty of Paris (1763)
1048:
955:the attack and capture
848:signed in April 1779.
799:Colonia del Sacramento
691:Count of Floridablanca
683:Bourbon Family Compact
243:George Augustus Eliott
207:Commanders and leaders
2459:18th century in Spain
2315:Venezuela (1811–1823)
2290:Argentina (1810–1818)
2240:Caribbean (1779–1783)
2157:Canary Islands (1657)
2017:Guatemala (1524–1697)
1635:National Park Service
1541:"Spanish Guinea", in
1392:Don Diego de Gardoqui
1352:
1286:Peace of Paris (1783)
1097:Battle of Saint Louis
1042:Viscount of Galveston
1039:
967:forcing the surrender
937:On the mainland, the
807:Treaty of Tordesillas
233:George Brydges Rodney
54:Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau
2484:Wars involving Spain
2257:wars of independence
2230:Sacramento (1776–77)
2210:Sacramento (1762–63)
1736:(Hachette UK, 2008).
1400:Charles III of Spain
1270:captured the Bahamas
1010:San Fernando de Omoa
654:from Britain in the
81:Straits of Gibraltar
2408:Morocco (1920–1926)
2353:Balanguingui (1848)
2330:Ecuador (1820–1822)
2275:Bolivia (1809–1825)
2027:Yucatán (1527–1697)
2012:Chiapas (1523–1695)
1719:Richard B. Morris,
1239:hand-to-hand combat
1113:Northwest Territory
1075:, who captured the
1073:George Rogers Clark
1063:. In January 1778,
991:Battle of Pensacola
898:Gulf Coast campaign
803:Misiones Orientales
762:most favored nation
375:Strait of Gibraltar
302:Europe and Atlantic
2398:Puerto Rico (1898)
2335:Mexico (1821–1829)
2325:Colombia (1819–20)
2320:Colombia (1815–16)
2305:El Salvador (1811)
2295:Mexico (1810–1821)
2285:Paraguay (1810–11)
2225:Philippines (1762)
2142:Philippines (1646)
2122:Puerto Rico (1598)
2112:Puerto Rico (1595)
2007:Mexico (1519–1521)
2002:Mexico (1519–1933)
1908:. pp. 98–104.
1745:Thomas A. Bailey,
1629:Collins, William.
1580:(Heinemann, 1965).
1355:
1294:and also regained
1051:At the end of the
1049:
1032:Mississippi Valley
951:Mississippi Valley
947:Bernardo de Gálvez
910:, remembering the
870:siege of Gibraltar
846:Treaty of Aranjuez
811:Treaty of El Pardo
783:Mary I of Portugal
769:Declaration of war
656:siege of Pensacola
552:Anglo-Spanish Wars
399:Lake Pontchartrain
213:Bernardo de Gálvez
50:siege of Pensacola
46:Bernardo de Gálvez
33:Anglo-Spanish Wars
2454:Conflicts in 1783
2449:Conflicts in 1782
2444:Conflicts in 1781
2439:Conflicts in 1780
2434:Conflicts in 1779
2421:
2420:
2413:Morocco (1957–58)
2363:Morocco (1859–60)
2300:Chile (1810–1826)
2147:Hispaniola (1655)
2052:Chile (1536–1810)
2022:Petén (1618-1697)
1997:Algeria (1517–18)
1895:978-84-95146-36-6
1684:978-0-19-517322-2
1654:Caughey pp. 98–99
1435:978-0-8263-2794-9
1396:George Washington
1379:French Revolution
1224:Loyal Irish Corps
1135:siege of Yorktown
1129:Yorktown Campaign
1123:Siege of Yorktown
1077:fort at Vincennes
999:Mississippi River
943:Spanish Louisiana
819:Equatorial Guinea
757:Benjamin Franklin
707:Mississippi River
671:siege of Yorktown
660:Mississippi River
636:
635:
518:
517:
253:
252:
165:
164:
2571:
2388:Cuba (1895–1898)
2378:Cuba (1868–1878)
2270:Peru (1811–1824)
2255:Spanish American
2220:Nicaragua (1762)
2137:St. Kitts (1629)
2037:Peru (1531–1572)
1946:
1939:
1932:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1909:
1883:
1864:
1855:
1846:
1827:
1808:
1789:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1756:
1750:
1743:
1737:
1730:
1724:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1702:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1655:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1626:
1617:
1614:
1608:
1605:
1599:
1596:
1590:
1587:
1581:
1574:
1568:
1565:
1559:
1552:
1546:
1539:
1533:
1526:
1520:
1513:
1507:
1504:
1498:
1495:
1489:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1470:on July 26, 2018
1455:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1419:
1359:Seven Years' War
1317:Thomas A. Bailey
1167:British governor
1089:Louisiana region
1061:American Midwest
1053:Seven Years' War
789:, Spain won the
730:Continental Army
553:
545:
538:
531:
522:
521:
293:
289:
279:
272:
265:
256:
255:
218:MatĂas de Gálvez
202:
198:
196:
195:
187:
183:
181:
180:
136:Spanish victory
85:Balearic Islands
61:
60:
43:
19:
18:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2339:
2256:
2249:
2171:
1978:
1955:
1950:
1880:
1843:
1824:
1805:
1780:
1778:Further reading
1775:
1770:
1766:
1757:
1753:
1744:
1740:
1732:Brendan Simms,
1731:
1727:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1639:
1637:
1627:
1620:
1616:Harvey p.413-14
1615:
1611:
1606:
1602:
1598:Chartrand 54–56
1597:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1553:
1549:
1540:
1536:
1527:
1523:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1497:Mitchell, p. 99
1496:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1471:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1331:
1319:says of Spain:
1304:
1292:Treaty of Paris
1288:
1282:
1232:Miskito Indians
1191:Spanish America
1159:
1131:
1125:
1105:Fort St. Joseph
1034:
900:
894:
886:Luis de CĂłrdova
854:
852:European waters
771:
699:
637:
632:
554:
551:
549:
519:
514:
447:Central America
436:Fort St. Joseph
340:Cape Finisterre
308:English Channel
294:
292:1779–1783
291:
287:
285:
283:
246:
241:
236:
228:Juan de Lángara
226:
221:
216:
193:
191:
178:
176:
146:
127:
101:Central America
77:English Channel
44:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2577:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2383:Cuba (1879–80)
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2349:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2310:Uruguay (1811)
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2280:Florida (1810)
2277:
2272:
2267:
2265:Ecuador (1809)
2261:
2259:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2195:Bahamas (1720)
2192:
2187:
2181:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2167:Jamaica (1658)
2164:
2162:Jamaica (1657)
2159:
2154:
2152:Jamaica (1655)
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2132:Formosa (1626)
2129:
2127:Morocco (1614)
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2107:Tunisia (1574)
2104:
2099:
2094:
2092:Algeria (1563)
2089:
2087:Tunisia (1560)
2084:
2082:Algeria (1558)
2079:
2077:Algeria (1556)
2074:
2072:Algeria (1555)
2069:
2064:
2062:Tunisia (1550)
2059:
2057:Algeria (1541)
2054:
2049:
2047:Tunisia (1535)
2044:
2042:Tunisia (1534)
2039:
2034:
2032:Algeria (1529)
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1992:Algeria (1516)
1988:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1974:Morocco (1497)
1971:
1965:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1949:
1948:
1941:
1934:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1910:
1897:
1884:
1878:
1865:
1856:
1847:
1841:
1828:
1822:
1809:
1803:
1790:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1764:
1751:
1738:
1725:
1712:
1710:Sugden, p. 173
1703:
1690:
1683:
1665:
1656:
1647:
1618:
1609:
1600:
1591:
1589:Chartrand p.84
1582:
1576:Jack Russell,
1569:
1560:
1547:
1534:
1521:
1508:
1499:
1490:
1488:Caughey, p. 87
1481:
1450:
1441:
1434:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1303:
1300:
1284:Main article:
1281:
1280:Peace of Paris
1278:
1257:, and perhaps
1220:79th Regiments
1206:Horatio Nelson
1183:Lake Nicaragua
1179:San Juan River
1158:
1155:
1127:Main article:
1124:
1121:
1095:allies in the
1081:Oliver Pollock
1040:Statue of the
1033:
1030:
893:
890:
878:returning home
853:
850:
815:Spanish Guinea
791:Banda Oriental
785:had dismissed
770:
767:
738:Oliver Pollock
734:Luis de Unzaga
713:, through the
698:
695:
634:
633:
631:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
559:
556:
555:
548:
547:
540:
533:
525:
516:
515:
513:
512:
507:
502:
497:
491:
490:
486:
485:
480:
475:
470:
465:
460:
455:
449:
448:
444:
443:
438:
433:
427:
426:
422:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
390:
389:
383:
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
350:Cape St. Maria
347:
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
316:
315:
304:
303:
299:
296:
295:
282:
281:
274:
267:
259:
251:
250:
230:
209:
208:
204:
203:
188:
172:
171:
167:
166:
163:
162:
161:ceded to Spain
148:
142:
141:
139:Peace of Paris
133:
129:
128:
89:Atlantic Ocean
75:
73:
69:
68:
65:
57:
56:
52:, painting by
36:
35:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2576:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2559:1783 in Spain
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2549:1782 in Spain
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2539:1781 in Spain
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2529:1780 in Spain
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2519:1779 in Spain
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2252:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2190:Chiloé (1712)
2188:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1969:Guinea (1478)
1967:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1947:
1942:
1940:
1935:
1933:
1928:
1927:
1924:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1879:1-84119-952-4
1875:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1842:0-8263-2794-X
1838:
1834:
1829:
1825:
1823:1-56554-517-6
1819:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1804:84-89127-47-6
1800:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1781:
1768:
1761:
1755:
1748:
1742:
1735:
1729:
1722:
1716:
1707:
1700:
1694:
1686:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1660:
1651:
1636:
1632:
1625:
1623:
1613:
1604:
1595:
1586:
1579:
1573:
1567:Sparks, 1:408
1564:
1557:
1551:
1544:
1538:
1531:
1525:
1518:
1512:
1506:Sparks, 1:201
1503:
1494:
1485:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1445:
1437:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1351:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1309:republicanism
1299:
1297:
1293:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1260:
1259:typhoid fever
1256:
1252:
1248:
1247:Fort San Juan
1244:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1216:60th Regiment
1213:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1195:Pacific Ocean
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1069:Patrick Henry
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1029:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
899:
889:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
849:
847:
842:
839:
835:
831:
826:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
766:
763:
758:
753:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
722:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
694:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
663:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
560:
557:
546:
541:
539:
534:
532:
527:
526:
523:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
492:
488:
487:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
473:Fort San Juan
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
450:
446:
445:
442:
441:Arkansas Post
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
428:
424:
423:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
391:
388:
385:
384:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
314:
311:
310:
309:
306:
305:
301:
300:
297:
290:
280:
275:
273:
268:
266:
261:
260:
257:
249:
248:John Campbell
244:
239:
234:
231:
229:
224:
219:
214:
211:
210:
205:
201:
200:Great Britain
189:
186:
174:
173:
168:
160:
156:
152:
149:
144:
143:
140:
137:
134:
131:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
93:Caribbean Sea
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
71:
70:
66:
63:
62:
58:
55:
51:
47:
42:
37:
34:
30:
25:
20:
2067:Libya (1551)
1984:Habsburg era
1961:Early empire
1914:
1905:
1886:
1872:. Robinson.
1869:
1860:
1851:
1832:
1813:
1794:
1785:
1767:
1754:
1746:
1741:
1733:
1728:
1720:
1715:
1706:
1698:
1693:
1674:
1668:
1659:
1650:
1638:. Retrieved
1612:
1607:Harvey p.532
1603:
1594:
1585:
1577:
1572:
1563:
1555:
1550:
1542:
1537:
1529:
1524:
1516:
1511:
1502:
1493:
1484:
1472:. Retrieved
1468:the original
1463:
1453:
1444:
1424:
1417:
1404:Mount Vernon
1390:
1387:
1375:
1356:
1332:
1305:
1296:East Florida
1289:
1267:
1263:
1236:
1211:Hinchinbrook
1210:
1203:
1163:John Dalling
1160:
1157:Antilles War
1132:
1086:
1050:
1022:yellow fever
1003:
995:West Florida
936:
928:East Florida
924:West Florida
914:that seized
901:
855:
843:
827:
772:
754:
723:
700:
679:Spanish Cuba
664:
652:West Florida
638:
607:
463:San Fernando
380:Cape Spartel
286:
238:Richard Howe
170:Belligerents
155:West Florida
151:East Florida
135:
27:Part of the
2403:Guam (1898)
2345:Late empire
2215:Cuba (1762)
2177:Bourbon era
2117:Cuba (1596)
1771:Chávez p. 2
1663:Dull p. 245
1464:www.nps.gov
971:Baton Rouge
750:New Orleans
726:Charles Lee
705:and up the
703:New Orleans
505:17 February
489:West Indies
483:Black River
468:12 December
458:Cayo Cocina
414:The Village
404:Baton Rouge
355:25 February
345:St. Vincent
335:20 November
145:Territorial
97:The Bahamas
2428:Categories
1701:, ch. VII.
1410:References
1340:global war
1199:logistical
896:See also:
866:privateers
834:Arthur Lee
809:. In the
510:2nd Nassau
500:1st Nassau
495:15 January
409:1st Mobile
387:Gulf Coast
1474:1 October
1371:Caribbean
1363:Gibraltar
1344:coalition
1329:Aftermath
1255:dysentery
1175:Nicaragua
1103:and took
1067:Governor
1006:Nicaragua
987:Pensacola
983:hurricane
965:and then
959:Fort Bute
904:Caribbean
858:Gibraltar
728:sent two
628:1833–1840
623:1815–1832
618:1804–1808
613:1796–1802
608:1779–1783
603:1762–1763
598:1739–1748
593:1727–1729
588:1718–1720
583:1702–1713
578:1662–1668
573:1654–1660
568:1625–1630
563:1585–1604
453:RĂo Hondo
431:St. Louis
419:Pensacola
394:Fort Bute
320:Gibraltar
105:Louisiana
1640:10 March
1109:Michigan
1101:Illinois
1065:Virginia
953:, first
945:, Count
939:governor
797:), with
719:Gardoqui
715:Gardoqui
313:Plymouth
125:Arkansas
117:Illinois
113:Missouri
72:Location
31:and the
1723:(1965).
1458:Staff.
1383:Bolivia
1367:Menorca
1274:Jamaica
1251:malaria
1243:Bartola
1208:in the
1187:Granada
1171:Jamaica
1026:Jamaica
975:Natchez
963:Manchac
920:Florida
902:In the
862:Menorca
838:Genoese
795:Uruguay
742:Patriot
677:, then
644:Britain
370:Minorca
159:Minorca
147:changes
121:Florida
109:Alabama
48:at the
1893:
1876:
1839:
1820:
1801:
1681:
1432:
1228:blacks
1165:, the
1151:Havana
1093:Indian
1046:Málaga
1016:, and
979:Mobile
932:Belize
916:Havana
868:. The
787:Pombal
711:Bilbao
689:, the
675:Havana
478:Roatán
360:Málaga
330:Lisbon
325:Azores
197:
182:
157:, and
132:Result
640:Spain
365:1 May
185:Spain
1891:ISBN
1874:ISBN
1837:ISBN
1818:ISBN
1799:ISBN
1760:Peru
1679:ISBN
1642:2012
1476:2019
1430:ISBN
1253:and
1230:and
1012:was
977:and
926:and
908:Cuba
860:and
773:The
740:, a
64:Date
1181:to
1044:in
969:of
961:at
957:of
941:of
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1904:.
1633:.
1621:^
1462:.
1406:.
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119:,
115:,
111:,
107:,
103:,
99:,
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87:,
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79:,
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1938:t
1931:v
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1845:.
1826:.
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1687:.
1644:.
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1438:.
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544:e
537:t
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278:e
271:t
264:v
245:,
240:,
235:,
225:,
220:,
215:,
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