417:
not detectable by standard techniques, or that individuals do not need antibodies against COVID-19 in order to recover. Individuals who recover from COVID-19 but never seroconvert tend to have lower viral loads and be of younger age than individuals who do seroconvert. This may indicate that individuals who have experienced less severe COVID-19 infections are less likely to trigger full responses from their immune systems and that these individuals manage to clear the infection despite not producing sufficient quantities of antibodies or any specific antibodies against COVID-19 at all. Significantly older patients of greater than eighty years old are more likely to have higher quantities of IgG antibodies compared to younger patients at the time of infection. This is consistent with the fact that older patients tend to have more severe COVID-19 infections and thus have higher viral loads compared to younger patients. However, this increased antibody load tends to decrease after about three months post-recovery compared to younger patients, compared to the six to seven months observed in the general population. This implies that the resistance may not last long-term in older individuals, leaving them suspectible to subsequent COVID-19 infections. Some studies have disputed the link between concentrations of antibodies of either IgM or IgG and the severity of the disease course.
389:(N). Concentrations of antibodies develop after several days and reach their maximal value approximately two to three weeks after infection. Some individuals have detectable levels of both IgG and IgM as early as within the first week after symptoms begin. Although viral infections typically have a rise in IgM that precedes a rise in IgG, some individuals infected with COVID-19 have both IgM and IgG responses at approximately the same time. After initial seroconversion for either IgM or both IgG and IgM, concentrations continue to rise and peak within one week after antibodies first become detectable. Concentration of IgM tend to fall within three weeks after symptoms first begin regardless of resolution to the COVID-19 infection. Levels of IgG plateau and remain high for at least six to seven months after the resolution of the infection in most individuals. The length of time that anti-spike IgG remains high varies greatly between different individuals. Older individuals and individuals with less robust immune systems tend to serorevert within a shorter period of time.
455:
produced by the body, first in short-term IgM (anti-HBc IgM), and subsequently in long-term IgG; while levels of IgM anti-HBc will peak around sixteen weeks after exposure and fall within about seven to eight months, IgG anti-HBc will remain detectable in the serum as a sign of chronic infection for years. IgM anti-HBc concentration will fall regardless of whether or not the individual clears the infection. The window period for HBsAg/anti-HBs testing occurs as concentration of HBsAg falls and before the body develops anti-HBs antibodies, lasting approximately six to eight weeks in most individuals. During this time, serology assays can test for total anti-HBc. Levels of anti-surface antibody (anti-HBs) generally become detectable after thirty-two weeks and peak around thirty-six to forty; the production of anti-HBs antibodies indicates imminent resolution of the HBV infection. Anti-HBs concentration falls as the infection resolves but does not serorevert completely, and anti-HBs IgG remains positive for years as a sign of immunity.
463:
resolved. The presence of surface antibody (anti-HBs) indicates an individual with immunity to hepatitis B, whether due to previously resolved infection or due to hepatitis B vaccination. For example, an individual who has never had any exposure to HBV, either by vaccine or by infection, would test negative for the entire serology panel. An individual who has been vaccinated and never had an infection will test seropositive for anti-HBs due to vaccination and negative for markers of infection. An individual with an acute HBV infection would test positive for HBsAg and anti-HBc (total and IgM) while negative for anti-HBs. An individual with a chronic infection would test positive for HBsAg and total anti-HBc (IgM and IgG), but negative for IgM anti-HBc and anti-HBs. An individual who has successfully resolved their HBV infection will test negative for HBsAg, positive for anti-HBc, and may test negative or positive for anti-HBs, although most will test positive..
393:
clinical efficacy of vaccines. This suggests that for most individuals, seroconversion does lead to resistance. Studies of the available COVID-19 vaccines have indicated that vaccination causes a stronger seroconversion with a heightened peak concentration of IgG antibodies, as well as a longer plateau of resistance compared to seroconversion from a natural infection of COVID-19. The timeline of seroconversion is similar between seroconversion from infection and seroconversion from vaccines. Antibodies first becoming detectable within approximately two to three weeks. Younger individuals tend to have more robust responses to vaccinations compared to older individuals. The difference in the robustness of the response increases with the second dose. Younger individuals tend to have much higher and more sustained peaks of anti-spike IgG antibodies following the second dose. Many otherwise ill individuals, such as those with cancer or
316:, the standard for testing, is about two weeks. However, the window periods used for the assays are based on capturing as many people as possible. More recent, fourth-generation assays that assess for both the antibody and the antigen can have a window period as short as six weeks to detect more than 99% of infections, while third-generation tests that assess only for unbound antibody tend to have a longer window period of eight to nine weeks. Third-generation tests are no longer recommended if fourth-generation tests are available. Rapid tests procurable at a consumer level often fail to detect antibody until at least three months have passed since the initial infection. It takes longer for fingerstick blood or other fluids to accumulate sufficiently high levels of antibodies compared to venous blood plasma sampling. Thus
128:
antigen molecules than antibody molecules, the majority of the antibody molecules are bound to antigen. Thus, tests at this stage are unable to detect sufficient unbound antigen. On the other hand, there may be unbound antigen that can be detectable. As seroconversion progresses, the amount of antibody in the blood gradually rises. Eventually the amount of antibody outnumbers the amount of antigen. At this time, the majority of the antigen molecules is bound to antibodies, and the antigen is undetectable. Conversely, there is a substantial amount of unbound antibodies, allowing standard techniques to detect these antibodies.
22:
430:
recovery from infection alone does not guarantee resistance to COVID-19. Even for individuals who seroconverted, seropositivity is at best only as protective as a single dose of vaccine, as opposed to the more robust protection of both doses of the vaccine and subsequent boosters. Therefore, those who have recovered from COVID-19, regardless of seropositivity, are still advised by health bodies such as the CDC to seek vaccination to prevent future reinfection and to limit future potential spread of COVID-19.
467:
time, and boosters are also recommended for immunocompromised individuals after five years. However, those who are immunocompetent may forego testing or boosters after the five-year period. Individuals who receive vaccination for HBV should undergo serology testing to confirm seroconversion following the initial vaccine series as well as any boosters. Those who are persistent non-responders to the booster series are unlikely to benefit from additional boosters and should instead be cautioned on prevention.
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equal, each antibody molecule will be in a complex and be undetectable by standard techniques. The antigen, which is bound as well, will also be undetectable. The antibody or antigen is only detectable in the blood when there is substantially more of one than the other. Standard techniques require a high enough concentration of antibody or antigen to detect the amount of antibody or antigen; therefore, they cannot detect the small amount that is not bound during seroconversion.
297:
439:
413:
antibodies are less likely to have a severe disease course. Studies suggest that anti-spike antibodies confer greater resistance to COVID-19 than anti-nucleocapsid antibodies. A higher ratio of anti-spike antibodies to anti-nucleocapsid antibodies thus serves as a predictor of disease course and patient mortality. As a result, currently available vaccines target the production of anti-spike antibodies rather than anti-nucleocapsid antibodies.
337:
weeks. Some people have no symptoms at all. The symptoms of seroconversion are non-specific and can often be mistaken for a more benign illness such as the flu. Symptoms can include lymphadenopathy (swelling of the lymph glands), general fatigue and malaise, chills, low-grade fever, sore throat, body aches, night sweats, ulcers in the mouth, pain in the joints and muscles, loss of appetite, headache, and a
370:
testing is primarily used to detect individuals who have been infected with COVID-19 in the past who have already resolved their infections. Due to the time delay of seroconversion compared to viral load, seroconversion is not sufficiently timely to diagnose a current case of COVID-19. However, seroconversion may be helpful for individuals with suspected infections who are negative by
174:
infections and antigens lead to the production of antibodies for differing periods of time. Some infections may lead to antibodies that the immune system produces for years after the infection resolves. Others lead to antibodies that the immune system only produces for a few weeks following resolution. After seroreversion, tests can no longer detect antibodies in a patient's serum.
325:(PrEP) can experience extended window periods compared to the average population, leading to ambiguous testing. Thus, individuals who test negative for HIV before the window period ends for that specific test will usually need to be retested after the window period, as they may fall into the minority who take more time to develop antibodies.
341:
on the trunk of the body. Because not all individuals experience the symptoms of seroconversion, and because they are non-specific, individuals should receive testing for HIV if they are high-risk or have possibly had an exposure to HIV. Likewise, if an individual suspects exposure for HIV, a lack of
336:
About 70-80% of people infected with HIV will experience symptoms during the seroconversion period within about two to four weeks, primarily associated with a high viral load and the immune system's acute response to the infection. These symptoms can last for anywhere from a couple of days to several
173:
Seroreversion is the opposite of seroconversion. During seroreversion, the amount of antibody in the serum decreases. This decrease may occur naturally as a result of the infection resolving and the immune system slowly tamping down its response, or as a result of loss of the immune system. Different
155:
result when testing for the infection. The time during which the amount of antibody and antigen are sufficiently similar that standard techniques will be unable to detect the antibody or antigen is referred to as the window period. Since different antibodies are produced independently of one another,
147:
is a term denoting the presence or absence of particular antibodies in an individual's blood. An individual's serostatus may be positive or negative. During seroconversion, the specific antibody being tested for is generated. Therefore, before seroconversion, the serological assay will not detect any
536:
Seroconversion: The development of detectable antibodies in the blood that are directed against an infectious agent. Antibodies do not usually develop until some time after the initial exposure to the agent. Following seroconversion, a person tests positive for the antibody when given tests that are
466:
Some studies have suggested that a significant minority across all population cohorts fails to seroconvert after the standard three-dose series. For these individuals, a booster is recommended. Other studies have indicated that even for those who seroconvert, the immunity conferred may decrease over
416:
Not all individuals who are infected to COVID-19 seroconvert, including individuals who otherwise fully recover from COVID-19. This could suggest that the individuals are developing antibodies that standard techniques do not cover, that individuals can recover with extremely low levels of antibodies
177:
The immune system generates antibodies to any antigen, so seroconversion can occur as a result of either natural infection or as a result of vaccination. Detectable seroconversion and the timeline of seroconversion are among of the parameters studied in evaluating the efficacy of vaccines. A vaccine
123:
by replicating the antibodies that bind to them. If an antibody is already bound to an antigen, that antibody and that antigen cannot bind to the test. Antibody tests therefore cannot detect that specific antibody molecule. Due to this binding, if the amounts of antigen and antibody in the blood are
65:
in response. Before seroconversion, the antigen itself may or may not be detectable, but the antibody is absent. During seroconversion, the antibody is present but not yet detectable. After seroconversion, the antibody is detectable by standard techniques and remains detectable unless the individual
269:
Upon reinfection, levels of both IgM and IgG rise, with IgM antibodies having a more rapid but smaller and less sustained peak, and IgG antibodies having a slightly slower, but far greater peak sustained over a longer period of time compared to IgM antibodies. Subsequent infections will demonstrate
217:
to the human population. Epidemiologists compare archived human blood specimens taken from infected hosts before an epidemic and later specimens from infected hosts at later stages of the epidemic. In this context, seroconversion refers to the process of anti-viral antibodies becoming detectable in
127:
The immune system may take several days or weeks to detect antigen in tissue, begin to create antibodies, and ramp up the production of antibodies to counter the antigen. As a result, the antigen molecules outnumber the antibody molecules in the early stages of an infection. Because there are more
164:
result, causing the individual to appear to have seroconverted when the individual has not. False positives can occur due to the test reacting to, or detecting, an antibody that happens to be sufficiently similar in structure to the target antibody. Antibodies are generated randomly, so the immune
70:
or decreasing antibody concentrations over time. Seroconversion refers the production of specific antibodies against specific antigens, meaning that a single infection could cause multiple waves of seroconversion against different antigens. Similarly, a single antigen could cause multiple waves of
462:
On a serological assay, the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) indicates an individual with a currently active hepatitis B infection, whether acute or chronic. The presence of core antibody (anti-HBc) indicates an individual with an infection in general, whether current or previously
454:
In the typical disease course for hepatitis B, the individual will first seroconvert for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). While some can convert within one week, most individuals take about four weeks after initial infection to convert. Anti-core antibodies (anti-HBc) are the first antibodies
377:
Not all people who are infected with SARS-CoV-2 become seropositive. Conversely, some individuals can become seropositive without ever experiencing symptoms of COVID-19 or knowing that they were exposed to COVID-19 at any point. Some asymptomatic individuals can still transmit COVID-19 to others.
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will begin to produce antibodies within a few weeks after their initial exposure to HIV. During the window period, the antibody assay cannot detect unbound anti-HIV antibodies and will indicate that the individual is seronegative. The length of the window period depends on the individual's immune
450:
infections. As in other viral infections, seropositivity indicates that an individual has a sufficiently high concentration of antibody or antigen in the blood to be detectable by standard techniques. While assays for other infections such as COVID-19 and HIV primarily test for seroconversion of
392:
Becoming seropositive for COVID-19 antibodies can occur due to either infection with COVID-19 itself or due to becoming vaccinated to COVID-19. Being seropositive for COVID-19 does not intrinsically confer immunity or even resistance. However, higher rates of seroconversion are linked to greater
190:
antibodies will retain that infection chronically unless treated with medications specific to HIV. Conversely, seroconversion in other infections may indicate resistance or immunity. For example, higher concentrations of antibodies after seroconversion in individuals vaccinated against COVID-19
90:
Because seroconversion refers to detectability by standard techniques, seropositivity status depends on the sensitivity and specificity of the assay. As a result, assays, like any serum test, may give false positives or false negatives and should be confirmed if used for diagnosis or treatment.
86:
Seroconversion rates are one of the methods used for determining the efficacy of a vaccine. The higher the rate of seroconversion, the more protective the vaccine for a greater proportion of the population. Seroconversion does not inherently confer immunity or resistance to infection. Only some
412:
Seroconversion does not necessarily occur at the same rate to all COVID-19 antigens. Individuals who seroconvert more rapidly to different antigens may have different disease courses. Individuals infected with COVID-19 who developed primarily anti-spike antibodies rather than anti-nucleocapsid
369:
As with other viruses, seroconversion in COVID-19 refers to the development of antibodies in the blood serum against COVID-19 antigens. An individual is seropositive, or has seroconverted for COVID-19, once standard techniques are able to detect COVID-19 antibodies in the blood. Seroconversion
429:
dose, due to this increased concentration of IgG antibodies. Some individuals who have recovered from COVID-19 may decline vaccination due to the belief that their recovery from infection has a protective effect. Nevertheless, the lack of seroconversion for all former infectees indicates that
458:
Hepatitis B e-antigen (HBeAg) is a sign of current infectivity. An individual who is seropositive for HBeAg can infect others. An individual who is infected with HBV and who never becomes seropositive for HBeAg can likewise be infective, because not all HBV infections produce HBeAg. For most
420:
Several studies have demonstrated that individuals who recovered from COVID-19 infections and are seropositive for COVID-19 at the time of vaccination produce significantly more anti-spike IgG antibodies in response to vaccination than individuals who are not seropositive for COVID-19, while
185:
An individual being seropositive means that the individual has antibodies to that antigen, but it does not mean that that individual has immunity or even resistance to the infection. While antibodies form an important part of the immune system's ability to fight off and resolve an infection,
320:
tests reliant on these sources can have even longer periods. While a reactive (seropositive) rapid point of care test may prompt an individual to undergo further testing. A non-reactive (negative) rapid point of care test should still be followed up with immunoassay testing such as by a
169:
can temporarily test falsely seropositive. Due to the possibility of false positives, positive test results are usually reported as "reactive." This indicates that the assay reacted to antibodies, but this does not mean that the individual has the specific antibodies tested for.
345:
The immune system mounts an acute effort to resolve the HIV infection during the seroconversion period. Following this period, the immune system temporarily contains the infection. The symptoms of seroconversion lessen and disappear in most people, with HIV entering a stage of
288:) sometimes does not follow the usual pattern, with IgM sometimes occurring after IgG, together with IgG, or not occurring at all. Generally, however, median IgM detection occurs 5 days after symptom onset, and IgG is detected a median 14 days after symptom onset.
148:
antibody, and the individual's serostatus is seronegative for the antibody. After seroconversion, sufficient concentration of the specific antibody exists in the blood, and the serological assay will detect the antibody. The individual is now seropositive for the antibody.
249:
to begin producing antibodies, and it takes further time for those antibodies to develop sufficient specificity to bind strongly to their specific antigen. In the initial (primary infection) phase of the infection, the immune system responds by generating weakly binding
451:
antibodies against antigens, assays for HBV also test for antigens. The standard serology panel for seroconversion include hepatitis B surface antigen, hepatitis B surface antibody for IgM and IgG, hepatitis B core antibody for IgM and IgG, and hepatitis B e-antigen.
378:
However, it is unclear whether all asymptomatic individuals who seroconvert to COVID-19 had transmissibility at any point (active infection), or whether an individual can seroconvert to COVID-19 without undergoing a period during which they can infect others.
421:
individuals who have recovered from COVID-19 infections but never seroconverted and are seronegative respond similarly to individuals who have never been exposed to COVID-19. Specifically, individuals who are seropositive for COVID-19 at the time of their
459:
individuals, those who seroconvert positive for HBeAg during their disease course and subsequently serorevert negative as their infection progresses are no longer infective. Seroreversion from HBeAg is thus used as one marker of resolution of infection.
350:. At this stage, the infection remains within the body without causing symptoms, and the viral load gradually increases. The body continues producing anti-HIV antibodies throughout clinical latency, and the HIV infection remains detectable.
409:, can exhibit decreased rates of seroconversion for currently available vaccines. The different vaccines currently utilized do not appear to have significant differences in seroconversion rates when compared in similar population groups.
328:
Current CDC recommendations are to begin with a test that screens for both antigen and antibody, then follow up with an immunoassay to differentiate between HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies. Non-reactive (negative) tests are followed up with
159:
Similarly, because standard techniques utilize assumptions about the specificity of antibodies and antigens and are based on chemical interactions, these tests are not completely accurate. Serological assays may give a
202:". This indicates that the individual has a detectable amount of anti-HIV antibodies. An individual may have a transmittable HIV infection before the individual becomes HIV positive due to the window period.
2403:
Thakkar, Astha; Gonzalez-Lugo, Jesus D.; Goradia, Niyati; Gali, Radhika; Shapiro, Lauren C.; Pradhan, Kith; Rahman, Shafia; Kim, So Yeon; Ko, Brian; Sica, R. Alejandro; Kornblum, Noah (9 August 2021).
139:
are tests that detect specific antibodies and are used to determine whether those antibodies are in an organism's blood; such tests require a significant concentration of unbound antibody in the blood
309:
response and the particular parameters of the test. An individual in the window period can still infect others despite appearing seronegative on tests because the individual still carries the virus.
194:
Although seroconversion refers to the production of sufficient quantities of antibodies in the serum, the word seroconversion is often used more specifically in reference to blood testing for anti-
258:
will result in IgM-generating B-cells switching to more specific IgG-generating B-cells. Levels of IgM then gradually decline and eventually become undetectable by immunoassays, while levels of
262:(IgG) levels rise and become detectable. After the infection resolves, levels of IgM antibodies generally fall to completely undetectable levels as the immune response self-regulates, but some
254:(IgM) antibodies; although they individually bind weakly, each IgM antibody has many binding regions and can thus make for an effective initial mobilization of the immune system. Over time,
178:
does not need to have a 100% seroconversion rate to be effective. As long as a sufficient proportion of the population seroconverts, the entire population will be effectively protected by
165:
system has a low chance of generating an antibody capable of weakly binding to the assay by coincidence. More rarely, individuals who have recently had some vaccines or who have certain
353:
Individuals who have become HIV seropositive may benefit from seroconversion testing for comorbid infections for which they are suspectible. For example, positive seroconversion of
3617:
2245:"Safety and efficacy of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine (AZD1222) against SARS-CoV-2: an interim analysis of four randomised controlled trials in Brazil, South Africa, and the UK"
270:
similar patterns, with initial IgM peaks and significantly stronger IgG peaks, with the IgG peak occurring more rapidly during subsequent infections. Thus an elevated IgM
2294:"Robust antibody responses in 70-80-year-olds 3 weeks after the first or second doses of Pfizer/BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, United Kingdom, January to February 2021"
151:
During seroconversion, when the amounts of antibody and antigen are very similar, it may not be possible to detect free antigen or free antibody. This may give a
1164:"The variability of the serological response to SARS-corona virus-2: Potential resolution of ambiguity through determination of avidity (functional affinity)"
342:
symptoms does not indicate that seroconversion has not occurred. 20–30% of people undergoing HIV seroconversion lack symptoms entirely or have mild symptoms.
3497:
Dassah, Sylvester; Sakyi, Samuel A.; Frempong, Margaret T.; Luuse, Arnold T.; Ephraim, Richard K. D.; Anto, Enoch O.; Oduro, Abraham (30 December 2015).
3440:"Evaluation of immune response to Hepatitis B vaccine in health care workers at a tertiary care hospital in Pakistan: an observational prospective study"
1480:"Seroconversion to antibodies against Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-related latent nuclear antigens before the development of Kaposi's sarcoma"
3438:
Zeeshan, Mohammad; Jabeen, Kauser; Ali, Anita
Nausheen Akbar; Ali, Ailia Wilayat; Farooqui, Saadia Z.; Mehraj, Vikram; Zafar, Afia (25 October 2007).
361:, allowing for individuals who are seropositive to be aware of their risk of developing Kaposi's sarcoma and thus receive appropriate monitoring.
509:
371:
281:
186:
antibodies and seropositivity alone do not guarantee that an individual will resolve the infection. An individual who is seropositive for anti-
3169:
266:
will remain as memory cells to produce levels of IgG that will frequently remain detectable for months to years after the initial infection.
1829:"What defines an efficacious COVID-19 vaccine? A review of the challenges assessing the clinical efficacy of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2"
1094:"COVID-19 Seroconversion Among Medical and Paramedical Staff in Emergency, ICU and Infectious Disease Services During the 2020 Epidemic"
1078:
1655:
Galbraith MD, Kinning KT, Sullivan KD, Baxter R, Araya P, Jordan KR, et al. (March 2021). Schoggins JW, Sawyer SL, Khor B (eds.).
531:
354:
2460:
Calleri, Alberto; Saracco, Margherita; Pittaluga, Fabrizia; Cavallo, Rossana; Romagnoli, Renato; Martini, Silvia (26 September 2021).
2525:
Ollila, Thomas A.; Lu, Shaolei; Masel, Rebecca; Zayac, Adam; Paiva, Kimberly; Rogers, Ralph D.; Olszewski, Adam J. (11 August 2021).
2842:"Binding and Neutralization Antibody Titers After a Single Vaccine Dose in Health Care Workers Previously Infected With SARS-CoV-2"
669:"Nature of the antigen-antibody interaction. Primary and secondary bonds: optimal conditions for association and dissociation"
3155:
3096:
873:
707:
565:
782:
3499:"Seroconversion of Hepatitis B Vaccine in Young Children in the Kassena Nankana District of Ghana: A Cross-Sectional Study"
3051:
3290:"Predictive factors for reactivation of hepatitis B following hepatitis B e antigen seroconversion in chronic hepatitis B"
2031:"Dynamics of Neutralizing Antibody Titers in the Months After Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection"
3187:
2462:"Seroconversion After Coronavirus Disease 2019 Vaccination in Patients Awaiting Liver Transplantation: Fact or Fancy?"
235:
3567:
1777:"Antibody Response against SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Implications for Diagnosis, Treatment and Vaccine Development"
807:
397:, still exhibit similar rates of seroconversion to the general population. On the other hand, individuals with
255:
238:. This explains why many childhood diseases never recur in adulthood (and when they do, it generally indicates
2147:"Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in 45,965 adults from the general population of the United Kingdom"
274:
indicates recent primary infection or acute reinfection, while the presence of IgG suggests past infection or
25:
The general stages of seroconversion for hepatitis B, where the line of detectability indicates seropositivity
3654:
66:
seroreverts, in a phenomenon called seroreversion, or loss of antibody detectability, which can occur due to
638:
655:
Antigens include toxins, chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or other substances that come from outside the body.
2685:
Liu W, Russell RM, Bibollet-Ruche F, Skelly AN, Sherrill-Mix S, Freeman DA, et al. (September 2021).
3664:
1933:"SARS-CoV-2 antibody-positivity protects against reinfection for at least seven months with 95% efficacy"
3618:"Non-responders to hepatitis B vaccine are recommended to receive further doses and serological testing"
3331:"Seroconversion after hepatitis B vaccination in healthy young adults, and the effect of a booster dose"
1519:
1213:"Diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 detection: A comprehensive review of the FDA-EUA COVID-19 testing landscape"
3659:
1431:"Seroconversion for human herpesvirus 8 during HIV infection is highly predictive of Kaposi's sarcoma"
501:
1330:
Branson BM, Owen SM, Wesolowski LG, Bennett B, Werner BG, Wroblewski KE, Pentella MA (27 June 2014).
612:
382:
156:
a given infection may have several window periods. Each specific antibody has its own window period.
2894:"Antibody responses to the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine in individuals previously infected with SARS-CoV-2"
2788:
Phipps WS, SoRelle JA, Li QZ, Mahimainathan L, Araj E, Markantonis J, et al. (September 2020).
1429:
Renwick N, Halaby T, Weverling GJ, Dukers NH, Simpson GR, Coutinho RA, et al. (December 1998).
1112:"Molecular and Serological Assays for SARS-CoV-2: Insights from Genome and Clinical Characteristics"
3143:
2840:
Saadat S, Rikhtegaran
Tehrani Z, Logue J, Newman M, Frieman MB, Harris AD, Sajadi MM (April 2021).
756:
584:
381:
Most standard assays for COVID-19 seroconversion test for antibodies against the COVID-19 specific
322:
285:
198:
antibodies. In particular, "seroconverted" has been used to refer to the process of having "become
234:
of infectious pathogens to facilitate early detection and to confer protective immunity against a
2739:
Bag Soytas R, Cengiz M, Islamoglu MS, Uysal BB, Ikitimur H, Yavuzer H, Yavuzer S (October 2021).
2354:
Krammer F, Srivastava K, Alshammary H, Amoako AA, Awawda MH, Beach KF, et al. (April 2021).
1404:
2194:
Polack FP, Thomas SJ, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A, Lockhart S, et al. (December 2020).
1931:
Abu-Raddad LJ, Chemaitelly H, Coyle P, Malek JA, Ahmed AA, Mohamoud YA, et al. (May 2021).
1355:
Smith DK, Switzer WM, Peters P, Delaney KP, Granade TC, Masciotra S, et al. (August 2018).
21:
3117:
3088:
2145:
Wei J, Stoesser N, Matthews PC, Ayoubkhani D, Studley R, Bell I, et al. (September 2021).
1300:
476:
402:
58:
2941:
2292:
Subbarao S, Warrener LA, Hoschler K, Perry KR, Shute J, Whitaker H, et al. (March 2021).
2081:
Sahin U, Muik A, Derhovanessian E, Vogler I, Kranz LM, Vormehr M, et al. (October 2020).
16:
Development of specific antibodies in the blood serum as a result of infection or immunization
2970:
Bonino F, Chiaberge E, Maran E, Piantino P (1987). "Serological markers of HBV infectivity".
2243:
Voysey M, Clemens SA, Madhi SA, Weckx LY, Folegatti PM, Aley PK, et al. (January 2021).
1357:"A Strategy for PrEP Clinicians to Manage Ambiguous HIV Test Results During Follow-up Visits"
863:
394:
300:
The timecourse for an IV infection, where seroconversion occurs during the acute HIV syndrome
3080:
2309:
2029:
Crawford KH, Dingens AS, Eguia R, Wolf CR, Wilcox N, Logue JK, et al. (February 2021).
527:
3510:
2356:"Antibody Responses in Seropositive Persons after a Single Dose of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccine"
2098:
1605:"Asymptomatic Seroconversion of Immunoglobulins to SARS-CoV-2 in a Pediatric Dialysis Unit"
1603:
Hains DS, Schwaderer AL, Carroll AE, Starr MC, Wilson AC, Amanat F, Krammer F (June 2020).
231:
104:
72:
889:
832:
8:
2631:
Atyeo C, Fischinger S, Zohar T, Slein MD, Burke J, Loos C, et al. (September 2020).
914:
731:
358:
209:, seroconversion is often used in reference to observing the evolution of a virus from a
3514:
2892:
Ebinger JE, Fert-Bober J, Printsev I, Wu M, Sun N, Prostko JC, et al. (June 2021).
2527:"Antibody Response to COVID-19 Vaccination in Adults With Hematologic Malignant Disease"
2102:
988:
Bergwerk M, Gonen T, Lustig Y, Amit S, Lipsitch M, Cohen C, et al. (October 2021).
425:
dose of vaccination have a response similar to the general population's response to the
3592:
3541:
3498:
3474:
3439:
3415:
3382:
3270:
3217:
2918:
2893:
2866:
2841:
2814:
2789:
2765:
2740:
2711:
2686:
2657:
2632:
2608:
2583:
2559:
2507:
2494:
2461:
2437:
2404:
2380:
2355:
2326:
2293:
2269:
2244:
2220:
2195:
2171:
2146:
2124:
2055:
2030:
2006:
1981:
1957:
1932:
1910:
1853:
1828:
1801:
1776:
1737:
1710:
1683:
1656:
1629:
1604:
1582:
1460:
1381:
1356:
1237:
1212:
1188:
1163:
1136:
1111:
1060:
1016:
989:
965:
940:
553:
481:
338:
2260:
1844:
1478:
Gao SJ, Kingsley L, Hoover DR, Spira TJ, Rinaldo CR, Saah A, et al. (July 1996).
3649:
3546:
3528:
3479:
3461:
3420:
3402:
3360:
3352:
3311:
3262:
3209:
3161:
3151:
3092:
3081:
2979:
2923:
2871:
2819:
2770:
2716:
2662:
2613:
2564:
2546:
2511:
2499:
2481:
2442:
2424:
2385:
2331:
2313:
2274:
2225:
2176:
2128:
2116:
2060:
2011:
1982:"Durability of neutralizing antibodies and T-cell response post SARS-CoV-2 infection"
1962:
1914:
1902:
1858:
1806:
1742:
1711:"Early Viral Clearance and Antibody Kinetics of COVID-19 Among Asymptomatic Carriers"
1688:
1634:
1586:
1574:
1501:
1452:
1447:
1430:
1386:
1242:
1193:
1141:
1064:
1052:
1021:
970:
869:
713:
703:
680:
561:
398:
347:
330:
239:
214:
116:
3221:
1464:
3536:
3518:
3469:
3451:
3410:
3394:
3342:
3301:
3274:
3252:
3244:
3199:
2913:
2905:
2861:
2853:
2809:
2801:
2760:
2752:
2706:
2698:
2652:
2644:
2603:
2595:
2554:
2538:
2489:
2473:
2432:
2416:
2375:
2367:
2321:
2305:
2264:
2256:
2215:
2207:
2166:
2158:
2106:
2050:
2042:
2001:
1993:
1952:
1944:
1892:
1848:
1840:
1827:
Hodgson SH, Mansatta K, Mallett G, Harris V, Emary KR, Pollard AJ (February 2021).
1796:
1788:
1732:
1722:
1678:
1668:
1624:
1616:
1564:
1491:
1442:
1376:
1368:
1335:
1232:
1224:
1183:
1175:
1131:
1123:
1044:
1011:
1001:
960:
952:
259:
251:
112:
80:
76:
67:
62:
2599:
1792:
1093:
1039:
Mallapaty S (July 2021). "A blood marker predicts who gets 'breakthrough' COVID".
3523:
3306:
3289:
2648:
1948:
514:
Immunology: the process of producing antibodies in response to a specific antigen
2997:
2542:
2420:
2405:"Seroconversion rates following COVID-19 vaccination among patients with cancer"
1496:
1479:
1332:"Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations"
1267:
956:
2909:
2162:
1228:
1127:
1048:
210:
161:
152:
2526:
2111:
2082:
1997:
1897:
1880:
321:
fourth-generation test after the window period. Similarly, individuals taking
3643:
3532:
3465:
3406:
3356:
3016:
2550:
2485:
2428:
2317:
2046:
1727:
386:
317:
227:
179:
140:
119:
by replicating the antigen which that antibody binds to. Assays can likewise
108:
3456:
2584:"Kinetics of SARS-CoV-2 specific IgM and IgG responses in COVID-19 patients"
717:
3550:
3483:
3424:
3364:
3347:
3330:
3315:
3266:
3213:
3188:"The natural history of chronic HBV infection and geographical differences"
3183:
3165:
2927:
2875:
2857:
2823:
2805:
2774:
2720:
2702:
2666:
2617:
2568:
2503:
2446:
2389:
2335:
2278:
2229:
2180:
2120:
2064:
2015:
1966:
1906:
1879:
Long QX, Liu BZ, Deng HJ, Wu GC, Deng K, Chen YK, et al. (June 2020).
1862:
1810:
1746:
1692:
1638:
1620:
1578:
1569:
1552:
1390:
1246:
1197:
1145:
1056:
1025:
974:
668:
275:
206:
199:
166:
87:
antibodies, such as anti-spike antibodies for COVID-19, confer protection.
46:
3398:
2983:
2211:
1709:
Xiao T, Wang Y, Yuan J, Ye H, Wei L, Liao X, et al. (15 March 2021).
1505:
1456:
1372:
1006:
684:
3257:
2582:
Sun B, Feng Y, Mo X, Zheng P, Wang Q, Li P, et al. (December 2020).
2371:
1980:
Tan Y, Liu F, Xu X, Ling Y, Huang W, Zhu Z, et al. (December 2020).
447:
313:
263:
120:
50:
2790:"SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Responses Do Not Predict COVID-19 Disease Severity"
1673:
1331:
585:"Guidelines on clinical evaluation of vaccines: regulatory expectations"
75:
of antibodies. For example, most antigens prompt seroconversion for the
3329:
Perera, Jennifer; Perera, Bernadene; Gamage, Siritilak (1 March 2002).
1657:"Seroconversion stages COVID19 into distinct pathophysiological states"
1340:
438:
144:
100:
38:
30:
3248:
2756:
2741:"Does the COVID-19 seroconversion in older adults resemble the young?"
2633:"Distinct Early Serological Signatures Track with SARS-CoV-2 Survival"
1179:
296:
115:. Because antibodies are highly specific in what they bind, tests can
3079:
Karayiannis P, Thomas HC (2009). Mahy BW, van
Regenmortel MH (eds.).
3052:"Hepatitis B Foundation: Understanding Your Hepatitis B Test Results"
2477:
42:
3204:
2839:
990:"Covid-19 Breakthrough Infections in Vaccinated Health Care Workers"
446:
Seroconversion plays a major role in the diagnosis and treatment of
552:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Walter P, Raff M, Roberts K (2002).
406:
136:
702:(2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
2353:
54:
783:"The Immune Response against Pathogens | Anatomy and Physiology"
2402:
1930:
312:
The average window period for the development of antibodies to
246:
2738:
2684:
2459:
1654:
3383:"Lack of Seroconversion After Hepatitis B Virus Immunization"
2291:
2144:
2080:
271:
2969:
2787:
2687:"Predictors of Nonseroconversion after SARS-CoV-2 Infection"
1881:"Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19"
1826:
1428:
1329:
1081:. Johns Hopkins School of Bloomberg School of Public Health.
3235:
Lok AS, McMahon BJ (February 2007). "Chronic hepatitis B".
2891:
2196:"Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine"
1602:
2193:
2630:
1354:
551:
305:
195:
187:
3593:"Hepatitis B Immunization and Postimmunization Serology"
3496:
2028:
3182:
2942:"Frequently Asked Questions about COVID-19 Vaccination"
2242:
2083:"COVID-19 vaccine BNT162b1 elicits human antibody and T
987:
1477:
1550:
547:
545:
442:
The typical seroconversion timecourse for hepatitis B
3150:(4th ed.). University of Texas Medical Branch.
3074:
3072:
1110:
Shi J, Han D, Zhang R, Li J, Zhang R (August 2020).
666:
3437:
1774:
537:
based on the presence of antibodies, such as ELISA.
506:
Webster's New World
College Dictionary, 4th Edition
191:predicts reduced chance of breakthrough infection.
3328:
2524:
1211:Ravi N, Cortade DL, Ng E, Wang SX (October 2020).
1096:. 30 November 2020 – via clinicaltrials.gov.
697:
542:
3078:
3069:
1210:
3641:
3568:"Hepatitis B Foundation: Vaccine Non-Responders"
1775:Mallano A, Ascione A, Flego M (September 2021).
667:van Oss CJ, Good RJ, Chaudhury MK (April 1986).
79:class of antibodies first, and subsequently the
3083:Desk Encyclopedia of Human and Medical Virology
1157:
1155:
1105:
1103:
938:
282:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
2965:
2963:
2581:
1708:
1553:"Interpreting Diagnostic Tests for SARS-CoV-2"
1551:Sethuraman N, Jeremiah SS, Ryo A (June 2020).
700:Rheumatology : diagnosis and therapeutics
3002:. World Health Organization. 1 February 2017.
1878:
1109:
857:
855:
853:
357:is highly predictive of later development of
3281:
3228:
1979:
1301:"What is the window period for an HIV test?"
1204:
1152:
1100:
757:"What is the window period for HIV testing?"
107:to a specific antigen, such as bacterial or
3562:
3560:
2960:
945:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine
808:"Timeline for immune responses and testing"
3234:
3021:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2946:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
850:
3540:
3522:
3473:
3455:
3414:
3346:
3305:
3256:
3203:
3141:
2917:
2865:
2813:
2764:
2710:
2656:
2607:
2558:
2493:
2436:
2379:
2325:
2268:
2219:
2170:
2110:
2054:
2005:
1956:
1896:
1852:
1800:
1736:
1726:
1682:
1672:
1628:
1568:
1495:
1446:
1380:
1339:
1236:
1187:
1135:
1038:
1015:
1005:
964:
3557:
3176:
437:
295:
20:
3380:
3287:
2310:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.12.2100329
698:Cush JJ, Kavanaugh A, Stein CM (2005).
534:from the original on 10 February 2021.
3642:
3376:
3374:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3046:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3038:
3011:
3009:
2835:
2833:
2794:American Journal of Clinical Pathology
2349:
2347:
2345:
2140:
2138:
1926:
1924:
1704:
1702:
1650:
1648:
1598:
1596:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
939:Overbaugh J, Morris L (January 2012).
528:"Medical Definition of Seroconversion"
3186:, Brunetto MR, Hadziyannis S (2010).
3135:
2887:
2885:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2076:
2074:
1874:
1872:
1822:
1820:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1520:"COVID-19 Serology Testing Explained"
1325:
1323:
1321:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1161:
941:"The Antibody Response against HIV-1"
865:Statistics in Clinical Vaccine Trials
861:
613:"False positive results on HIV tests"
607:
605:
579:
577:
3622:The Australian Immunisation Handbook
525:
512:from the original on 30 April 2021.
245:It generally takes several days for
53:. During infection or immunization,
3381:Diamond, Catherine (1 March 2004).
3371:
3105:
3035:
3006:
2830:
2360:The New England Journal of Medicine
2342:
2200:The New England Journal of Medicine
2135:
1921:
1781:International Reviews of Immunology
1699:
1645:
1593:
1537:
1484:The New England Journal of Medicine
994:The New England Journal of Medicine
13:
3172:from the original on 14 July 2009.
3146:. In Baron S, et al. (eds.).
3087:. Boston: Academic Press. p.
2882:
2727:
2673:
2588:Emerging Microbes & Infections
2071:
2035:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
1869:
1817:
1753:
1318:
1286:
1253:
602:
574:
41:in the blood serum as a result of
14:
3676:
3387:American Journal of Public Health
3288:Chu CM, Liaw YF (November 2007).
433:
1448:10.1097/00002030-199818000-00018
3610:
3585:
3490:
3431:
3322:
2990:
2934:
2781:
2624:
2575:
2518:
2453:
2396:
2285:
2236:
2187:
2022:
1973:
1833:The Lancet. Infectious Diseases
1512:
1471:
1422:
1397:
1348:
1217:Biosensors & Bioelectronics
1085:
1071:
1032:
981:
932:
907:
882:
825:
800:
775:
749:
304:Most individuals infected with
284:(SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing
37:is the development of specific
3393:(3): 358, author reply 358–9.
1361:Open Forum Infectious Diseases
1079:"What is Acute HIV Infection?"
724:
691:
660:
631:
519:
494:
385:(S) and the COVID-19 specific
364:
256:immunoglobulin class switching
131:
71:seroconversion with different
68:weakening of the immune system
1:
2600:10.1080/22221751.2020.1762515
2261:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32661-1
1845:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30773-8
1793:10.1080/08830185.2021.1929205
1405:"Symptoms and seroconversion"
558:Molecular Biology of the Cell
487:
403:immunosuppressive medications
372:RT-PCR testing for viral load
221:
3524:10.1371/journal.pone.0145209
3307:10.1053/j.gastro.2007.08.039
3148:Baron's Medical Microbiology
2691:Emerging Infectious Diseases
2649:10.1016/j.immuni.2020.07.020
1949:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100861
868:. Springer. pp. 28–29.
218:the human population serum.
94:
7:
3122:Australian Family Physician
2745:Journal of Medical Virology
2543:10.1001/jamaoncol.2021.4381
2421:10.1016/j.ccell.2021.06.002
1497:10.1056/NEJM199607253350403
1168:Journal of Medical Virology
957:10.1101/cshperspect.a007039
560:(4th ed.). Routledge.
470:
10:
3681:
3335:The Ceylon Medical Journal
2910:10.1038/s41591-021-01325-6
2163:10.1038/s41564-021-00947-3
1229:10.1016/j.bios.2020.112454
1049:10.1038/d41586-021-02096-3
117:detect specific antibodies
2112:10.1038/s41586-020-2814-7
1998:10.1007/s11684-020-0822-5
1898:10.1038/s41591-020-0897-1
787:courses.lumenlearning.com
673:Journal of Chromatography
639:"NCI dictionary: antigen"
291:
57:enter the blood, and the
1728:10.3389/fmed.2021.595773
1162:Bauer G (January 2021).
1128:10.1093/clinchem/hvaa122
323:pre-exposure prophylaxis
121:detect specific antigens
101:structure of an antibody
3457:10.1186/1471-2334-7-120
3444:BMC Infectious Diseases
2972:Ann. Ist. Super. Sanità
399:weakened immune systems
3348:10.4038/cmj.v47i1.6396
3118:"Hepatitis B serology"
2858:10.1001/jama.2021.3341
2703:10.3201/eid2709.211042
2047:10.1093/infdis/jiaa618
1621:10.1001/jama.2020.8438
1570:10.1001/jama.2020.8259
477:Correlates of immunity
443:
301:
215:natural reservoir host
26:
3399:10.2105/ajph.94.3.358
3142:Zuckerman AJ (1996).
2466:Liver Transplantation
2212:10.1056/NEJMoa2034577
1986:Frontiers of Medicine
1715:Frontiers in Medicine
1007:10.1056/NEJMoa2109072
441:
395:chronic liver disease
299:
167:autoimmune conditions
24:
3655:HIV vaccine research
2806:10.1093/ajcp/aqaa123
2372:10.1056/NEJMc2101667
919:clinicalinfo.hiv.gov
894:clinicalinfo.hiv.gov
837:clinicalinfo.hiv.gov
736:clinicalinfo.hiv.gov
232:immunological memory
3515:2015PLoSO..1045209D
3144:"Hepatitis Viruses"
2415:(8): 1081–1090.e2.
2151:Nature Microbiology
2103:2020Natur.586..594S
2087:1 T cell responses"
1674:10.7554/eLife.65508
1373:10.1093/ofid/ofy180
355:human herpesvirus 8
3665:Hepatitis vaccines
3198:(3_suppl): 25–33.
3017:"Hepatitis B FAQs"
1341:10.15620/cdc.23447
1116:Clinical Chemistry
482:HIV superinfection
444:
339:maculopapular rash
331:nucleic acid tests
302:
137:Serological assays
63:produce antibodies
27:
3660:COVID-19 vaccines
3249:10.1002/hep.21513
3192:Antiviral Therapy
3157:978-0-9631172-1-2
3098:978-0-12-375147-8
3023:. 27 October 2020
2999:Glossary of Terms
2948:. 5 November 2021
2852:(14): 1467–1469.
2757:10.1002/jmv.27106
2751:(10): 5777–5782.
2643:(3): 524–532.e4.
2537:(11): 1714–1716.
2366:(14): 1372–1374.
2298:Euro Surveillance
2255:(10269): 99–111.
2206:(27): 2603–2615.
2097:(7830): 594–599.
1937:eClinicalMedicine
1615:(23): 2424–2425.
1563:(22): 2249–2251.
1441:(18): 2481–2488.
1180:10.1002/jmv.26262
1000:(16): 1474–1484.
875:978-3-642-14690-9
732:"Window Period {"
709:978-0-7817-5732-4
645:. 2 February 2011
567:978-0-8153-3288-6
401:, such as due to
240:immunosuppression
3672:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3629:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3564:
3555:
3554:
3544:
3526:
3509:(12): e0145209.
3494:
3488:
3487:
3477:
3459:
3435:
3429:
3428:
3418:
3378:
3369:
3368:
3350:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3309:
3294:Gastroenterology
3285:
3279:
3278:
3260:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3207:
3180:
3174:
3173:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3114:
3103:
3102:
3086:
3076:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3048:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3013:
3004:
3003:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2967:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2921:
2889:
2880:
2879:
2869:
2837:
2828:
2827:
2817:
2785:
2779:
2778:
2768:
2736:
2725:
2724:
2714:
2697:(9): 2454–2458.
2682:
2671:
2670:
2660:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2611:
2579:
2573:
2572:
2562:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2497:
2478:10.1002/lt.26312
2457:
2451:
2450:
2440:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2383:
2351:
2340:
2339:
2329:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2272:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2223:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2174:
2157:(9): 1140–1149.
2142:
2133:
2132:
2114:
2078:
2069:
2068:
2058:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2009:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1928:
1919:
1918:
1900:
1876:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1824:
1815:
1814:
1804:
1772:
1751:
1750:
1740:
1730:
1706:
1697:
1696:
1686:
1676:
1652:
1643:
1642:
1632:
1600:
1591:
1590:
1572:
1548:
1535:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1499:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1450:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1384:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1327:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1297:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1268:"About HIV/AIDS"
1264:
1251:
1250:
1240:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1191:
1159:
1150:
1149:
1139:
1122:(8): 1030–1046.
1107:
1098:
1097:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1019:
1009:
985:
979:
978:
968:
936:
930:
929:
927:
925:
911:
905:
904:
902:
900:
890:"False Negative"
886:
880:
879:
862:Nauta J (2010).
859:
848:
847:
845:
843:
833:"Seroconversion"
829:
823:
822:
820:
818:
804:
798:
797:
795:
793:
779:
773:
772:
770:
768:
753:
747:
746:
744:
742:
728:
722:
721:
695:
689:
688:
664:
658:
657:
652:
650:
635:
629:
628:
626:
624:
609:
600:
599:
597:
595:
581:
572:
571:
549:
540:
539:
523:
517:
516:
502:"Seroconversion"
498:
359:Kaposi's sarcoma
348:clinical latency
260:immunoglobulin G
252:immunoglobulin M
3680:
3679:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3640:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3627:
3625:
3616:
3615:
3611:
3601:
3599:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3576:
3574:
3566:
3565:
3558:
3495:
3491:
3436:
3432:
3379:
3372:
3327:
3323:
3286:
3282:
3233:
3229:
3205:10.3851/IMP1621
3181:
3177:
3158:
3140:
3136:
3126:
3124:
3116:
3115:
3106:
3099:
3077:
3070:
3060:
3058:
3050:
3049:
3036:
3026:
3024:
3015:
3014:
3007:
2996:
2995:
2991:
2968:
2961:
2951:
2949:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2898:Nature Medicine
2890:
2883:
2838:
2831:
2786:
2782:
2737:
2728:
2683:
2674:
2629:
2625:
2580:
2576:
2523:
2519:
2458:
2454:
2401:
2397:
2352:
2343:
2304:(12): 2100329.
2290:
2286:
2241:
2237:
2192:
2188:
2143:
2136:
2086:
2079:
2072:
2027:
2023:
1978:
1974:
1929:
1922:
1885:Nature Medicine
1877:
1870:
1825:
1818:
1773:
1754:
1707:
1700:
1653:
1646:
1601:
1594:
1549:
1538:
1528:
1526:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1476:
1472:
1427:
1423:
1413:
1411:
1403:
1402:
1398:
1353:
1349:
1328:
1319:
1309:
1307:
1299:
1298:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1266:
1265:
1254:
1209:
1205:
1160:
1153:
1108:
1101:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1077:
1076:
1072:
1037:
1033:
986:
982:
937:
933:
923:
921:
915:"Window Period"
913:
912:
908:
898:
896:
888:
887:
883:
876:
860:
851:
841:
839:
831:
830:
826:
816:
814:
806:
805:
801:
791:
789:
781:
780:
776:
766:
764:
755:
754:
750:
740:
738:
730:
729:
725:
710:
696:
692:
665:
661:
648:
646:
637:
636:
632:
622:
620:
611:
610:
603:
593:
591:
583:
582:
575:
568:
550:
543:
530:. MedicineNet.
524:
520:
500:
499:
495:
490:
473:
436:
367:
333:for viral RNA.
294:
224:
134:
97:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3678:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3636:
3635:
3609:
3597:www.cda-adc.ca
3584:
3556:
3489:
3430:
3370:
3321:
3300:(5): 1458–65.
3280:
3227:
3175:
3156:
3134:
3104:
3097:
3068:
3034:
3005:
2989:
2959:
2933:
2904:(6): 981–984.
2881:
2829:
2800:(4): 459–465.
2780:
2726:
2672:
2623:
2594:(1): 940–948.
2574:
2517:
2472:(2): 180–187.
2452:
2395:
2341:
2284:
2235:
2186:
2134:
2084:
2070:
2041:(2): 197–205.
2021:
1992:(6): 746–751.
1972:
1920:
1891:(6): 845–848.
1868:
1839:(2): e26–e35.
1816:
1787:(4): 393–413.
1752:
1698:
1644:
1592:
1536:
1511:
1490:(4): 233–241.
1470:
1421:
1396:
1347:
1317:
1285:
1252:
1203:
1174:(1): 311–322.
1151:
1099:
1084:
1070:
1031:
980:
951:(1): a007039.
931:
906:
881:
874:
849:
824:
799:
774:
748:
723:
708:
690:
659:
643:www.cancer.gov
630:
601:
573:
566:
541:
518:
492:
491:
489:
486:
485:
484:
479:
472:
469:
435:
434:In hepatitis B
432:
366:
363:
293:
290:
223:
220:
162:false positive
153:false negative
133:
130:
109:viral proteins
96:
93:
35:seroconversion
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3677:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3624:. 8 June 2018
3623:
3619:
3613:
3598:
3594:
3588:
3573:
3569:
3563:
3561:
3552:
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3508:
3504:
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3471:
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3358:
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3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3258:2027.42/55941
3254:
3250:
3246:
3243:(2): 507–39.
3242:
3238:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
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3041:
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3000:
2993:
2985:
2981:
2978:(2): 217–23.
2977:
2973:
2966:
2964:
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2929:
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2920:
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2552:
2548:
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2536:
2532:
2531:JAMA Oncology
2528:
2521:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2496:
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2487:
2483:
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2250:
2246:
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2222:
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2182:
2178:
2173:
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2164:
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2108:
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2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2077:
2075:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1925:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1875:
1873:
1864:
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1855:
1850:
1846:
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1838:
1834:
1830:
1823:
1821:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
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1769:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1705:
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1694:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1649:
1640:
1636:
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1392:
1388:
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1378:
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1370:
1367:(8): ofy180.
1366:
1362:
1358:
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1342:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1306:
1302:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1274:. 1 June 2021
1273:
1269:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
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1190:
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1181:
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1173:
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1147:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1129:
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1121:
1117:
1113:
1106:
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1088:
1080:
1074:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
984:
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967:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
935:
920:
916:
910:
895:
891:
885:
877:
871:
867:
866:
858:
856:
854:
838:
834:
828:
813:
809:
803:
788:
784:
778:
763:. 11 May 2021
762:
758:
752:
737:
733:
727:
719:
715:
711:
705:
701:
694:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
663:
656:
644:
640:
634:
619:. 8 June 2021
618:
614:
608:
606:
590:
586:
580:
578:
569:
563:
559:
555:
548:
546:
538:
533:
529:
526:Stöppler MC.
522:
515:
511:
507:
503:
497:
493:
483:
480:
478:
475:
474:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
449:
440:
431:
428:
424:
418:
414:
410:
408:
404:
400:
396:
390:
388:
387:nucleoprotein
384:
383:spike protein
379:
375:
373:
362:
360:
356:
351:
349:
343:
340:
334:
332:
326:
324:
319:
318:point of care
315:
310:
307:
298:
289:
287:
283:
279:
277:
273:
267:
265:
261:
257:
253:
248:
243:
241:
237:
233:
230:maintains an
229:
228:immune system
219:
216:
212:
208:
203:
201:
197:
192:
189:
183:
181:
180:herd immunity
175:
171:
168:
163:
157:
154:
149:
146:
142:
138:
129:
125:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
103:allows it to
102:
99:The physical
92:
88:
84:
82:
78:
74:
69:
64:
60:
59:immune system
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
23:
19:
3626:. Retrieved
3621:
3612:
3600:. Retrieved
3596:
3587:
3575:. Retrieved
3572:www.hepb.org
3571:
3506:
3502:
3492:
3447:
3443:
3433:
3390:
3386:
3338:
3334:
3324:
3297:
3293:
3283:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3195:
3191:
3178:
3147:
3137:
3125:. Retrieved
3121:
3082:
3059:. Retrieved
3056:www.hepb.org
3055:
3025:. Retrieved
3020:
2998:
2992:
2975:
2971:
2950:. Retrieved
2945:
2936:
2901:
2897:
2849:
2845:
2797:
2793:
2783:
2748:
2744:
2694:
2690:
2640:
2636:
2626:
2591:
2587:
2577:
2534:
2530:
2520:
2469:
2465:
2455:
2412:
2408:
2398:
2363:
2359:
2301:
2297:
2287:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2203:
2199:
2189:
2154:
2150:
2094:
2090:
2038:
2034:
2024:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1940:
1936:
1888:
1884:
1836:
1832:
1784:
1780:
1718:
1714:
1664:
1660:
1612:
1608:
1560:
1556:
1527:. Retrieved
1523:
1514:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1438:
1434:
1424:
1412:. Retrieved
1408:
1399:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1308:. Retrieved
1304:
1276:. Retrieved
1271:
1220:
1216:
1206:
1171:
1167:
1119:
1115:
1087:
1073:
1040:
1034:
997:
993:
983:
948:
944:
934:
922:. Retrieved
918:
909:
897:. Retrieved
893:
884:
864:
840:. Retrieved
836:
827:
815:. Retrieved
811:
802:
790:. Retrieved
786:
777:
765:. Retrieved
760:
751:
739:. Retrieved
735:
726:
699:
693:
676:
672:
662:
654:
647:. Retrieved
642:
633:
621:. Retrieved
616:
592:. Retrieved
588:
557:
554:"Chapter 24"
535:
521:
513:
505:
496:
465:
461:
457:
453:
445:
426:
422:
419:
415:
411:
391:
380:
376:
368:
352:
344:
335:
327:
311:
303:
280:
276:immunization
268:
264:plasma cells
244:
225:
207:epidemiology
204:
200:HIV positive
193:
184:
176:
172:
158:
150:
135:
126:
111:, to form a
98:
89:
85:
49:, including
47:immunization
34:
28:
18:
3628:13 November
3602:13 November
3577:13 November
3127:13 November
3061:13 November
3027:13 November
2409:Cancer Cell
1529:13 November
1409:i-base.info
1305:i-base.info
1272:www.cdc.gov
812:i-base.info
761:aidsmap.com
679:: 111–119.
649:13 November
617:aidsmap.com
589:www.who.int
448:hepatitis B
365:In COVID-19
314:p24 antigen
236:rechallenge
132:Terminology
51:vaccination
3644:Categories
3450:(1): 120.
3341:(1): 6–8.
3237:Hepatology
2952:9 November
1943:: 100861.
1721:: 595773.
1667:: e65508.
1414:7 November
1310:7 November
1278:7 November
1223:: 112454.
924:1 November
899:1 November
842:1 November
817:5 November
792:1 November
767:5 November
741:5 November
623:7 November
594:7 November
488:References
222:Background
145:Serostatus
61:begins to
39:antibodies
31:immunology
3533:1932-6203
3466:1471-2334
3407:0090-0036
3357:0009-0875
2551:2374-2437
2512:237943677
2486:1527-6473
2429:1878-3686
2318:1560-7917
2129:222147857
1915:216609402
1587:218518808
1065:236516861
95:Mechanism
43:infection
3650:Serology
3551:26716979
3503:PLOS ONE
3484:17961205
3425:14998792
3365:12001615
3316:17935720
3267:17256718
3222:25592461
3214:21041901
3170:Archived
3166:21413272
2928:33795870
2876:33646292
2824:32666092
2775:34042191
2721:34193339
2667:32783920
2637:Immunity
2618:32357808
2569:34379085
2504:34564945
2447:34133951
2390:33691060
2336:33769252
2279:33306989
2230:33301246
2181:34290390
2121:32998157
2065:33535236
2016:33017040
1967:33937733
1907:32350462
1863:33125914
1811:34494500
1747:33791320
1693:33724185
1639:32407440
1579:32374370
1465:13497760
1391:30568989
1247:32729549
1198:32633840
1146:32437513
1057:34326510
1026:34320281
975:22315717
718:57318260
532:Archived
510:Archived
508:. 2010.
471:See also
407:leukemia
286:COVID-19
55:antigens
3542:4696801
3511:Bibcode
3475:2228304
3416:1448253
3275:8713169
3184:Liaw YF
2984:3331068
2919:8205849
2867:7922233
2815:7454292
2766:8242906
2712:8386781
2658:7392190
2609:7273175
2560:8358793
2495:8662269
2438:8179248
2381:8008743
2327:7995559
2270:7723445
2221:7745181
2172:8294260
2099:Bibcode
2056:7543487
2007:7533664
1958:8079668
1854:7837315
1802:8442988
1738:8005564
1684:7963480
1630:7226282
1524:ASM.org
1506:8657239
1457:9875587
1382:6105113
1238:7368663
1189:7361859
1137:7314174
1017:8362591
966:3253031
685:3711190
247:B cells
113:complex
83:class.
73:classes
3549:
3539:
3531:
3482:
3472:
3464:
3423:
3413:
3405:
3363:
3355:
3314:
3273:
3265:
3220:
3212:
3164:
3154:
3095:
2982:
2926:
2916:
2874:
2864:
2822:
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