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growth of lichens, which had given rise to a large quantity of spores into the atmosphere. However, for these lichen to release their spores simultaneously, it is necessary for them to enter their reproductive phase at about the same time. The CESS report noted that while this may be a possibility, it is quite improbable. Also, they could find no satisfactory explanation for the apparently extraordinary dispersal, nor for the apparent uptake of the spores into clouds. CESS scientists noted that "While the cause of the colour in the rainfall has been identified, finding the answers to these questions is a challenge." Attempting to explain the unusual spore proliferation and dispersal, researcher Ian
Goddard proposed several local atmospheric models.
520:
93:
717:) and flash of light which preceded the red rain, to Louis and Kumar it was a key piece of evidence. They proposed that a meteor (from a comet containing the red particles) caused the sound and flash and when it disintegrated over Kerala it released the red particles which slowly fell to the ground. However, they omitted an explanation on how debris from a meteor continued to fall in the same area over a period of two months while unaffected by winds.
456:
331:
898:. Visualizing algal spore DNA under a light microscope can be difficult due to the impermeability of the highly resistant spore wall to dyes and stains used in normal staining procedures. The spores' DNA is tightly packed, encapsulated and desiccated, therefore, the spores must first be cultured in suitable
52:
on Monday, 15 July 1957 and the colour subsequently turned yellow and also 25 July to 23 September 2001, when heavy downpours of red-coloured rain fell sporadically in Kerala, staining clothes pink. Yellow, green and black rain was also reported. Coloured rain was also reported in Kerala in 1896 and
758:
entitled "The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its possible extraterrestrial origin" which reiterated their arguments that the red rain was biological matter from an extraterrestrial source but made no mention of their previous claims to having induced the cells to grow. The team also observed the
116:
were also reported around the same time in the area. It typically fell over small areas, no more than a few square kilometres in size, and was sometimes so localised that normal rain could be falling just a few meters away from the red rain. Red rainfalls typically lasted less than 20 minutes. Each
681:
A study has been published showing a correlation between historic reports of coloured rains and of meteors; the author of the paper, Patrick McCafferty, stated that sixty of these colored rain events, or 36%, were linked to meteoritic or cometary activity, though not always strongly. Sometimes the
573:
The report also stated that there was no meteoric, volcanic or desert dust origin present in the rainwater and that its colour was not due to any dissolved gases or pollutants. The report concluded that heavy rains in Kerala – in the weeks preceding the red rains – could have caused the widespread
827:
The hypothesis' authors – G. Louis and Kumar – did not explain how debris from a meteor could have continued to fall on the same area over a period of two months, despite the changes in climatic conditions and wind pattern spanning over two months. Samples of the red particles were also sent for
677:
could have transported volcanic material to Kerala in 25–36 hours. The
Equatorial jet stream is unusual in that it sometimes flows from east to west at about 10° N, approximately the same latitude as Kerala (8° N) and Mayon Volcano (13° N). This hypothesis was also ruled out as the particles were
2255:
Gangappa, Rajkumar; Chandra
Wickramasinghe; Milton Wainwright; A. Santhosh Kumar; Godfrey Louis (29 August 2010). Hoover, Richard B; Levin, Gilbert V; Rozanov, Alexei Y; Davies, Paul C. W. (eds.). "Growth and replication of red rain cells at 121 °C (250 °F) and their red fluorescence".
917:
Other researchers have noted recurring instances of red rainfalls in 1818, 1846, 1872, 1880, 1896, and 1950 and several times since then. Most recently, coloured rainfall occurred over Kerala during the summers of 2001, 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2012; since 2001, the botanists have found the same
782:
The red cells found in the red rain in Kerala, India are now considered as a possible case of extraterrestrial life form. These cells can undergo rapid replication even at an extreme high temperature of 300 °C (572 °F). They can also be cultured in diverse unconventional chemical
107:
in the southern part of the state. Yellow, green, and black rain was also reported. Many more occurrences of the red rain were reported over the following ten days, and then with diminishing frequency until late
September. According to locals, the first coloured rain was preceded by a loud
823:
Louis and Kumar made their first publication of their finding on a web site in 2003, and have presented papers at conferences and in astrophysics magazines a number of times since. The controversial conclusion of Louis et al. is the only hypothesis suggesting that these organisms are of
29:
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conducted carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses using a scanning electron microscope with X-ray micro-analysis, an elemental analyser, and an isotope ratio (IR) mass spectrometer. The red particles collapsed when dried, which suggested that they were filled with fluid. The
848:) for up to two hours. Their conclusion is that these cells reproduced, without DNA, at temperatures higher than any known life form on earth is able to. They claimed that the cells, however, were unable to reproduce at temperatures similar to known organisms.
475:
evaluation, the CESS retracted this as they noticed the particles resembled spores, and because debris from a meteor would not have continued to fall from the stratosphere onto the same area while unaffected by wind. A sample was, therefore, handed over to the
514:
area, when cultured in an algal growth medium, also showed the presence of the same species of algae. Both samples (from rainwater and from trees) produced the same kind of algae, indicating that the spores seen in the rainwater most probably came from local
874:, which is generally used to stain bacterial endospores, not algal spores, whose primary function of their cell wall and their impermeability is to ensure its own survival through periods of environmental stress. They are therefore resistant to
747:
The microorganism isolated from the red rain of Kerala shows very extraordinary characteristics, like the ability to grow optimally at 300 °C (572 °F) and the capacity to metabolise a wide range of organic and inorganic materials.
649:
or other dry regions which have been washed down by rain. "Red Rains" have been frequently described in southern Europe, with increasing reports in recent years. One such case occurred in
England in 1903, when dust was carried from the
484:
studies, where the spores were allowed to grow in a medium suitable for growth of algae and fungi. The inoculated petri dishes and conical flasks were incubated for three to seven days and the cultures were observed under a microscope.
133:
in the rain water were responsible for the colour of the rain, which at times was strongly coloured red. A small percentage of particles were white or had light yellow, bluish grey and green tints. The particles were typically 4 to 10
844:. Louis then incorrectly reported on 29 August 2010 in the non-peer reviewed online physics archive "arxiv.org" that they were able to have these cells "reproduce" when incubated at high pressure saturated steam at 121 °C (
771:, suggesting, though not proving an extraterrestrial origin." One of their conclusions was that if the red rain particles are biological cells and are of cometary origin, then this phenomenon can be a case of cometary
2332:
Louis, Godfrey; A. Santhosh Kumar (7 September 2010). Hoover, Richard B; Levin, Gilbert V; Rozanov, Alexei Y; Davies, Paul C. W (eds.). "Growth characteristics of red rain microbes at temperatures below 100 °C".
665:
observations had detected a cloud of dust in the atmosphere near Kerala in the days preceding the outbreak of the red rain. However, laboratory tests from all involved teams ruled out the particles were desert sand.
2776:
Sampath, S., Abraham, T. K., Sasi Kumar, V., & Mohanan, C.N. (2001). Colored Rain: A Report on the
Phenomenon. CESS-PR-114-2001, Center for Earth Science Studies and Tropical Botanic Garden and Research
1890:
2182:
Kumar, A. Santhosh (2009). Hoover, Richard B; Levin, Gilbert V; Rozanov, Alexei Y; Retherford, Kurt D (eds.). "An optical spectroscopic study correlating the yellow rain and cultured red rain microbes".
604:, and reported their similarity to algal spores, and found no evidence to suggest that the rain contained dust, sand, fat globules, or blood. In November 2012, Rajkumar Gangappa and Stuart Hogg from the
2310:
2654:
492:'s Department of Science & Technology, the Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS) and the Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) issued a joint report, which concluded:
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fall of red rain seems to have occurred after an air-burst, as from a meteor exploding in air; other times the odd rainfall is merely recorded in the same year as the appearance of a comet.
763:
fluorescence microscopy, and they concluded that: "The fluorescence behaviour of the red cells is shown to be in remarkable correspondence with the extended red emission observed in the
743:
in the particles. Two months later they posted another paper on the same web site entitled "New biology of red rain extremophiles prove cometary panspermia" in which they reported that
867:
independently extracted and confirmed the presence of DNA from the spores. The absence of DNA was key to Louis and Kumar's hypothesis that the cells were of extraterrestrial origins.
673:
in the
Philippines as an explanation for the coloured rain and the "burnt" leaves. The volcano was erupting in June and July 2001 and Pillai calculated that the Eastern or Equatorial
1917:
1438:
DiGregorio, Barry E. (2007). "What made the rain red in India? Isotopic analysis points to a terrestrial origin for the unusual organic particles that coloured the rain like blood".
1246:
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471:(CESS) stated that the likely cause of the red rain was an exploding meteor, which had dispersed about 1,000 kg (one ton) of material. A few days later, following a basic
815:. Cosmic ancestry speculates that higher life forms, including intelligent life, descend ultimately from pre-existing life which was at least as advanced as the descendants.
554:
or photobiont of many lichens, including some of those abundant on the trees in
Changanassery area. The strong orange colour of the algae, which masks the green of the
121:
these figures to the total amount of red rain estimated to have fallen, it was estimated that 50,000 kilograms (110,000 lb) of red particles had fallen on Kerala.
2151:""Red rain cell research: A new perspective for interplanetary transfer of life." EPSC Abstracts, Vol. 4, EPSC2009-707-1, 2009. European Planetary Science Congress"
1800:
Bücher, A and Lucas, C, 1984. Sédimentation éolienne intercontinentale, poussières sahariennes et géologie. Bull Centr Rech Explor Prod Elf-Aquitanie 8, pp. 151–65
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1906:"Lidar observations on atmospheric dust transported from south-west Asia to Indian west coast region: A case study of colour rain event occurred during July 2001"
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My chemical tests are consistent with a terrestrial origin for this material. This doesn't mean it is not extraterrestrial, but it certainly does not support it.
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and flash of light, and followed by groves of trees shedding shrivelled grey "burnt" leaves. Shriveled leaves and the disappearance and sudden formation of
361:, atomic absorption spectrometry and wet chemical methods. The major elements found are listed below. The CESS analysis also showed significant amounts of
1980:
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extraterrestrial origin. Such reports have been popular in the media, with major news agencies like CNN repeating the panspermia theory without critique.
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K.K. Sasidharan Pillai, a senior scientific assistant in the Indian
Meteorological Department, proposed dust and acidic material from an eruption of
129:
The brownish-red solid separated from the red rain consisted of about 90% round red particles and the balance consisted of debris. The particles in
2341:. Richard B. Hoover, Gilbert V. Levin, Alexei Y. Rozanov, Paul C.W. Davies (editors). San Diego, California: Proc. SPIE Vol. 7819, 78190R: 78190R.
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The site was again visited on 16 August 2001 and it was found that almost all the trees, rocks and even lamp posts in the region were covered with
477:
2624:
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1042:
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analysis of the red solid and showed that the particles were composed of mostly carbon and oxygen, with trace amounts of silicon and iron. A
2128:
1810:
Avila, Anna; Peñuelas, Josep (April 1999). "Increasing frequency of
Saharan rains over northeastern Spain and its ecological consequences".
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1905:
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These claims and data have yet to be verified and reported in any peer reviewed publication. In 2006 Louis and Kumar published a paper in
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several times since, most recently in June 2012, and from 15 November 2012 to 27 December 2012 in eastern and north-central provinces of
1256:
1940:
60:
Following a light-microscopy examination in 2001, it was initially thought that the rains were coloured by fallout from a hypothetical
851:
Regarding the "absence" of DNA, Louis admits he has no training in biology, and has not reported the use of any standard microbiology
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In August 2008 Louis and Kumar again presented their case in an astrobiology conference. The abstract for their paper states that
142:
images showed the particles as having a depressed centre. At still higher magnification some particles showed internal structures.
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1636:
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was loosely based on the red rain in Kerala story. It was directed by Rahul Sadasivan and released in India on 6 December 2013.
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Their work indicated that the particles were of biological origin (consistent with the CESS report), however, they invoked the
617:, however, they speculate that the spores from the 2011 incident were carried by winds from Europe to the Indian subcontinent.
2408:
860:
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and growth of the spores, basing his claim of "biological growth" on light absorption measurements following aggregation by
2010:
1331:
393:
2229:
Louis, Godfrey; Kumar, A. Santhosh (29 December 2003). "New biology of red rain extremophiles prove cometary panspermia".
2487:
611:
In February 2015, a team of scientists from India and Austria, also supported the identification of the algal spores as
542:
estimated to be in sufficient amounts to generate the quantity of spores seen in the rainwater. Although red or orange,
357:. Sediment (red particles plus debris) was collected and analysed by the CESS using a combination of ion-coupled plasma
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spores every time. This supports the notion that the red rain is a seasonal local environmental feature caused by
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in the United Kingdom. Coloured rain is by no means rare, and can often be explained by the airborne transport of
2529:
2837:
754:
1707:
1966:
1064:
990:
2103:
Louis, Godfrey; Kumar, A. Santhosh (5 October 2003). "Cometary panspermia explains the red rain of Kerala".
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web site. While the CESS report said there was no apparent relationship between the loud sound (possibly a
1102:; A. Santhosh Kumar (2006). "The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its possible extraterrestrial origin".
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green alga which can grow abundantly on tree bark or damp soil and rocks, but is also the photosynthetic
1380:
2832:
2694:
2867:
2827:
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2150:
1220:. Center for Earth Science Studies and Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute. Archived from
510:. Field verification showed that the region had plenty of such lichens. Samples of lichen taken from
20:
625:
History records many instances of unusual objects falling with the rain – in 2000, in an example of
1687:
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hypothesis called cosmic ancestry. This hypothesis postulates that life is neither the product of
657:
At first, the red rain in Kerala was attributed to the same effect, with dust from the deserts of
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1759:
Nandakumar, T. (28 March 2015). "2011 red rain caused by European species of alga: experts".
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The coloured rain of Kerala began falling on 25 July 2001, in the districts of Kottayam and
2342:
2275:
2192:
2041:
2032:
McCafferty, Partick (2008). "Bloody rain again! Red rain and meteors in history and myth".
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Rain water sample (left) and after the particles settled (right). Dried sediment (centre)
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596:. In March 2006 Wainwright said the particles were similar in appearance to spores of a
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407:
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443:. The results were consistent with a marine origin or a terrestrial plant that uses a
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in the particles were analysed and seven were identified (in order of concentration):
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In September 2010 a similar paper was presented at a conference in California, US.
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sucked up a school of fish a mile off shore, depositing them shortly afterwards on
354:
45:
2805:
1861:
Satyanarayana, M.; Veerabuthiran S.; Ramakrishna Rao; D. Presennakumar B. (2004).
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Gamini Gunaratna, Sri Lanka News Paper by LankaPage.com (LLC) (16 November 2012).
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2384:
2081:
2006:
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345:(CESS) in India, where they separated the suspended particles by filtration. The
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The colour was found to be due to the presence of a large amount of spores of a
1421:
1405:
728:
638:
511:
2798:"Fluorescence Mystery in Red Rain Cells of Kerala, India " Linda Moulton Howe
2483:
2436:
Evolution From Space (The Omni Lecture) and Other Papers on the Origin of Life
2053:
1863:"Colored Rain on the West Coastal Region of India: Was it Due to a Dust Storm"
1133:
1045:. Hinduonnet.com. 29 July 2001. Archived from the original on 6 September 2010
799:
used Louis and Kumar's "extraterrestrial origin" claim to further support his
2852:
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1099:
899:
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substrates. The molecular composition of these cells is yet to be identified.
691:
670:
597:
432:
420:
416:
385:
118:
1603:"The Coloured Rains of Kerala: An Exploration of Possible Causal Mechanisms"
863:, an inert physical observation. Both his collaborators, Wickramasinghe and
1886:
1775:
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1724:
1477:
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1012:
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481:
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https://eparlib.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1523/1/lsd_02_02_06-08-1957.pdf
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Chandra Wickramasinghe says yellow rain is young red rain before growth:
1116:
970:
903:
883:
856:
808:
768:
707:
555:
547:
412:
2447:
870:
Louis' only reported attempt to stain the spores' DNA was by the use of
1306:"Sri Lanka to investigate the cause of red rain received in some parts"
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891:
800:
772:
724:
721:
714:
703:
674:
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559:
403:
291:
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113:
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Sampath, S.; Abraham, T. K; Sasi Kuma; V. & Mohanan, C.N. (2001).
455:
2524:
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634:
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showed content of 43.03% carbon, 4.43% hydrogen, and 1.84% nitrogen.
370:
279:
243:
168:
64:
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16:
Episodes of rain containing vast amounts of red algal spores in India
2185:
Instruments and Methods for Astrobiology and Planetary Missions XII
967: – Hypothesis on the interstellar spreading of primordial life
887:
812:
699:
440:
378:
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millilitre of rain water contained about 9 million red particles.
2651:"Mysterious blood rain falls again from skies over Kerala, India"
1699:
646:
608:, UK, confirmed that the red rain cells from Kerala contain DNA.
303:
181:
109:
2598:"Cardiff Centre of Astrobiology: Analysis of Red Rain of Kerala"
2467:
Emergence of Life on Earth: A Historical and Scientific Overview
2396:
2075:
Claim of alien cells in rain may fit historical accounts: study
1208:
651:
563:
497:
428:
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267:
193:
104:
61:
49:
1903:
1098:
28:
2387:. Published in Darwinism, Design, and Public Education (2003)
1706:
Gangappa, Rajkumar Gangappa; Stuart Hogg (22 November 2012).
923:
731:
in a supposed fall of meteoric material. Additionally, using
710:
662:
593:
501:
76:
72:
2337:. Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology XIII.
2260:. Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology XIII.
1660:"Is mysterious 'red rain' first evidence of life in space?"
566:
is not a single organism, but the result of a partnership (
230:
2790:"Searching for 'our alien origins'" by Andrew Thompson in
2587:(2009) From Earthfiles Archive 2009 by Linda Moulton Howe.
2308:
558:, is caused by the presence of large quantities of orange
2695:"Fluorescence Mystery in Red Rain Cells of Kerala, India"
740:
736:
601:
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from a locally prolific terrestrial green algae from the
1157:
678:
neither acidic nor of volcanic origin, but were spores.
2578:
Fluorescence Mystery in Red Rain Cells of Kerala, India
2228:
2102:
960:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
346:
71:
concluded that the rains had been coloured by airborne
2525:"Skeptoid #224: Alien Downpour: The Red Rain of India"
2331:
2653:. Theextinctionprotocol.wordpress.com. 14 July 2012.
2311:"Unusual autofluorescence of cultured red-rain cells"
1411:
1395:
600:, later saying that he had confirmed the presence of
353:
of the rainwater showed the absence of any dissolved
349:
of the water was found to be around 7 (neutral). The
1846:
The great dust fall of February 1903 and its origin.
2627:. American Society for Microbiology. Archived from
1705:
1478:"Sonic Booms Adds To India 'Scarlet Rains' Mystery"
2424:Our Place in the Cosmos: The Unfinished Revolution
1904:Veerabuthiran, S.; Satyanarayana, M. (June 2003).
570:) between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium.
99:in Kerala, which experienced the most red rainfall
2782:"When aliens rained over India" by Hazel Muir in
1332:"No meteoritic or alien connection with Red rain"
577:Parts of the CESS/TBGRI report were supported by
2814:
1856:
1854:
1334:. Dailynews.lk. 17 November 2012. Archived from
1006:Gentleman, Amelia; McKie, Robin (5 March 2006).
478:Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute
2469:. By Iris Fry. Rutgers University Press, 2000.
2224:
2222:
2125:"'Extraterrestrial Life' in Red Rain of Kerala"
2098:
2096:
2094:
1094:
702:, Kerala, posted an article entitled "Cometary
463:, purportedly showing a detached inner capsule.
124:
2719:. Globalrumblings.blogspot.com. 15 July 2012.
1941:"Theory links 'scarlet rain' to Mayon volcano"
1708:"DNA unmasked in the red rain cells of Kerala"
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1008:"Red rain could prove that aliens have landed"
1005:
1947:. Archived from the original on 29 March 2008
1851:
1809:
1752:
1370:
1366:
1364:
654:and fell with rain in February of that year.
2438:. By Fred Hoyle (Enslow; Hillside, NJ; 1982)
2313:. SPIE Symposium, San Diego, California 2008
2219:
2091:
1838:
1576:"Coloured Rain – A report on the Phenomenon"
1548:Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union
1402:Mystery of the scarlet rains and other tales
1043:"JULY 28, 2001, The Hindu: Multicolour rain"
807:, nor is it spontaneously generated through
706:explains the red rain of Kerala" in the non-
2555:. Environmentalgraffiti.com. Archived from
2477:
2475:
2397:Fred Hoyle; Chandra Wickramasinghe (1984).
1910:Indian Journal of Radio & Space Physics
1625:
1600:
1211:"Coloured Rain: A Report on the Phenomenon"
1071:
1037:
1035:
1001:
999:
958: – Meteor air burst over Kerala, India
406:in the Division of Nutritional Sciences at
2515:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2031:
1758:
1437:
1361:
2717:"Panics Residents in Kerala, India Again"
2448:Figures don't Lie but Creationists Figure
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2234:
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1505:
1503:
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1115:
620:
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1981:"Mayon eruption status update June 2001"
1657:
1607:Noesis – the Journal of the Mega Society
1247:"Morning shower paints rural Kannur red"
1032:
996:
811:, but that it has always existed in the
685:
518:
454:
329:
91:
27:
2600:. University of Cardiff. Archived from
2519:
2502:
2309:Godfrey Louis & A. Santhosh Kumar.
2117:
1431:
1204:
145:
2815:
2013:from the original on 25 September 2015
1794:
1568:
1500:
1418:Now wells form spontaneously in Kerala
1312:from the original on 23 September 2015
1202:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1184:
694:and Santhosh Kumar, physicists at the
488:In November 2001, commissioned by the
2753:from the original on 9 September 2013
2590:
2490:from the original on 19 February 2016
2481:
2457:. By Alec Grynspan ( 9 November 1997)
2243:
2181:
2131:from the original on 8 September 2009
2034:International Journal of Astrobiology
2025:
1939:Varma, M. Dinesh (1 September 2001).
1938:
1893:from the original on 15 January 2016.
1844:Mill H. R., R. K. G. Lempfert, 1904,
1740:from the original on 12 December 2012
1544:"Colored rain falls in Kerala, India"
1541:
1469:
1239:
1153:
1151:
929:
767:and other galactic and extragalactic
341:Some water samples were taken to the
2735:
2723:from the original on 15 January 2016
2657:from the original on 15 January 2016
2553:"The Unexplained Red Rain of Kerala"
1920:from the original on 28 October 2005
1848:Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 30:57.
1812:The Science of the Total Environment
1773:
1285:from the original on 20 October 2015
450:
394:energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
2426:by Wickramasinghe and Hoyle. (1993)
1782:from the original on 30 August 2007
1639:from the original on 30 August 2008
1281:. Fabpretty.com. 31 December 2012.
1181:
13:
2806:"Home page of Dr A Santhosh Kumar"
2623:Mayberry, William (7 April 2004).
1476:Surendran, P.K. (22 August 2002).
1148:
1020:from the original on 20 March 2006
790:
163:Analysis by Louis & Kumar (%)
67:, but a study commissioned by the
14:
2879:
2769:
2482:Louis, Godfrey (6 October 2008).
2163:from the original on 2 April 2015
1662:. Yorkshire Today. Archived from
1613:from the original on 31 July 2012
1582:from the original on 18 July 2015
1523:from the original on 13 June 2015
1513:"Red rain was fungus, not meteor"
1488:from the original on 21 July 2015
973: – Purported chemical weapon
337:of particles from red rain sample
2484:"Home Page of Dr. Godfrey Louis"
1169:from the original on 15 May 2006
902:and temperature to first induce
469:Centre for Earth Science Studies
461:transmission electron microscope
343:Centre for Earth Science Studies
2709:
2687:
2669:
2643:
2616:
2571:
2544:
2460:
2441:
2429:
2417:
2390:
2369:
2325:
2302:
2175:
2143:
2068:
1999:
1973:
1932:
1897:
1803:
1767:
1658:Benfield, Chris (3 June 2008).
1594:
1535:
1350:
1324:
1279:"Red Rain in Sri Lanka in 2012"
1867:Aerosol Science and Technology
1688:David Darling's Newsletter #39
1297:
1271:
1255:. 29 June 2012. Archived from
1163:"Colored rain falls on Kerala"
1104:Astrophysics and Space Science
984:
828:analysis to his collaborators
755:Astrophysics and Space Science
138:across and spherical or oval.
1:
2697:. Earthfiles.com. 6 July 2012
2127:. Earthfiles. 6 August 2006.
1832:10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00041-8
1774:Lane, Megan (7 August 2000).
1371:Radhakrishnan, M. G. (2001).
977:
459:A single spore viewed with a
381:(67ppm) and copper (55 ppm).
87:
2377:Creationism versus Darwinism
818:
125:Description of the particles
7:
2677:"Red rain again in Kerala?"
949:
735:they were unable to detect
727:to explain the presence of
10:
2884:
1601:Ian Goddard (March 2006).
1424:, 5 August 2001 (from the
388:and Santhosh Kumar of the
38:Kerala red rain phenomenon
18:
2863:Meteorological hypotheses
2498:– via Google Sites.
2054:10.1017/S1473550407003904
1965:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1693:21 September 2013 at the
1134:10.1007/s10509-005-9025-4
1063:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
914:before staining the DNA.
696:Mahatma Gandhi University
390:Mahatma Gandhi University
315:
302:
290:
278:
266:
254:
242:
229:
217:
205:
192:
180:
167:
162:
157:
48:of southern Indian state
2583:24 February 2018 at the
1159:Venkatraman Ramakrishnan
447:photosynthetic pathway.
2848:Weather events in India
2747:One India Entertainment
2383:9 November 2016 at the
2335:Proceedings of the SPIE
2258:Proceedings of the SPIE
1542:Kumar, V. Sasi (2002).
1126:2006Ap&SS.302..175L
834:University of Sheffield
661:initially the suspect.
606:University of Glamorgan
583:University of Sheffield
504:belonging to the genus
365:, including nickel (43
351:electrical conductivity
44:event that occurred in
2625:"Spore Stain Tutorial"
1887:10.1080/02786820300981
1725:10.1099/mic.0.062711-0
855:to culture and induce
838:Chandra Wickramasinghe
797:Chandra Wickramasinghe
785:
750:
621:Alternative hypotheses
587:Chandra Wickramasinghe
535:
517:
464:
338:
100:
33:
2838:Environment of Kerala
2523:(21 September 2010).
1633:"It's raining aliens"
956:2015 Kerala meteorite
805:supernatural creation
780:
745:
686:Panspermia hypothesis
614:Trentepohlia annulata
585:, who, together with
522:
494:
458:
333:
158:Analysis by the CESS
95:
31:
2453:4 March 2016 at the
2400:Evolution from Space
2080:5 March 2016 at the
1776:"It's raining fish!"
1561:10.1029/2002EO000250
1440:Analytical Chemistry
1259:on 21 September 2013
861:supercritical fluids
765:Red Rectangle Nebula
531:Cryptomeria japonica
146:Chemical composition
19:For other uses, see
2347:2010SPIE.7819E..0RL
2280:2010SPIE.7819E..0NG
2197:2009SPIE.7441E..0NK
2046:2008IJAsB...7....9M
1879:2004AerST..38...24S
1824:1999ScTEn.228..153A
1383:on 26 December 2004
1338:on 19 November 2012
1308:. Colombopage.com.
490:Government of India
152:
151:Elemental analysis
140:Electron microscope
69:Government of India
1987:on 18 January 2005
1666:on 12 January 2007
1517:The Indian Express
1373:"Scarlets of Fire"
1252:The Times of India
930:In popular culture
842:Cardiff University
536:
465:
408:Cornell University
339:
150:
101:
34:
2833:Anomalous weather
2683:. 21 August 2007.
2631:on 23 August 2007
2410:978-0-671-49263-2
2355:10.1117/12.860807
2288:10.1117/12.876393
2205:10.1117/12.826780
2088:. 22 January 2008
1519:. 6 August 2001.
1452:10.1021/ac071901u
865:Milton Wainwright
830:Milton Wainwright
579:Milton Wainwright
451:Government report
359:mass spectrometry
328:
327:
97:Kottayam district
2875:
2868:Trentepohliaceae
2828:2001 meteorology
2763:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2749:. October 2013.
2739:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2673:
2667:
2666:
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2647:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2620:
2614:
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2609:
2594:
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2575:
2569:
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2323:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2273:
2252:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2236:astro-ph/0312639
2226:
2217:
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2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2162:
2155:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2110:astro-ph/0310120
2100:
2089:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1983:. Archived from
1977:
1971:
1970:
1964:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1858:
1849:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1727:
1718:(Pt 1): 107–11.
1703:
1697:
1685:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1629:
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1539:
1533:
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1530:
1528:
1509:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1435:
1429:
1426:Internet Archive
1415:
1409:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1379:. Archived from
1368:
1359:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1226:
1218:Cess-Pr-114-2001
1215:
1206:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1161:(30 July 2001).
1155:
1146:
1145:
1119:
1117:astro-ph/0601022
1096:
1069:
1068:
1062:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1039:
1030:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1003:
994:
988:
961:
733:ethidium bromide
473:light microscopy
153:
149:
46:Wayanad district
2883:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2813:
2812:
2772:
2767:
2766:
2756:
2754:
2743:"Red Rain film"
2741:
2740:
2736:
2726:
2724:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2700:
2698:
2693:
2692:
2688:
2681:Hindustan Times
2675:
2674:
2670:
2660:
2658:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2634:
2632:
2621:
2617:
2607:
2605:
2604:on 29 July 2013
2596:
2595:
2591:
2585:Wayback Machine
2576:
2572:
2562:
2560:
2559:on 11 July 2010
2549:
2545:
2535:
2533:
2518:
2503:
2493:
2491:
2480:
2473:
2465:
2461:
2455:Wayback Machine
2446:
2442:
2434:
2430:
2422:
2418:
2411:
2395:
2391:
2385:Wayback Machine
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2370:
2330:
2326:
2316:
2314:
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2227:
2220:
2180:
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2134:
2132:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2101:
2092:
2082:Wayback Machine
2073:
2069:
2030:
2026:
2016:
2014:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1990:
1988:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1948:
1937:
1933:
1923:
1921:
1902:
1898:
1859:
1852:
1843:
1839:
1818:(2–3): 153–56.
1808:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1783:
1772:
1768:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1741:
1704:
1700:
1695:Wayback Machine
1686:
1679:
1669:
1667:
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1652:
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1626:
1616:
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1569:
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1511:
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1501:
1491:
1489:
1474:
1470:
1436:
1432:
1416:
1412:
1408:, 6 August 2001
1400:
1396:
1386:
1384:
1369:
1362:
1355:
1351:
1341:
1339:
1330:
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1325:
1315:
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1298:
1288:
1286:
1277:
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1260:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1230:
1228:
1227:on 13 June 2006
1224:
1213:
1207:
1182:
1172:
1170:
1156:
1149:
1110:(1–4): 175–87.
1097:
1072:
1056:
1055:
1048:
1046:
1041:
1040:
1033:
1023:
1021:
1004:
997:
989:
985:
980:
959:
952:
937:science fiction
932:
890:, temperature,
880:gamma radiation
872:malachite green
821:
793:
791:Cosmic ancestry
688:
627:raining animals
623:
482:microbiological
467:Initially, the
453:
392:, Kerala, used
335:Photomicrograph
159:
148:
127:
90:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2809:
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2770:External links
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2589:
2570:
2551:moishecallow.
2543:
2521:Dunning, Brian
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2403:. Touchstone.
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1100:Godfrey Louis
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671:Mayon Volcano
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417:phenylalanine
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2015:. Retrieved
2009:. SKYbrary.
2007:"Jet Stream"
2001:
1989:. Retrieved
1985:the original
1975:
1949:. Retrieved
1944:
1934:
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1913:
1909:
1899:
1873:(1): 24–26.
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1715:
1712:Microbiology
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1022:. Retrieved
1013:The Guardian
1011:
986:
940:
920:Trentepohlia
919:
916:
912:reproduction
910:followed by
869:
850:
826:
822:
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759:cells using
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746:
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562:pigments. A
544:Trentepohlia
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540:Trentepohlia
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537:
529:
525:Trentepohlia
523:
507:Trentepohlia
505:
495:
487:
480:(TBGRI) for
466:
402:
398:CHN analyser
383:
363:heavy metals
340:
128:
102:
81:Trentepohlia
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37:
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25:
2317:1 September
1554:(31): 335.
1446:(9): 3238.
1377:India Today
971:Yellow rain
908:cell growth
904:germination
884:desiccation
876:ultraviolet
857:germination
809:abiogenesis
795:Researcher
769:dust clouds
598:rust fungus
556:chlorophyll
548:chlorophyte
413:amino acids
384:Physicists
377:(321 ppm),
110:thunderclap
2843:Panspermia
2817:Categories
2800:Earthfiles
2777:Institute.
2727:18 October
2701:18 October
2661:18 October
2563:18 October
2494:18 October
2191:: 74410N.
2167:18 October
2135:11 October
2017:30 October
1916:: 158–65.
1744:5 December
1342:18 October
1316:18 October
1289:18 October
1049:18 October
978:References
965:Panspermia
892:starvation
846:autoclaved
801:panspermia
773:panspermia
725:hypothesis
722:panspermia
715:sonic boom
704:panspermia
675:jet stream
631:waterspout
629:, a small
560:carotenoid
404:Tom Brenna
373:(59 ppm),
131:suspension
88:Occurrence
42:blood rain
2757:2 January
2635:31 August
2536:5 October
2363:120685022
2296:118437731
2271:1008.4960
2213:123070754
2062:123656159
1961:cite news
1945:The Hindu
1761:The Hindu
1617:2 October
1231:30 August
1142:119427737
819:Criticism
643:rain dust
635:North Sea
568:symbiosis
500:-forming
437:threonine
425:glutamine
371:manganese
55:Sri Lanka
2792:BBC News
2751:Archived
2721:Archived
2655:Archived
2581:Archived
2530:Skeptoid
2488:Archived
2451:Archived
2381:Archived
2158:Archived
2129:Archived
2078:Archived
2040:(1): 9.
2011:Archived
1918:Archived
1891:Archived
1780:Archived
1738:Archived
1734:23175506
1691:Archived
1637:Archived
1611:Archived
1580:Archived
1578:. 2001.
1521:Archived
1486:Archived
1460:17523227
1310:Archived
1283:Archived
1167:Archived
1059:cite web
1024:12 March
1018:Archived
950:See also
942:Red Rain
926:spores.
888:lysozyme
813:universe
700:Kottayam
690:In 2003
552:symbiont
441:arginine
379:chromium
375:titanium
21:Red Rain
2608:24 June
2343:Bibcode
2276:Bibcode
2193:Bibcode
2042:Bibcode
1875:Bibcode
1820:Bibcode
1786:6 March
1778:. BBC.
1609:(180).
1586:11 June
1492:11 June
1387:6 March
1263:20 July
1173:6 March
1165:. BBC.
1122:Bibcode
906:, then
832:at the
647:deserts
633:in the
581:at the
515:sources
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1991:26 May
1951:26 May
1924:30 May
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1670:3 June
1643:3 June
1527:31 May
1458:
1140:
993:p. 25
659:Arabia
652:Sahara
594:spores
564:lichen
498:lichen
439:, and
429:serine
274:45.42
201:49.53
198:51.00
105:Idukki
73:spores
62:meteor
50:Kerala
40:was a
2359:S2CID
2292:S2CID
2266:arXiv
2231:arXiv
2209:S2CID
2161:(PDF)
2154:(PDF)
2105:arXiv
2058:S2CID
1482:Rense
1225:(PDF)
1214:(PDF)
1138:S2CID
1112:arXiv
939:film
924:algal
729:cells
711:arXiv
663:LIDAR
645:from
546:is a
355:salts
324:0.69
321:0.49
311:2.85
308:7.50
296:0.08
284:0.26
262:1.84
248:1.48
238:0.97
235:0.61
225:4.43
213:0.12
186:2.52
176:0.41
114:wells
77:genus
65:burst
2853:Rain
2759:2014
2729:2015
2703:2015
2663:2015
2637:2009
2610:2008
2565:2015
2538:2012
2496:2015
2405:ISBN
2339:7819
2319:2009
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2137:2009
2019:2015
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1967:link
1953:2008
1926:2008
1788:2006
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1730:PMID
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1645:2008
1619:2012
1588:2015
1529:2008
1494:2015
1456:PMID
1389:2006
1344:2015
1318:2015
1291:2015
1265:2012
1233:2009
1175:2006
1065:link
1051:2015
1026:2006
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534:bark
502:alga
173:1.0
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