Randomized controlled trial

33: 1147:) as opposed to government, nonprofit, or other sources. A systematic review published in 2003 found four 1986–2002 articles comparing industry-sponsored and nonindustry-sponsored RCTs, and in all the articles there was a correlation of industry sponsorship and positive study outcome. A 2004 study of 1999–2001 RCTs published in leading medical and surgical journals determined that industry-funded RCTs "are more likely to be associated with statistically significant pro-industry findings." These results have been mirrored in trials in surgery, where although industry funding did not affect the rate of trial discontinuation it was however associated with a lower odds of publication for completed trials. One possible reason for the pro-industry results in industry-funded published RCTs is 929:), evaluate the study in the context of related studies and other evidence, and evaluate whether the study can be reasonably considered to have proven its conclusions. To underscore the need for peer review and the danger of overgeneralizing conclusions, two Boston-area medical researchers performed a randomized controlled trial in which they randomly assigned either a parachute or an empty backpack to 23 volunteers who jumped from either a biplane or a helicopter. The study was able to accurately report that parachutes fail to reduce injury compared to empty backpacks. The key context that limited the general applicability of this conclusion was that the aircraft were parked on the ground, and participants had only jumped about two feet. 9851: 7540: 615:"Allocation concealment" (defined as "the procedure for protecting the randomization process so that the treatment to be allocated is not known before the patient is entered into the study") is important in RCTs. In practice, clinical investigators in RCTs often find it difficult to maintain impartiality. Stories abound of investigators holding up sealed envelopes to lights or ransacking offices to determine group assignments in order to dictate the assignment of their next patient. Such practices introduce selection bias and 619:(both of which should be minimized by randomization), possibly distorting the results of the study. Adequate allocation concealment should defeat patients and investigators from discovering treatment allocation once a study is underway and after the study has concluded. Treatment related side-effects or adverse events may be specific enough to reveal allocation to investigators or patients thereby introducing bias or influencing any subjective parameters collected by investigators or requested from subjects. 11023: 9837: 511:. Generally, equal group sizes maximize statistical power, however, unequal groups sizes may be more powerful for some analyses (e.g., multiple comparisons of placebo versus several doses using Dunnett's procedure ), and are sometimes desired for non-analytic reasons (e.g., patients may be more motivated to enroll if there is a higher chance of getting the test treatment, or regulatory agencies may require a minimum number of patients exposed to treatment). 1140:

industry financial ties with one or more authors. The information was, however, seldom reflected in the meta-analyses. Only two (7%) reported RCT funding sources and none reported RCT author-industry ties. The authors concluded "without acknowledgment of COI due to industry funding or author industry financial ties from RCTs included in meta-analyses, readers' understanding and appraisal of the evidence from the meta-analysis may be compromised."

11047: 9875: 11035: 9863: 485:, which refers to the stringent precautions taken to ensure that the group assignment of patients are not revealed prior to definitively allocating them to their respective groups. Non-random "systematic" methods of group assignment, such as alternating subjects between one group and the other, can cause "limitless contamination possibilities" and can cause a breach of allocation concealment. 356:(ICMJE) announced that all trials starting enrolment after July 1, 2005, must be registered prior to consideration for publication in one of the 12 member journals of the committee. However, trial registration may still occur late or not at all. Medical journals have been slow in adapting policies requiring mandatory clinical trial registration as a prerequisite for publication. 1151:. Other authors have cited the differing goals of academic and industry sponsored research as contributing to the difference. Commercial sponsors may be more focused on performing trials of drugs that have already shown promise in early stage trials, and on replicating previous positive results to fulfill regulatory requirements for drug approval. 575:, in which the entire sample is treated as one block. The major disadvantage of permuted-block randomization is that even if the block sizes are large and randomly varied, the procedure can lead to selection bias. Another disadvantage is that "proper" analysis of data from permuted-block-randomized RCTs requires stratification by blocks. 1247:

intervention, and parent training, and then measured the behavioral and academic performance of their students. Another 2009 study randomized classrooms for 678 first-grade children to receive a classroom-centered intervention, a parent-centered intervention, or no intervention, and then followed their academic outcomes through age 19.

2194:(1935) statistical technique and application. In that book he emphasized examples and how to design experiments systematically from a statistical point of view. The mathematical justification of the methods described was not stressed and, indeed, proofs were often barely sketched or omitted altogether ..., a fact which led 702:, unblinded neurologists (but not the blinded neurologists) felt that the treatments were beneficial. In pragmatic RCTs, although the participants and providers are often unblinded, it is "still desirable and often possible to blind the assessor or obtain an objective source of data for evaluation of outcomes." 398:– each participant is randomly assigned to a group that receives a particular combination of interventions or non-interventions (e.g., group 1 receives vitamin X and vitamin Y, group 2 receives vitamin X and placebo Y, group 3 receives placebo X and vitamin Y, and group 4 receives placebo X and placebo Y). 1255:

A 2018 review of the 10 most cited randomised controlled trials noted poor distribution of background traits, difficulties with blinding, and discussed other assumptions and biases inherent in randomised controlled trials. These include the "unique time period assessment bias", the "background traits

1134:

in underlying research studies used for medical meta-analyses reviewed 29 meta-analyses and found that conflicts of interests in the studies underlying the meta-analyses were rarely disclosed. The 29 meta-analyses included 11 from general medicine journals; 15 from specialty medicine journals, and 3

1025:

came to market in 1986 and 1987 respectively. The non-randomized studies concerning the drugs were characterized as "glowing", and their sales increased to a combined total of approximately 165,000 prescriptions per month in early 1989. In that year, however, a preliminary report of an RCT concluded

596:: The probability of being assigned to a group varies in order to minimize "covariate imbalance." Minimization is reported to have "supporters and detractors" because only the first subject's group assignment is truly chosen at random, the method does not necessarily eliminate bias on unknown factors. 562:

or blocked randomization: a "block size" and "allocation ratio" (number of subjects in one group versus the other group) are specified, and subjects are allocated randomly within each block. For example, a block size of 6 and an allocation ratio of 2:1 would lead to random assignment of 4 subjects to

1184:

Researchers in transport science argue that public spending on programmes such as school travel plans could not be justified unless their efficacy is demonstrated by randomized controlled trials. Graham-Rowe and colleagues reviewed 77 evaluations of transport interventions found in the literature,

677:

An RCT may be blinded, (also called "masked") by "procedures that prevent study participants, caregivers, or outcome assessors from knowing which intervention was received." Unlike allocation concealment, blinding is sometimes inappropriate or impossible to perform in an RCT; for example, if an RCT

578:

Adaptive biased-coin randomization methods (of which urn randomization is the most widely known type): In these relatively uncommon methods, the probability of being assigned to a group decreases if the group is overrepresented and increases if the group is underrepresented. The methods are thought

690:

specifies that authors and editors should not use the terms "single-blind", "double-blind", and "triple-blind"; instead, reports of blinded RCT should discuss "If done, who was blinded after assignment to interventions (for example, participants, care providers, those assessing outcomes) and how."

335:

for their participation in an RCT, studies since 1982 have documented that RCT subjects may believe that they are certain to receive treatment that is best for them personally; that is, they do not understand the difference between research and treatment. Further research is necessary to determine

1139:

Database of Systematic Reviews. The 29 meta-analyses reviewed an aggregate of 509 randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Of these, 318 RCTs reported funding sources with 219 (69%) industry funded. 132 of the 509 RCTs reported author conflict of interest disclosures, with 91 studies (69%) disclosing

1037:

claimed that women taking hormone replacement therapy with estrogen plus progestin had a higher rate of myocardial infarctions than women on a placebo, and that estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy caused no reduction in the incidence of coronary heart disease. Possible explanations for the

522:

that affect the outcome are not equally distributed between treatment groups, and the treatment effect is confounded with the effect of the covariates (i.e., an "accidental bias"). If the randomization procedure causes an imbalance in covariates related to the outcome across groups, estimates of

1188:

Dr. Steve Melia took issue with these conclusions, arguing that claims about the advantages of RCTs, in establishing causality and avoiding bias, have been exaggerated. He proposed the following eight criteria for the use of RCTs in contexts where interventions must change human behaviour to be

622:

Some standard methods of ensuring allocation concealment include sequentially numbered, opaque, sealed envelopes (SNOSE); sequentially numbered containers; pharmacy controlled randomization; and central randomization. It is recommended that allocation concealment methods be included in an RCT's

514:

Minimize selection bias. This may occur if investigators can consciously or unconsciously preferentially enroll patients between treatment arms. A good randomization procedure will be unpredictable so that investigators cannot guess the next subject's group assignment based on prior treatment

1246:

RCTs have been used in evaluating a number of educational interventions. Between 1980 and 2016, over 1,000 reports of RCTs have been published. For example, a 2009 study randomized 260 elementary school teachers' classrooms to receive or not receive a program of behavioral screening, classroom

108:

to their treatment allocations. This blinding principle is ideally also extended as much as possible to other parties including researchers, technicians, data analysts, and evaluators. Effective blinding experimentally isolates the physiological effects of treatments from various psychological

1233:

A 2005 review found 83 randomized experiments in criminology published in 1982–2004, compared with only 35 published in 1957–1981. The authors classified the studies they found into five categories: "policing", "prevention", "corrections", "court", and "community". Focusing only on offending

1163:

in medical technology is developed, it may be difficult to test this ethically in an RCT if it becomes "obvious" that the control subjects have poorer outcomes—either due to other foregoing testing, or within the initial phase of the RCT itself. Ethically it may be necessary to abort the RCT

653:

The number of treatment units (subjects or groups of subjects) assigned to control and treatment groups, affects an RCT's reliability. If the effect of the treatment is small, the number of treatment units in either group may be insufficient for rejecting the null hypothesis in the respective

1175:

Due to the recent emergence of RCTs in social science, the use of RCTs in social sciences is a contested issue. Some writers from a medical or health background have argued that existing research in a range of social science disciplines lacks rigour, and should be improved by greater use of

862:

concluded that "discrepancies beyond chance do occur and differences in estimated magnitude of treatment effect are very common" between observational studies and RCTs. According to a 2014 (updated in 2024) Cochrane review, there is little evidence for significant effect differences between

599:

Response-adaptive randomization, also known as outcome-adaptive randomization: The probability of being assigned to a group increases if the responses of the prior patients in the group were favorable. Although arguments have been made that this approach is more ethical than other types of

627:, and that the allocation concealment methods should be reported in detail in a publication of an RCT's results; however, a 2005 study determined that most RCTs have unclear allocation concealment in their protocols, in their publications, or both. On the other hand, a 2008 study of 146 36:

Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, allocation, intervention, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups (in a controlled trial, one of the interventions serves as the control), modified from the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) 2010

1256:

remain constant assumption", the "average treatment effects limitation", the "simple treatment at the individual level limitation", the "all preconditions are fully met assumption", the "quantitative variable limitation" and the "placebo only or conventional treatment only limitation".

855:

and RCTs overall produced similar results. The authors of the 2000 findings questioned the belief that "observational studies should not be used for defining evidence-based medical care" and that RCTs' results are "evidence of the highest grade." However, a 2001 study published in

315:

of RCTs have special considerations. For one, it has been argued that equipoise itself is insufficient to justify RCTs. For another, "collective equipoise" can conflict with a lack of personal equipoise (e.g., a personal belief that an intervention is effective). Finally,

436:

Another classification of RCTs categorizes them as "superiority trials", "noninferiority trials", and "equivalence trials", which differ in methodology and reporting. Most RCTs are superiority trials, in which one intervention is hypothesized to be superior to another in a

159:

trials (and some of them could never be, as in cases where controls would be impractical or unethical to use). The term randomized controlled clinical trial is an alternative term used in clinical research; however, RCTs are also employed in other research areas, including

780:

Whether an RCT should be stopped early due to interim results. For example, RCTs may be stopped early if an intervention produces "larger than expected benefit or harm", or if "investigators find evidence of no important difference between experimental and control

905:. Regarding Type I errors, a typical RCT will use 0.05 (i.e., 1 in 20) as the probability that the RCT will falsely find two equally effective treatments significantly different. Regarding Type II errors, despite the publication of a 1978 paper noting that the 146:

The terms "RCT" and "randomized trial" are sometimes used synonymously, but the latter term omits mention of controls and can therefore describe studies that compare multiple treatment groups with each other in the absence of a control group. Similarly, the

299:(CONSORT) Statements in 1996, 2001 and 2010, and these have become widely accepted. Randomization is the process of assigning trial subjects to treatment or control groups using an element of chance to determine the assignments in order to reduce the bias. 6300: 662:

would imply that the treatment shows no statistically significant effect on the treated in a given test. But as the sample size increases, the same RCT may be able to demonstrate a significant effect of the treatment, even if this effect is small.

3245:"Independent and combined effects of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and improved complementary feeding on early neurodevelopment among children born to HIV-negative mothers in rural Zimbabwe: Substudy of a cluster-randomized trial" 818:

is "an evidence-based, minimum set of recommendations for reporting RCTs." The CONSORT 2010 checklist contains 25 items (many with sub-items) focusing on "individually randomised, two group, parallel trials" which are the most common type of RCT.

4175:

Fukase K, Kato M, Kikuchi S, et al. (August 2008). "Effect of eradication of Helicobacter pylori on incidence of metachronous gastric carcinoma after endoscopic resection of early gastric cancer: an open-label, randomised controlled trial".

441:

way. Some RCTs are noninferiority trials "to determine whether a new treatment is no worse than a reference treatment." Other RCTs are equivalence trials in which the hypothesis is that two interventions are indistinguishable from each other.

788:" is used). A "pure" intention-to-treat analysis is "possible only when complete outcome data are available" for all randomized subjects; when some outcome data are missing, options include analyzing only cases with known outcomes and using 1038:

discrepancy between the observational studies and the RCTs involved differences in methodology, in the hormone regimens used, and in the populations studied. The use of hormone replacement therapy decreased after publication of the RCTs.

343:

The RCT method variations may also create cultural effects that have not been well understood. For example, patients with terminal illness may join trials in the hope of being cured, even when treatments are unlikely to be successful.

480:

to generate an unpredictable sequence of allocations; this may be a simple random assignment of patients to any of the groups at equal probabilities, may be "restricted", or may be "adaptive." A second and more practical issue is

5132:

Freiman JA, Chalmers TC, Smith H, et al. (September 1978). "The importance of beta, the type II error and sample size in the design and interpretation of the randomized control trial. Survey of 71 "negative" trials".

685:

Traditionally, blinded RCTs have been classified as "single-blind", "double-blind", or "triple-blind"; however, in 2001 and 2006 two studies showed that these terms have different meanings for different people. The 2010

5464:

Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators (August 1989). "Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction".

5400:

Anderson JL, Pratt CM, Waldo AL, et al. (January 1997). "Impact of the Food and Drug Administration approval of flecainide and encainide on coronary artery disease mortality: putting "Deadly Medicine" to the test".

4290:

Manns MP, McHutchison JG, Gordon SC, et al. (September 2001). "Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomised trial".

698:". In 2008 a study concluded that the results of unblinded RCTs tended to be biased toward beneficial effects only if the RCTs' outcomes were subjective as opposed to objective; for example, in an RCT of treatments for 1234:

behavior programs, Hollin (2008) argued that RCTs may be difficult to implement (e.g., if an RCT required "passing sentences that would randomly assign offenders to programmes") and therefore that experiments with

909:

of many "negative" RCTs were too small to make definitive conclusions about the negative results, by 2005-2006 a sizeable proportion of RCTs still had inaccurate or incompletely reported sample size calculations.

6340:

Walker HM, Seeley JR, Small J, et al. (2009). "A randomized controlled trial of the First Step to Success early intervention. Demonstration of program efficacy outcomes in a diverse, urban school district".

6546: 10833: 201:-era attitude that scientific observation can only be objectively valid when undertaken by a well-educated, informed scientist. The first study recorded to have a blinded researcher was published in 1907 by 196:

in the latter half of the 19th century. Bernard recommended that the observer of an experiment should not have knowledge of the hypothesis being tested. This suggestion contrasted starkly with the prevalent

4830:

Toews I, Anglemyer A, Nyirenda JL, et al. (2024-01-04). "Healthcare outcomes assessed with observational study designs compared with those assessed in randomized trials: a meta-epidemiological study".

1185:

categorising them into 5 "quality levels". They concluded that most of the studies were of low quality and advocated the use of randomized controlled trials wherever possible in future transport research.

5289:

Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, et al. (Methods Work Group; Third US Preventive Services Task Force) (April 2001). "Current methods of the US Preventive Services Task Force: a review of the process".

543:

against both selection and accidental biases. However, its main drawback is the possibility of imbalanced group sizes in small RCTs. It is therefore recommended only for RCTs with over 200 subjects.

5228: 863:

observational studies and randomized controlled trials. To evaluate differences it is necessary to consider things other than design, such as heterogeneity, population, intervention or comparator.

1167:

Historical control trials (HCT) exploit the data of previous RCTs to reduce the sample size; however, these approaches are controversial in the scientific community and must be handled with care.

5827: 515:

assignments. The risk of selection bias is highest when previous treatment assignments are known (as in unblinded studies) or can be guessed (perhaps if a drug has distinctive side effects).

877:

RCTs may be unnecessary for treatments that have dramatic and rapid effects relative to the expected stable or progressively worse natural course of the condition treated. One example is

3186:"Effect of a 20-week physical activity intervention on selective attention and academic performance in children living in disadvantaged neighborhoods: A cluster randomized control trial" 1095:) and uncommon adverse outcomes (e.g., a rare side effect of a drug) would require RCTs with extremely large sample sizes and may, therefore, best be assessed by observational studies. 1085:

The conduct of an RCT takes several years until being published; thus, data is restricted from the medical community for long years and may be of less relevance at time of publication.

1071:

of RCTs may be high, in that the same study projected that the 28 RCTs produced a "net benefit to society at 10-years" of 46 times the cost of the trials program, based on evaluating a

531:

However, no single randomization procedure meets those goals in every circumstance, so researchers must select a procedure for a given study based on its advantages and disadvantages.

1705:

Wollert KC, Meyer GP, Lotz J, et al. (2004). "Intracoronary autologous bone-marrow cell transfer after myocardial infarction: the BOOST randomised controlled clinical trial".

1098:

Due to the costs of running RCTs, these usually only inspect one variable or very few variables, rarely reflecting the full picture of a complicated medical situation; whereas the

600:

randomization when the probability that a treatment is effective or ineffective increases during the course of an RCT, ethicists have not yet studied the approach in detail.

5692:

Sanson-Fisher RW, Bonevski B, Green LW, et al. (August 2007). "Limitations of the randomized controlled trial in evaluating population-based health interventions".

5730:

Johnston SC, Rootenberg JD, Katrak S, et al. (April 2006). "Effect of a US National Institutes of Health programme of clinical trials on public health and costs".

998:

as of 2011 defined "Level 1a" evidence as a systematic review of RCTs that are consistent with each other, and "Level 1b" evidence as an "individual RCT (with narrow

3358: 631:

concluded that the results of RCTs with inadequate or unclear allocation concealment tended to be biased toward beneficial effects only if the RCTs' outcomes were

792:

data. Nevertheless, the more that analyses can include all participants in the groups to which they were randomized, the less bias that an RCT will be subject to.

4380:"Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial" 4079:"The SANAD study of effectiveness of valproate, lamotrigine, or topiramate for generalised and unclassifiable epilepsy: an unblinded randomised controlled trial" 1060: 428:

in everyday practice with relatively unselected participants and under flexible conditions; in this way, pragmatic RCTs can "inform decisions about practice."

291:

By the late 20th century, RCTs were recognized as the standard method for "rational therapeutics" in medicine. As of 2004, more than 150,000 RCTs were in the

72:

Participants who enroll in RCTs differ from one another in known and unknown ways that can influence study outcomes, and yet cannot be directly controlled. By

2784: 5220: 1029:

Prior to 2002, based on observational studies, it was routine for physicians to prescribe hormone replacement therapy for post-menopausal women to prevent

80:

over these influences. Provided it is designed well, conducted properly, and enrolls enough participants, an RCT may achieve sufficient control over these

539:

This is a commonly used and intuitive procedure, similar to "repeated fair coin-tossing." Also known as "complete" or "unrestricted" randomization, it is

965:

of all relevant randomised controlled trials" and "Level II" evidence as that "obtained from at least one properly designed randomised controlled trial."

3105:"Botulinum Toxin A Injection in Treatment of Upper Limb Spasticity in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials" 10828: 6583: 5831: 5243: 4128:"Oral versus intravenous antibiotics for community acquired lower respiratory tract infection in a general hospital: open, randomised controlled trial" 1164:

prematurely, and getting ethics approval (and patient agreement) to withhold the innovation from the control group in future RCTs may not be feasible.

10818: 4782:

Ioannidis JP, Haidich AB, Pappa M, et al. (August 2001). "Comparison of evidence of treatment effects in randomized and nonrandomized studies".

3905:"Empirical evidence of bias in treatment effect estimates in controlled trials with different interventions and outcomes: meta-epidemiological study" 2216: 1196:

Has not been applied to all members of a unique group of people (e.g. the population of a whole country, all employees of a unique organisation etc.)

472:"It permits the use of probability theory to express the likelihood that any difference in outcome between treatment groups merely indicates chance." 311:("genuine uncertainty within the expert medical community... about the preferred treatment") common to clinical trials has been applied to RCTs, the 588:

At least two types of "adaptive" randomization procedures have been used in RCTs, but much less frequently than simple or restricted randomization:

4637:"Reporting of surrogate endpoints in randomised controlled trial reports (CONSORT-Surrogate): extension checklist with explanation and elaboration" 836:"Reporting of surrogate endpoints in randomised controlled trial reports (CONSORT-Surrogate): extension checklist with explanation and elaboration" 1435: 406:

during December 2006 found that 78% were parallel-group trials, 16% were crossover, 2% were split-body, 2% were cluster, and 2% were factorial.

8972: 2124: 953:. Some examples of scientific organizations' considering RCTs or systematic reviews of RCTs to be the highest-quality evidence available are: 9477: 7114: 6343: 100:; these are then termed the 'experimental' and 'control' treatments, respectively. When no such generally accepted treatment is available, a 5502:"Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial" 973: 958: 488:

However empirical evidence that adequate randomization changes outcomes relative to inadequate randomization has been difficult to detect.

120:

and allocation bias, balancing both known and unknown prognostic factors, in the assignment of treatments. Blinding reduces other forms of

2190:, published in 1925, went through many editions and motivated and influenced the practical use of statistics in many fields of study. His 925:. Reviewers examine the study results for potential problems with design that could lead to unreliable results (for example by creating a 9627: 6301:"The trials of evidence-based practice in education: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials in education research 1980–2016" 4336:"Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial" 858: 424:

in a research setting with highly selected participants and under highly controlled conditions. In contrast, pragmatic RCTs (pRCTs) test

17: 6486: 878: 10868: 9251: 7892: 5852:

Bekelman JE, Li Y, Gross CP (2003). "Scope and impact of financial conflicts of interest in biomedical research: a systematic review".

823: 814: 687: 296: 380:– each participant is randomly assigned to a group, and all the participants in the group receive (or do not receive) an intervention. 7439: 5669: 3463: 995: 980:

as indicators of its quality. It has recognized "evidence obtained from at least one properly randomized controlled trial" with good

281: 5892:"Association between industry funding and statistically significant pro-industry findings in medical and surgical randomized trials" 9025: 6875: 6871: 4233: 2186: 945:

that influences healthcare policy and practice because RCTs reduce spurious causality and bias. Results of RCTs may be combined in

6168:

Graham-Rowe E, Skippon S, Gardner B, et al. (2011). "Can we reduce car use and, if so, how? A review of available evidence".

1413: 392:– pre-existing groups of participants (e.g., villages, schools) are randomly selected to receive (or not receive) an intervention. 11078: 10901: 10873: 9913: 9464: 6921: 6879: 6867: 769: 4034:

Haahr MT, Hróbjartsson A (2006). "Who is blinded in randomized clinical trials? A study of 200 trials and a survey of authors".

32: 10878: 10194: 6576: 1609:"Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. I. Introduction and design" 1378:

Chalmers TC, Smith H, Blackburn B, et al. (May 1981). "A method for assessing the quality of a randomized control trial".

1658:"Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. II. analysis and examples" 10936: 10843: 6499: 5256: 3969: 2168:

Neyman, Jerzy. 1923 . "On the Application of Probability Theory to AgriculturalExperiments. Essay on Principles. Section 9."

5982:"Reported outcomes in major cardiovascular clinical trials funded by for-profit and not-for-profit organizations: 2000-2005" 5828:"How Well Do Meta-Analyses Disclose Conflicts of Interests in Underlying Research Studies | The Cochrane Collaboration" 10926: 7887: 7587: 7042: 6958: 5541:

Grodstein F, Clarkson TB, Manson JE (February 2003). "Understanding the divergent data on postmenopausal hormone therapy".

571:, to "ensure good balance of participant characteristics in each group." A special case of permuted-block randomization is 185: 143:. A randomized controlled trial can provide compelling evidence that the study treatment causes an effect on human health. 2957:

Bhaumik S, Biswas T (March 2013). "Editorial policies of MEDLINE indexed Indian journals on clinical trial registration".

2877:"Despite law, fewer than one in eight completed studies of drugs and biologics are reported on time on ClinicalTrials.gov" 295:. To improve the reporting of RCTs in the medical literature, an international group of scientists and editors published 10883: 10447: 10035: 8491: 7639: 7463: 6823: 6227: 847: 389: 6793: 6225:

Farrington DP, Welsh BC (2005). "Randomized experiments in criminology: What have we learned in the last two decades?".

2563:"The ethics of randomised controlled trials from the perspectives of patients, the public, and healthcare professionals" 9951: 1564:

Ranjith G (2005). "Interferon-alpha-induced depression: when a randomized trial is not a randomized controlled trial".

4596:"Methods and processes of the CONSORT Group: example of an extension for trials assessing nonpharmacologic treatments" 784:

The extent to which the groups can be analyzed exactly as they existed upon randomization (i.e., whether a so-called "

11083: 10941: 10467: 10050: 9274: 9166: 7514: 7352: 7261: 7107: 6569: 6517: 6380:"Longitudinal Impact of Two Universal Preventive Interventions in First Grade on Educational Outcomes in High School" 3404:

Schulz KF, Grimes DA (February 2002). "Generation of allocation sequences in randomised trials: chance, not choice".

3054:"Abdominal drainage versus no drainage after distal pancreatectomy: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial" 1525:"Randomized clinical trials and observational studies: guidelines for assessing respective strengths and limitations" 988: 2184:

Ronald A. Fisher was "interested in application and in the popularization of statistical methods and his early book

151:

is sometimes expanded as "randomized clinical trial" or "randomized comparative trial", leading to ambiguity in the

9879: 9452: 9326: 7080: 6264: 3726:

Lachin JM, Matts JP, Wei LJ (December 1988). "Randomization in clinical trials: conclusions and recommendations".

469:"It facilitates blinding (masking) of the identity of treatments from investigators, participants, and assessors." 10584: 10212: 10189: 9510: 9171: 8916: 8287: 7877: 7527: 7235: 7221: 5441:"In medicine, evidence can be confusing - deluged with studies, doctors try to sort out what works, what doesn't" 4555:"Extending the CONSORT statement to randomized trials of nonpharmacologic treatment: explanation and elaboration" 3851:"Comparison of descriptions of allocation concealment in trial protocols and the published reports: cohort study" 2817: 2694:

Appelbaum PS, Roth LH, Lidz C (1982). "The therapeutic misconception: informed consent in psychiatric research".

6887: 866:

Two other lines of reasoning question RCTs' contribution to scientific knowledge beyond other types of studies:

11088: 11039: 10858: 10808: 10620: 10517: 10278: 10179: 10092: 9561: 8773: 8580: 8469: 8427: 7532: 6925: 6647: 5440: 4477: 3806:

Forder PM, Gebski VJ, Keech AC (January 2005). "Allocation concealment and blinding: when ignorance is bliss".

3005:"The quality of reports of randomised trials in 2000 and 2006: comparative study of articles indexed in PubMed" 1290: 761: 655: 593: 8501: 1088:

It is costly to maintain RCTs for the years or decades that would be ideal for evaluating some interventions.

11051: 10691: 10462: 9804: 8763: 7666: 7073: 6758: 4234:"The impact of blinding on the results of a randomized, placebo-controlled multiple sclerosis clinical trial" 2010:"Deception, efficiency, and random groups. Psychology and the gradual origination of the random group design" 1476:"CONSORT 2010 explanation and elaboration: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials" 270: 3995:"Physician interpretations and textbook definitions of blinding terminology in randomized controlled trials" 97: 10556: 10283: 9355: 9304: 9289: 9279: 9148: 9020: 8987: 8813: 8768: 8598: 7433: 7398: 7330: 7186: 7100: 7052: 5778:"Case report on trial: Do you, Doctor, swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth?" 5262: 1092: 1034: 1011: 228: 991:

concluded in 2008 that "randomised trials without important limitations constitute high quality evidence."

871: 776:

Regardless of the statistical methods used, important considerations in the analysis of RCT data include:

373:. From most to least common in the healthcare literature, the major categories of RCT study designs are: 10703: 10596: 10320: 10308: 10217: 9906: 9867: 9699: 9500: 9424: 8725: 8479: 7612: 7554: 7415: 7016: 6988: 6917: 6538:"REFLECT (Reporting guidElines For randomized controLled trials for livEstoCk and food safeTy) Statement" 2427: 969: 785: 476:

There are two processes involved in randomizing patients to different interventions. First is choosing a

694:

RCTs without blinding are referred to as "unblinded", "open", or (if the intervention is a medication) "

11073: 10773: 10698: 10603: 10139: 9584: 9556: 9551: 9299: 9058: 8964: 8944: 8852: 8563: 8381: 7864: 7736: 7311: 7066: 6742: 2333:"Comparison of effects in randomized controlled trials with observational studies in digestive surgery" 1218:

Do not involve significant feedback mechanisms between the intervention group and external environments

1072: 757: 121: 3771:

Rosenberger WF, Lachin JM (December 1993). "The use of response-adaptive designs in clinical trials".

3359:"Reporting of noninferiority and equivalence randomized trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement" 2836:"Clinical trial registration: a statement from the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors" 2125:"From deception trials to control reagents: The introduction of the control group about a century ago" 11103: 11093: 10895: 10890: 10758: 10457: 10164: 10122: 10086: 9993: 9316: 9084: 8805: 8730: 8659: 8588: 8508: 8496: 8366: 8354: 8347: 8055: 7776: 6861: 5621:"Changes in postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy use among women with high cardiovascular risk" 3680:

Buyse ME (December 1989). "Analysis of clinical trial outcomes: some comments on subgroup analyses".

1973:(November 1992). "A Historical View of Statistical Concepts in Psychology and Educational Research". 1235: 1056: 902: 710:

The types of statistical methods used in RCTs depend on the characteristics of the data and include:

648: 337: 4796: 1202:

Can be isolated from other activities—and the purpose of the study is to assess this isolated effect

527:

if not adjusted for the covariates (which may be unmeasured and therefore impossible to adjust for).

10733: 10432: 10144: 10040: 9799: 9566: 9429: 9114: 9079: 9043: 8828: 8270: 8179: 8138: 8050: 7741: 7580: 7489: 7484: 7449: 7333: 7251: 7206: 7201: 6799: 6747: 6627: 5933:"Discontinuation and non-publication of surgical randomised controlled trials: observational study" 5576:

Vandenbroucke JP (April 2009). "The HRT controversy: observational studies and RCTs fall in line".

636: 564: 552: 438: 415: 2454:"A brief history of the randomized controlled trial. From oranges and lemons to the gold standard" 386:– over time, each participant receives (or does not receive) an intervention in a random sequence. 11004: 10931: 10763: 9708: 9321: 9261: 9198: 8836: 8820: 8558: 8420: 8410: 8260: 8174: 7457: 6845: 6715: 6693: 6662: 6637: 6620: 6262:

Hollin CR (2008). "Evaluating offending behaviour programmes: does only randomization glister?".

1144: 950: 789: 742: 624: 559: 261:

The first published Randomized Controlled Trial in medicine appeared in the 1948 paper entitled "

212: 6519:

The impact of randomized clinical trials on health policy and medical practice: background paper

4429:"What is meant by intention to treat analysis? Survey of published randomised controlled trials" 2060:"The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions (I)" 1047:

Many papers discuss the disadvantages of RCTs. Among the most frequently cited drawbacks are:

11027: 10999: 10778: 10502: 9988: 9899: 9746: 9676: 9469: 9406: 9161: 9048: 8045: 7942: 7849: 7728: 7627: 7444: 7420: 7364: 7306: 6996: 6833: 6754: 4791: 4612: 4595: 1881: 1136: 1079: 1006:

Notable RCTs with unexpected results that contributed to changes in clinical practice include:

765: 749: 734: 610: 216: 140: 10984: 10768: 10303: 10204: 10097: 9946: 9771: 9713: 9656: 9482: 9375: 9284: 9010: 8894: 8753: 8745: 8635: 8627: 8442: 8338: 8316: 8275: 8240: 8207: 8153: 8128: 8083: 8022: 7982: 7784: 7607: 7549: 7393: 7293: 7267: 7246: 7226: 7163: 7146: 7123: 6837: 6724: 6632: 6596: 6525:. Washington, DC: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. OTA-BP-H-22. Archived from 6505: 4735:"Randomized, controlled trials, observational studies, and the hierarchy of research designs" 1305: 1160: 1131: 1030: 1015: 942: 723: 451: 208: 152: 54: 6561: 4571: 4554: 2526:

Gifford F (April 1995). "Community-equipoise and the ethics of randomized clinical trials".

11098: 10959: 10743: 10608: 10574: 10522: 10347: 10342: 10288: 10244: 10134: 10072: 9961: 9956: 9694: 9269: 9218: 9194: 9156: 9074: 9053: 9005: 8884: 8862: 8831: 8740: 8617: 8568: 8486: 8459: 8415: 8371: 8133: 7909: 7789: 7409: 7347: 7341: 6803: 6177: 3197: 2251: 2017:

Isis; an International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences

1948: 1331:"CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials" 1111: 1068: 800: 524: 395: 325: 274: 198: 128: 66: 8: 10969: 10964: 10738: 10537: 10527: 10362: 9971: 9841: 9766: 9689: 9370: 9134: 9127: 9089: 8997: 8977: 8949: 8682: 8548: 8543: 8533: 8525: 8343: 8304: 8194: 8184: 8093: 7872: 7828: 7746: 7671: 7573: 7509: 7474: 7383: 6710: 6642: 5463: 5245:

A guide to the development, implementation and evaluation of clinical practice guidelines

3573:

Lachin JM (December 1988). "Statistical properties of randomization in clinical trials".

2918:"Comparison of registered and published primary outcomes in randomized controlled trials" 2244:

Analysis and design of experiments: Analysis of variance and analysis of variance designs

1295: 999: 852: 719: 232: 224: 136: 6181: 6078:. Randomized Controlled Trials and Evidence-based Policy: A Multidisciplinary Dialogue. 4663: 4636: 4269: 3609: 3201: 10591: 10174: 10023: 9855: 9666: 9520: 9416: 9365: 9241: 9138: 9122: 9099: 8876: 8610: 8593: 8553: 8464: 8359: 8321: 8292: 8252: 8212: 8158: 8075: 7761: 7756: 7544: 7151: 6963: 6913: 6728: 6657: 6615: 6473: 6404: 6379: 6360: 6281: 6244: 6145: 6120: 6096: 6071: 6047: 6022: 5957: 5932: 5804: 5777: 5755: 5645: 5620: 5601: 5351: 5326: 5196: 5169: 5014: 4989: 4962: 4937: 4906: 4879: 4759: 4734: 4409: 4316: 4261: 4229: 4211: 4152: 4127: 4103: 4078: 4059: 3975: 3929: 3904: 3831: 3819: 3547: 3520: 3494: 3429: 3327: 3302: 3271: 3244: 3220: 3185: 3131: 3104: 3080: 3053: 3029: 3004: 2982: 2809: 2760: 2733: 2671: 2646: 2587: 2562: 2539: 2408: 2357: 2348: 2332: 2291: 2266: 2040: 1990: 1970: 1952: 1936: 1902: 1889: 1858: 1833: 1814: 1774: 1749: 1730: 1682: 1657: 1633: 1608: 1589: 1500: 1475: 1355: 1330: 1300: 1270: 699: 672: 308: 105: 81: 5908: 5743: 5589: 5414: 5303: 5068: 5041: 4304: 4189: 4094: 3875: 3850: 3657: 3633:"Can unequal be more fair? Ethics, subject allocation, and randomised clinical trials" 3632: 3482: 3417: 2469: 2059: 1718: 678:

involves a treatment in which active participation of the patient is necessary (e.g.,

496:

The treatment allocation is the desired proportion of patients in each treatment arm.

258:. Fisher's experimental research and his writings popularized randomized experiments. 10753: 10748: 10676: 10625: 10399: 10379: 10367: 10327: 10298: 10266: 10184: 10077: 10045: 9941: 9850: 9761: 9731: 9723: 9543: 9534: 9459: 9390: 9246: 9231: 9206: 9094: 9035: 8901: 8889: 8515: 8432: 8376: 8299: 8143: 8065: 7844: 7718: 7539: 7301: 7288: 7278: 7191: 7168: 7160: 7156: 7131: 7037: 7001: 6968: 6893: 6815: 6592: 6495: 6450: 6409: 6364: 6322: 6285: 6248: 6205:"Do Randomised Control Trials Offer a Solution to 'low Quality' Transport Research?'" 6150: 6101: 6052: 6003: 5962: 5913: 5869: 5809: 5747: 5709: 5650: 5593: 5558: 5523: 5482: 5418: 5356: 5307: 5252: 5201: 5150: 5114: 5073: 5019: 4967: 4911: 4860: 4848: 4809: 4764: 4712: 4668: 4617: 4576: 4535: 4458: 4453: 4428: 4401: 4357: 4308: 4253: 4203: 4157: 4108: 4051: 4016: 3965: 3934: 3880: 3823: 3788: 3784: 3753: 3739: 3697: 3693: 3662: 3590: 3586: 3552: 3486: 3421: 3381: 3332: 3276: 3225: 3136: 3085: 3034: 2974: 2939: 2898: 2857: 2813: 2765: 2711: 2707: 2676: 2627: 2592: 2543: 2508: 2473: 2400: 2362: 2296: 2228: 2155: 2147: 2105: 2032: 1994: 1863: 1818: 1779: 1722: 1687: 1638: 1593: 1581: 1546: 1505: 1395: 1391: 1360: 1285: 1275: 1199:

Is applied in a context or setting similar to that which applies to the control group

981: 977: 962: 946: 938: 922: 889: 874:

would be at the top of the list, followed by observational studies, followed by RCTs.

796: 753: 568: 540: 508: 504: 317: 240: 93: 73: 6087: 5759: 5605: 4413: 4320: 4215: 4063: 3502: 3498: 3303:"Improving the reporting of pragmatic trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement" 2986: 2198:

to fill the gaps with a rigorous mathematical treatment in his well known treatise,

2044: 1956: 1734: 1215:

Are either known to the researchers, or else all possible alternatives can be tested

57:

used to control factors not under direct experimental control. Examples of RCTs are

10918: 10671: 10630: 10442: 10417: 10229: 10159: 10003: 9786: 9741: 9505: 9492: 9385: 9360: 9294: 9226: 9104: 8712: 8605: 8538: 8451: 8398: 8217: 8088: 7882: 7766: 7681: 7648: 7479: 7173: 6811: 6732: 6686: 6681: 6440: 6399: 6391: 6352: 6312: 6273: 6236: 6185: 6140: 6132: 6091: 6083: 6042: 6034: 5993: 5952: 5944: 5903: 5861: 5799: 5789: 5739: 5701: 5640: 5632: 5585: 5550: 5513: 5474: 5410: 5346: 5338: 5299: 5191: 5181: 5142: 5104: 5063: 5053: 5037: 5009: 5001: 4957: 4949: 4901: 4891: 4856: 4844: 4840: 4801: 4754: 4746: 4702: 4658: 4648: 4607: 4566: 4525: 4515: 4448: 4440: 4391: 4347: 4300: 4265: 4245: 4193: 4185: 4147: 4139: 4098: 4090: 4043: 4006: 3957: 3924: 3916: 3870: 3862: 3815: 3780: 3743: 3735: 3689: 3652: 3644: 3582: 3542: 3532: 3478: 3413: 3373: 3322: 3314: 3266: 3256: 3215: 3205: 3126: 3116: 3075: 3065: 3024: 3016: 2966: 2929: 2888: 2847: 2801: 2755: 2745: 2703: 2666: 2658: 2619: 2582: 2574: 2535: 2500: 2465: 2412: 2392: 2352: 2344: 2286: 2278: 2220: 2139: 2097: 2024: 2009: 1982: 1928: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1806: 1769: 1761: 1714: 1677: 1669: 1628: 1620: 1573: 1536: 1495: 1487: 1387: 1350: 1342: 1265: 1224:

Would act in the same way if the control group and intervention group were reversed

1148: 695: 679: 616: 425: 332: 292: 255: 236: 189: 6445: 6428: 6317: 3835: 3433: 250:

In the early 20th century, randomized experiments appeared in agriculture, due to

10979: 10681: 10484: 10477: 10412: 10352: 10234: 10224: 10154: 10127: 10112: 10067: 10057: 10008: 9703: 9447: 9309: 9236: 8911: 8785: 8758: 8735: 8704: 8331: 8326: 8280: 8010: 7661: 7495: 7425: 7378: 7006: 6829: 6784: 5705: 4896: 3261: 3210: 2750: 2316: 2247: 1944: 1107: 926: 659: 431: 383: 202: 9193: 5478: 5342: 5146: 5005: 4938:"Why we need observational studies to evaluate the effectiveness of health care" 4750: 4707: 4690: 3920: 3866: 2623: 2504: 2208: 1917:(September 1988). "Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design". 10666: 10452: 10389: 10374: 10357: 10315: 10117: 9998: 9652: 9647: 8110: 8040: 7686: 7181: 7032: 6953: 6905: 6698: 6610: 6121:"Randomised controlled trial of site specific advice on school travel patterns" 5046:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2792: 2396: 2383:

Stolberg HO, Norman G, Trop I (December 2004). "Randomized controlled trials".

2143: 1919: 1885: 1541: 1524: 563:

one group and 2 to the other. This type of randomization can be combined with "

555:

is recommended. The major types of restricted randomization used in RCTs are:

459: 377: 328:

and selected therapies, but is likely unethical "for most therapeutic trials."

220: 193: 173: 117: 62: 58: 6240: 6189: 5891: 5170:"Reporting of sample size calculation in randomised controlled trials: review" 4953: 4143: 3121: 3070: 2970: 2893: 2876: 2805: 2578: 1416:. National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health. 22 March 2023 892:, which increased the cure rate from 5% to 60% in a 1977 non-randomized study. 803:

may produce false positive findings that cannot be confirmed by other studies.

420:

RCTs can be classified as "explanatory" or "pragmatic." Explanatory RCTs test

11067: 10974: 10853: 10661: 10635: 10512: 10472: 10437: 10427: 10407: 10149: 10107: 10082: 10030: 10018: 10013: 9922: 9809: 9776: 9639: 9600: 9411: 9380: 8844: 8798: 8403: 8105: 7932: 7696: 7691: 7319: 7196: 7011: 6978: 6973: 6356: 6326: 6277: 6038: 5998: 5981: 5636: 5518: 5501: 5109: 5092: 4880:"Observational research, randomised trials, and two views of medical science" 4852: 4444: 4352: 4335: 4047: 4011: 3994: 3537: 3377: 2662: 2264: 2232: 2209:"R. A. Fisher and the development of statistics—a view in his centenary year" 2151: 2109: 984:(i.e., a rating of "I-good") as the highest quality evidence available to it. 628: 5794: 5241: 4653: 3464:"Allocation concealment in randomised trials: defending against deciphering" 1205:

Has a short timescale between its implementation and maturity of its effects

1143:

Some RCTs are fully or partly funded by the health care industry (e.g., the

421: 132: 10994: 10422: 10271: 10261: 10239: 10169: 10062: 9976: 9751: 9684: 9661: 9576: 8906: 8202: 8100: 8035: 7977: 7962: 7899: 7854: 7469: 6853: 6737: 6454: 6413: 6154: 6105: 6056: 6007: 5966: 5917: 5873: 5865: 5813: 5751: 5713: 5654: 5597: 5562: 5527: 5360: 5325:

Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R, et al. (GRADE Working Group) (May 2008).

5311: 5205: 5118: 5077: 5058: 5023: 4915: 4864: 4813: 4805: 4768: 4716: 4672: 4621: 4580: 4539: 4462: 4405: 4396: 4379: 4361: 4312: 4207: 4112: 4055: 4020: 3979: 3938: 3884: 3827: 3556: 3490: 3425: 3385: 3336: 3280: 3229: 3140: 3089: 3038: 2978: 2943: 2934: 2917: 2902: 2861: 2769: 2547: 2477: 2404: 2366: 2300: 2282: 1867: 1726: 1585: 1550: 1509: 1364: 1119: 1026:

that the two drugs increased mortality. Sales of the drugs then decreased.

903:

type I ("false positive") and type II ("false negative") statistical errors

738: 632: 370: 285: 266: 262: 251: 244: 5486: 5422: 4971: 4257: 4161: 3792: 3757: 3701: 3666: 3594: 2734:"Clinical trials and medical care: defining the therapeutic misconception" 2715: 2680: 2596: 2512: 2036: 1810: 1783: 1399: 10989: 10686: 10384: 10293: 10256: 9794: 9756: 9439: 9340: 9202: 9015: 8982: 8474: 8391: 8386: 8030: 7987: 7967: 7947: 7937: 7706: 7325: 7256: 7241: 7211: 7047: 6901: 6774: 6764: 5554: 5373: 5154: 4691:"A comparison of observational studies and randomized, controlled trials" 4587: 4546: 3748: 3648: 2631: 2491:

Freedman B (July 1987). "Equipoise and the ethics of clinical research".

1914: 1691: 1642: 1624: 1329:

Schulz KF, Altman DG, Moher D, et al. (CONSORT Group) (March 2010).

1280: 1099: 918: 906: 870:

If study designs are ranked by their potential for new discoveries, then

727: 715: 463: 7092: 5375: 4249: 3961: 2852: 2835: 2314:

Brown D (1998-11-02). "Landmark study made research resistant to bias".

1765: 579:

to be less affected by selection bias than permuted-block randomization.

139:

and may additionally provide information about adverse effects, such as

10615: 10337: 8640: 8120: 7820: 7751: 7701: 7676: 7596: 7141: 6849: 6841: 6807: 6769: 6676: 6526: 6136: 2239: 2195: 2085: 1673: 1076: 1018: 886: 177: 148: 116:

The randomness in the assignment of participants to treatments reduces

5948: 5327:"What is "quality of evidence" and why is it important to clinicians?" 5186: 4520: 4503: 4198: 3318: 1940: 1577: 409: 10713: 10532: 10102: 9983: 8793: 8645: 8265: 8060: 7972: 7957: 7952: 7917: 7273: 6909: 6897: 6395: 5670:"Obstacles to and limitations of social experiments: 15 false alarms" 4530: 3171:

Linear and Nonlinear Models for the Analysis of Repeated Measurements

3020: 2224: 1491: 1346: 1115: 1022: 882: 519: 5691: 4481: 2834:

De Angelis C, Drazen JM, Frizelle FA, et al. (September 2004).

2453: 2101: 1091:

Interventions to prevent events that occur only infrequently (e.g.,

961:

of Australia designated "Level I" evidence as that "obtained from a

499:

An ideal randomization procedure would achieve the following goals:

10579: 10332: 9966: 9936: 8309: 7927: 7804: 7799: 7794: 6943: 4990:"When are randomised trials unnecessary? Picking signal from noise" 4502:

Campbell MK, Piaggio G, Elbourne DR, et al. (September 2012).

3301:

Zwarenstein M, Treweek S, Gagnier JJ, et al. (November 2008).

3243:

Gladstone MJ, Chandna J, Kandawasvika G, et al. (March 2019).

3242: 2732:

Henderson GE, Churchill LR, Davis AM, et al. (November 2007).

2610:

Zelen M (May 1979). "A new design for randomized clinical trials".

2028: 1986: 1932: 1103: 6204: 4228: 1704: 722:(e.g., to predict sustained virological response after receipt of 192:. An early essay advocating the blinding of researchers came from 10251: 9814: 9515: 6948: 6072:"Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials" 833:

Consort 2010 Statement: Non-Pharmacologic Treatment Interventions

101: 9891: 6537: 6167: 5890:

Bhandari M, Busse JW, Jackowski D, et al. (February 2004).

4988:

Glasziou P, Chalmers I, Rawlins M, et al. (February 2007).

4987: 4504:"Consort 2010 statement: extension to cluster randomised trials" 4334:

Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, et al. (April 2001).

2213:

Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland

2172:

5 (4): 465–472. Trans. Dorota M. Dabrowska and Terence P. Speed.

840: 518:

Minimize allocation bias (or confounding). This may occur when

324:

they provide informed consent, which may be ethical for RCTs of

131:

for clinical trials. Blinded RCTs are commonly used to test the

96:

typically compares a proposed new treatment against an existing

10546: 9736: 8717: 8691: 8671: 7922: 7713: 6378:

Bradshaw CP, Zmuda JH, Kellam SG, et al. (November 2009).

5931:

Chapman SJ, Shelton B, Mahmood H, et al. (December 2014).

5930: 5167: 4378:

Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, et al. (July 2002).

4077:

Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al. (March 2007).

4076: 3300: 2331:

Shikata S, Nakayama T, Noguchi Y, et al. (November 2006).

1750:"James Lind (1716-94) of Edinburgh and the treatment of scurvy" 1377: 1221:

Have a stable and predictable relationship to exogenous factors

994:

For issues involving "Therapy/Prevention, Aetiology/Harm", the

403: 312: 181: 6119:

Rowland D, DiGuiseppi C, Gross M, et al. (January 2003).

5168:

Charles P, Giraudeau B, Dechartres A, et al. (May 2009).

4377: 3103:

Farag SM, Mohammed MO, El-Sobky TA, et al. (March 2020).

2265:

Streptomycin in Tuberculosis Trials Committee (October 1948).

830:

Consort 2010 Statement: Extension to Cluster Randomised Trials

432:

By hypothesis (superiority vs. noninferiority vs. equivalence)

10708: 7565: 6591: 6429:"Why all randomised controlled trials produce biased results" 6118: 6023:"Calculating sample size in trials using historical controls" 5889: 5729: 5500:

Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, et al. (April 2004).

5499: 5221:"Researchers Show Parachutes Don't Work, But There's A Catch" 4781: 4501: 4495: 4125: 3848: 3521:"In search of justification for the unpredictability paradox" 3357:

Piaggio G, Elbourne DR, Altman DG, et al. (March 2006).

3102: 2916:

Mathieu S, Boutron I, Moher D, et al. (September 2009).

2785:"The mortality effect: counting the dead in the cancer trial" 2731: 1797:

Daston L (2005). "Scientific Error and the Ethos of Belief".

5399: 4829: 4594:

Boutron I, Moher D, Altman DG, et al. (February 2008).

4553:

Boutron I, Moher D, Altman DG, et al. (February 2008).

4289: 3993:

Devereaux PJ, Manns BJ, Ghali WA, et al. (April 2001).

2833: 1754:

Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition

799:

should be performed. These are "often discouraged" because

10834:

Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety

10640: 7656: 5242:

National Health and Medical Research Council (1998-11-16).

5131: 5093:"Sample size calculations for randomized controlled trials" 4333: 3849:

Pildal J, Chan AW, Hróbjartsson A, et al. (May 2005).

3356: 3184:

Gall S, Adams L, Joubert N, et al. (8 November 2018).

1064: 458:"It eliminates bias in treatment assignment," specifically 110: 6488:

Testing treatments: better research for better health care

6377: 4635:

Manyara AM, Davies P, Stewart D, et al. (July 2024).

3169:

Vonesh EF, Chinchilli VG (1997). "Crossover Experiments".

3051: 2330: 1834:"The action of caffeine on the capacity for muscular work" 1607:

Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, et al. (December 1976).

1474:

Moher D, Hopewell S, Schulz KF, et al. (March 2010).

1473: 1063:

prior to 2000 with a total cost of US$ 335 million, for a

737:(e.g., for changes in blood lipid levels after receipt of 104:

may be used in the control group so that participants are

84:

to deliver a useful comparison of the treatments studied.

6547:"Power and bias in adaptively randomized clinical trials" 6339: 6161: 2915: 1656:

Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, et al. (January 1977).

320:, which has been used for some RCTs, randomizes subjects 205:

and H. N. Webber to investigate the effects of caffeine.

5374:

Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine (2011-09-16).

4634: 4593: 4552: 4232:, Ebers GC, Vandervoort MK, et al. (January 1994). 1102:, for example, can detail many aspects of the patient's 896: 353: 61:

that compare the effects of drugs, surgical techniques,

5775: 5540: 4126:

Chan R, Hemeryck L, O'Regan M, et al. (May 1995).

3992: 3052:

Kaiser J, Niesen W, Probst P, et al. (June 2019).

3003:

Hopewell S, Dutton S, Yu LM, et al. (March 2010).

1655: 1606: 1061:

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

901:

Like all statistical methods, RCTs are subject to both

682:), participants cannot be blinded to the intervention. 592:

Covariate-adaptive randomization, of which one type is

280:

Trial design was further influenced by the large-scale

76:

participants among compared treatments, an RCT enables

6298: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5288: 4174: 3183: 277:, who is credited as having conceived the modern RCT. 6484: 6112: 5661: 3903:

Wood L, Egger M, Gluud LL, et al. (March 2008).

2560: 1033:. In 2002 and 2004, however, published RCTs from the 551:

To balance group sizes in smaller RCTs, some form of

9478:

Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)

5619:

Hsu A, Card A, Lin SX, et al. (December 2009).

3902: 3002: 2057: 1903:

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm

1436:"What Are the Different Types of Clinical Research?" 949:

which are increasingly being used in the conduct of

937:

RCTs are considered to be the most reliable form of

273:

investigation. One of the authors of that paper was

6220: 6218: 6170:

Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice

5680: 5324: 5251:. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. p. 56. 3399: 3397: 3395: 3296: 3294: 3292: 3290: 1067:cost of US$ 12 million per RCT. Nevertheless, the 410:

By outcome of interest (efficacy vs. effectiveness)

8940: 6474:"Directory of randomisation software and services" 5569: 4871: 4732: 2561:Edwards SJ, Lilford RJ, Hewison J (October 1998). 2382: 2267:"STREPTOMYCIN treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis" 1572:(6): 387, author reply 387-387, author reply 388. 354:International Committee of Medical Journal Editors 184:. The first blind experiment was conducted by the 5885: 5883: 5725: 5723: 4628: 4033: 3954:Running randomized evaluations: a practical guide 3951: 3805: 3770: 2874: 2727: 2725: 2693: 2217:Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland 1438:. US Food and Drug Administration. 4 January 2018 1328: 11065: 6554:M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, University of Texas 6215: 6069: 5395: 5393: 5391: 4983: 4981: 3945: 3764: 3392: 3287: 3168: 2998: 2996: 2378: 2376: 9026:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) 6299:Connolly P, Keenan C, Urbanska K (2018-07-09). 6224: 5851: 4728: 4726: 4373: 4371: 4222: 3952:Glennerster R, Kudzai T (2013). ""Chapter 6"". 3721: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3568: 3566: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 2875:Law MR, Kawasumi Y, Morgan SG (December 2011). 2644: 1125: 5880: 5845: 5776:Yitschaky O, Yitschaky M, Zadik Y (May 2011). 5771: 5769: 5720: 5618: 5534: 5284: 5282: 4775: 4684: 4682: 4426: 3986: 3725: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3443: 2722: 2687: 2638: 1923:. A Special Issue on Artifact and Experiment. 9907: 7581: 7108: 6577: 6344:Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 6211:. Bristol: University of the West of England. 5924: 5575: 5493: 5434: 5432: 5388: 4978: 4931: 4929: 4927: 4925: 4877: 4327: 3173:. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 111–202. 2993: 2956: 2484: 2373: 2206: 2086:"General Practice Effect of Special Exercise" 1880: 1324: 1322: 1320: 976:has considered both a study's design and its 841:Relative importance and observational studies 288:treatments that were conducted in the 1980s. 5979: 5161: 5125: 5030: 4723: 4368: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3708: 3563: 3518: 3461: 3403: 3343: 3158:(Second ed.). London: Chapman and Hall. 3153: 2909: 2868: 2827: 2554: 2519: 2458:Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America 2445: 2324: 2083: 1831: 1825: 1698: 1469: 1467: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1371: 974:United States Preventive Services Task Force 959:National Health and Medical Research Council 336:the prevalence of and ways to address this " 6196: 6020: 5766: 5318: 5279: 5084: 4833:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4733:Concato J, Shah N, Horwitz RI (June 2000). 4688: 4679: 4420: 4168: 4070: 3842: 3799: 3512: 3440: 2696:International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 1894:Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 1557: 859:Journal of the American Medical Association 748:For time-to-event outcome data that may be 745:) tests the effects of predictor variables. 186:French Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism 10869:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 9914: 9900: 7626: 7588: 7574: 7115: 7101: 6584: 6570: 6544: 5429: 4922: 4613:10.7326/0003-4819-148-4-200802190-00008-w1 4478:"Welcome to the CONSORT statement Website" 4283: 4027: 3673: 3624: 2603: 2307: 1317: 1055:RCTs can be expensive; one study found 28 826:" have been published, some examples are: 297:Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials 87: 10829:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 10819:Center for Disease Control and Prevention 8239: 7122: 6444: 6403: 6316: 6144: 6095: 6046: 5997: 5956: 5907: 5803: 5793: 5644: 5612: 5517: 5457: 5350: 5195: 5185: 5108: 5067: 5057: 5013: 4961: 4905: 4895: 4795: 4758: 4706: 4662: 4652: 4611: 4570: 4529: 4519: 4475: 4452: 4395: 4351: 4197: 4151: 4119: 4102: 4010: 3956:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 3928: 3891: 3874: 3747: 3656: 3546: 3536: 3326: 3270: 3260: 3219: 3209: 3130: 3120: 3079: 3069: 3028: 2933: 2892: 2851: 2776: 2759: 2749: 2670: 2586: 2356: 2290: 1857: 1773: 1681: 1632: 1540: 1499: 1450: 1354: 996:Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine 604: 6876:Preventable fraction among the unexposed 6872:Attributable fraction for the population 6485:Evans I, Thornton H, Chalmers I (2010). 5667: 3156:Design and Analysis of Cross-Over Trials 2645:Torgerson DJ, Roland M (February 1998). 2490: 2258: 2187:Statistical Methods for Research Workers 2175: 1649: 1600: 1428: 770:hormone replacement therapy in menopause 331:Although subjects almost always provide 31: 10874:Health departments in the United States 6880:Preventable fraction for the population 6868:Attributable fraction among the exposed 6515: 5694:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 5292:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 5036: 4572:10.7326/0003-4819-148-4-200802190-00008 4469: 4427:Hollis S, Campbell F (September 1999). 3607: 2525: 2451: 1969: 1913: 1563: 1414:"What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?" 1130:A 2011 study done to disclose possible 921:of results is an important part of the 807: 402:An analysis of the 616 RCTs indexed in 14: 11066: 10879:Council on Education for Public Health 9552:Kaplan–Meier estimator (product limit) 6426: 6261: 6070:Deaton A, Cartwright N (August 2018). 5218: 5090: 3572: 3462:Schulz KF, Grimes DA (February 2002). 2385:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology 2215:. Vol. XXVI, no. 3. Dublin: 1796: 1522: 161: 10937:Professional degrees of public health 10844:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 9895: 9625: 9192: 8939: 8238: 8008: 7625: 7569: 7096: 6565: 6471: 6202: 6021:Zhang S, Cao J, Ahn C (August 2010). 5438: 5042:"Curing metastatic testicular cancer" 4935: 4825: 4823: 3679: 3630: 2609: 2425: 2313: 2122: 2007: 1516: 897:Interpretation of statistical results 347: 227:. The earliest experiments comparing 188:in 1784 to investigate the claims of 127:A well-blinded RCT is considered the 69:, diets or other medical treatments. 11034: 10927:Bachelor of Science in Public Health 9862: 9562:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model 7043:Correlation does not imply causation 6959:Animal testing on non-human primates 3519:Howick J, Mebius A (December 2014). 2782: 2238: 2199: 1832:Rivers WH, Webber HN (August 1907). 1747: 1179: 1170: 180:in 1747 to identify a treatment for 11046: 10195:Workers' right to access the toilet 10036:Human right to water and sanitation 9874: 9157:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova) 8009: 7464:Generalized randomized block design 6545:Wathen JK, Cook JD (12 July 2006). 6228:Journal of Experimental Criminology 5674:Abt Thought Leadership Paper Series 5543:The New England Journal of Medicine 5467:The New England Journal of Medicine 5135:The New England Journal of Medicine 4739:The New England Journal of Medicine 4695:The New England Journal of Medicine 2840:The New England Journal of Medicine 2612:The New England Journal of Medicine 2493:The New England Journal of Medicine 1890:"On Small Differences in Sensation" 848:The New England Journal of Medicine 705: 24: 9252:Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics 7878:Pearson product-moment correlation 6464: 5403:The American Journal of Cardiology 5231:from the original on Jan 17, 2024. 4820: 3820:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2005.tb06584.x 3610:"STAT 503 - Design of Experiments" 2540:10.1111/j.1467-8519.1995.tb00306.x 2349:10.1097/01.sla.0000225356.04304.bc 2090:The American Journal of Psychology 2058:Woodworth RS, ThorndikeEL (1901). 1529:JACC. Cardiovascular Interventions 1406: 364: 359: 25: 11115: 10468:Commercial determinants of health 9921: 7515:Sequential probability ratio test 6384:Journal of Educational Psychology 5625:American Journal of Public Health 1050: 11045: 11033: 11022: 11021: 10051:National public health institute 9873: 9861: 9849: 9836: 9835: 9626: 7538: 7440:Polynomial and rational modeling 6420: 6371: 6333: 6292: 6265:Criminology and Criminal Justice 6255: 6125:Archives of Disease in Childhood 6063: 6014: 5980:Ridker PM, Torres J (May 2006). 5973: 5820: 4689:Benson K, Hartz AJ (June 2000). 3808:The Medical Journal of Australia 2246:. New York: Dover Publications. 1566:Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 1075:as equal to the prevailing mean 1042: 730:) and other methods can be used. 445: 215:, where they were introduced by 10448:Open-source healthcare software 10190:Sociology of health and illness 9511:Least-squares spectral analysis 6494:. London: Pinter & Martin. 6088:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.12.005 5782:Journal of Medical Case Reports 5367: 5235: 5212: 4878:Vandenbroucke JP (March 2008). 3612:. Pennsylvania State University 3601: 3236: 3177: 3162: 3147: 3096: 3045: 2950: 2419: 2162: 2116: 2077: 2051: 2001: 1963: 1907: 1874: 1790: 1741: 968:Since at least 2001, in making 762:Cox proportional hazards models 369:One way to classify RCTs is by 122:experimenter and subject biases 11079:Epidemiological study projects 10809:Caribbean Public Health Agency 10621:Sexually transmitted infection 10518:Statistical hypothesis testing 10279:Occupational safety and health 10180:Sexual and reproductive health 10093:Occupational safety and health 8492:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance 7595: 7207:Replication versus subsampling 6926:Pre- and post-test probability 6648:Patient and public involvement 6209:Transportation Research Part A 5830:. Cochrane.org. Archived from 4845:10.1002/14651858.MR000034.pub3 1850:10.1113/jphysiol.1907.sp001215 1291:Patient and public involvement 1228: 913: 822:For other RCT study designs, " 642: 567:", for example by center in a 155:. Not all RCTs are randomized 13: 1: 10463:Social determinants of health 9805:Geographic information system 9021:Simultaneous equations models 6446:10.1080/07853890.2018.1453233 6318:10.1080/00131881.2018.1493353 6076:Social Science & Medicine 5744:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68578-4 5590:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60708-X 5415:10.1016/S0002-9149(96)00673-X 5304:10.1016/S0749-3797(01)00261-6 4305:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06102-5 4190:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61159-9 4095:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60461-9 3483:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07750-4 3418:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07683-3 2470:10.1016/S0889-8588(05)70309-9 2181:According to Denis Conniffe: 1975:American Journal of Education 1719:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16626-9 1311: 932: 733:For continuous outcome data, 546: 491: 29:Form of scientific experiment 10523:Analysis of variance (ANOVA) 10284:Human factors and ergonomics 8988:Coefficient of determination 8599:Uniformly most powerful test 7434:Response surface methodology 7342:Analysis of variance (Anova) 7053:Sex as a biological variable 5706:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.007 4897:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050067 3785:10.1016/0197-2456(93)90028-C 3740:10.1016/0197-2456(88)90049-9 3694:10.1016/0197-2456(89)90057-3 3587:10.1016/0197-2456(88)90045-1 3262:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002766 3211:10.1371/journal.pone.0206908 3154:Jones B, Kenward MG (2003). 2751:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040324 2708:10.1016/0160-2527(82)90026-7 2084:Coover JE, Angell F (1907). 1392:10.1016/0197-2456(81)90056-8 1250: 1241: 1126:Conflict of interest dangers 1093:sudden infant death syndrome 1012:Food and Drug Administration 658:. The failure to reject the 560:Permuted-block randomization 229:treatment and control groups 7: 10704:Good manufacturing practice 10508:Randomized controlled trial 9557:Proportional hazards models 9501:Spectral density estimation 9483:Vector autoregression (VAR) 8917:Maximum posterior estimator 8149:Randomized controlled trial 7504:Randomized controlled trial 7017:Intention-to-treat analysis 6989:Analysis of clinical trials 6918:Specificity and sensitivity 6672:Randomized controlled trial 5479:10.1056/NEJM198908103210629 5343:10.1136/bmj.39490.551019.BE 5147:10.1056/NEJM197809282991304 5006:10.1136/bmj.39070.527986.68 4751:10.1056/NEJM200006223422507 4708:10.1056/NEJM200006223422506 4600:Annals of Internal Medicine 4559:Annals of Internal Medicine 3921:10.1136/bmj.39465.451748.AD 3867:10.1136/bmj.38414.422650.8F 2624:10.1056/NEJM197905313002203 2505:10.1056/NEJM198707163170304 2426:Ferry G (2 November 2020). 1259: 1209:And the causal mechanisms: 1176:randomized control trials. 1154: 970:clinical practice guideline 786:intention-to-treat analysis 666: 583: 162:many of the social sciences 43:randomized controlled trial 18:Randomised controlled trial 10: 11120: 10774:Theory of planned behavior 10699:Good agricultural practice 10604:Public health surveillance 10496:epidemiological statistics 10140:Public health intervention 9317:Multivariate distributions 7737:Average absolute deviation 3773:Controlled Clinical Trials 3728:Controlled Clinical Trials 3682:Controlled Clinical Trials 3631:Avins AL (December 1998). 3575:Controlled Clinical Trials 2452:Meldrum ML (August 2000). 2397:10.2214/ajr.183.6.01831539 2144:10.1037/0003-066X.55.2.264 1542:10.1016/j.jcin.2008.01.008 1380:Controlled Clinical Trials 1073:quality-adjusted life year 670: 646: 608: 553:"restricted" randomization 413: 307:Although the principle of 167: 11017: 10952: 10911: 10896:World Toilet Organization 10891:World Health Organization 10798: 10787: 10724: 10649: 10565: 10493: 10458:Public health informatics 10398: 10203: 10165:Right to rest and leisure 9994:Globalization and disease 9929: 9831: 9785: 9722: 9675: 9638: 9634: 9621: 9593: 9575: 9542: 9533: 9491: 9438: 9399: 9348: 9339: 9305:Structural equation model 9260: 9217: 9213: 9188: 9147: 9113: 9067: 9034: 8996: 8963: 8959: 8935: 8875: 8784: 8703: 8667: 8658: 8641:Score/Lagrange multiplier 8626: 8579: 8524: 8450: 8441: 8251: 8247: 8234: 8193: 8167: 8119: 8074: 8056:Sample size determination 8021: 8017: 8004: 7908: 7863: 7837: 7819: 7775: 7727: 7647: 7638: 7634: 7621: 7603: 7523: 7392: 7287: 7220: 7130: 7061: 7026:Interpretation of results 7025: 6987: 6936: 6886: 6860: 6822: 6792: 6783: 6759:Nested case–control study 6709: 6656: 6603: 6472:Bland M (19 March 2008). 6241:10.1007/s11292-004-6460-0 6190:10.1016/j.tra.2011.02.001 5668:Bell SH, Peck LR (2012). 4954:10.1136/bmj.312.7040.1215 4144:10.1136/bmj.310.6991.1360 3637:Journal of Medical Ethics 3122:10.2106/JBJS.RVW.19.00119 3071:10.1186/s13063-019-3442-0 2971:10.1007/s13312-013-0092-2 2894:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0172 2806:10.1215/08992363-2009-017 2647:"What is Zelen's design?" 2579:10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1209 2008:Dehue T (December 1997). 1838:The Journal of Physiology 1662:British Journal of Cancer 1613:British Journal of Cancer 1236:quasi-experimental design 1035:Women's Health Initiative 845:Two studies published in 649:Sample size determination 534: 450:The advantages of proper 439:statistically significant 338:therapeutic misconception 302: 11084:Evidence-based practices 10942:Schools of public health 10734:Diffusion of innovations 10433:Health impact assessment 10145:Public health laboratory 10041:Management of depression 9800:Environmental statistics 9322:Elliptical distributions 9115:Generalized linear model 9044:Simple linear regression 8814:Hodges–Lehmann estimator 8271:Probability distribution 8180:Stochastic approximation 7742:Coefficient of variation 7490:Repeated measures design 7202:Restricted randomization 6628:Academic clinical trials 6357:10.1177/1063426609341645 6278:10.1177/1748895807085871 6039:10.1177/1740774510373629 5999:10.1001/jama.295.19.2270 5637:10.2105/AJPH.2009.159889 5519:10.1001/jama.291.14.1701 5219:Harris R (22 Dec 2018). 4445:10.1136/bmj.319.7211.670 4353:10.1001/jama.285.13.1711 4048:10.1177/1740774506069153 4012:10.1001/jama.285.15.2000 3538:10.1186/1745-6215-15-480 3378:10.1001/jama.295.10.1152 2663:10.1136/bmj.316.7131.606 2428:"Peter Sleight Obituary" 2207:Conniffe D (1990–1991). 1748:Dunn PM (January 1997). 879:combination chemotherapy 565:stratified randomization 416:Pragmatic clinical trial 271:Medical Research Council 47:randomized control trial 11005:Social hygiene movement 10932:Doctor of Public Health 10764:Social cognitive theory 10566:Infectious and epidemic 10348:Fecal–oral transmission 9460:Cross-correlation (XCF) 9068:Non-standard predictors 8502:Lehmann–Scheffé theorem 8175:Adaptive clinical trial 6846:Relative risk reduction 6694:Adaptive clinical trial 6638:Evidence-based medicine 6621:Adaptive clinical trial 5795:10.1186/1752-1947-5-179 4654:10.1136/bmj-2023-078524 2271:British Medical Journal 1523:Hannan EL (June 2008). 1214: 1145:pharmaceutical industry 951:evidence-based practice 758:Kaplan–Meier estimators 743:acute coronary syndrome 718:(binary) outcome data, 478:randomization procedure 265:treatment of pulmonary 88:Definition and examples 11000:Germ theory of disease 10779:Transtheoretical model 9856:Mathematics portal 9677:Engineering statistics 9585:Nelson–Aalen estimator 9162:Analysis of covariance 9049:Ordinary least squares 8973:Pearson product-moment 8377:Statistical functional 8288:Empirical distribution 8121:Controlled experiments 7850:Frequency distribution 7628:Descriptive statistics 7545:Mathematics portal 7307:Ordinary least squares 6834:Number needed to treat 6427:Krauss A (June 2018). 5866:10.1001/jama.289.4.454 5439:Rubin R (2006-10-16). 5110:10.1093/epirev/24.1.39 5059:10.1073/pnas.072067999 4806:10.1001/jama.286.7.821 4397:10.1001/jama.288.3.321 3688:(4 Suppl): 187S–194S. 3508:on September 11, 2012. 2935:10.1001/jama.2009.1242 2283:10.1136/bmj.2.4582.769 2204: 1132:conflicts of interests 1080:gross domestic product 815:CONSORT 2010 Statement 766:coronary heart disease 735:analysis of covariance 611:Allocation concealment 605:Allocation concealment 483:allocation concealment 217:Charles Sanders Peirce 209:Randomized experiments 38: 11089:Design of experiments 10884:Public Health Service 10769:Social norms approach 10759:PRECEDE–PROCEED model 10205:Preventive healthcare 10098:Pharmaceutical policy 9947:Chief Medical Officer 9772:Population statistics 9714:System identification 9448:Autocorrelation (ACF) 9376:Exponential smoothing 9290:Discriminant analysis 9285:Canonical correlation 9149:Partition of variance 9011:Regression validation 8855:(Jonckheere–Terpstra) 8754:Likelihood-ratio test 8443:Frequentist inference 8355:Location–scale family 8276:Sampling distribution 8241:Statistical inference 8208:Cross-sectional study 8195:Observational studies 8154:Randomized experiment 7983:Stem-and-leaf display 7785:Central limit theorem 7142:Scientific experiment 7124:Design of experiments 6838:Number needed to harm 6725:Cross-sectional study 6677:Scientific experiment 6633:Clinical study design 5097:Epidemiologic Reviews 2192:Design of Experiments 2182: 2132:American Psychologist 1811:10.1353/sor.2005.0016 1306:Statistical inference 1238:are still necessary. 1161:disruptive innovation 1122:aspects, follow up). 1031:myocardial infarction 1016:antiarrhythmic agents 943:hierarchy of evidence 853:observational studies 724:peginterferon alfa-2a 269:", which described a 223:in the 1880s, and in 153:scientific literature 67:diagnostic procedures 55:scientific experiment 35: 10960:Sara Josephine Baker 10859:Public Health Agency 10744:Health communication 10609:Disease surveillance 10575:Asymptomatic carrier 10557:Statistical software 10245:Preventive nutrition 10073:Medical anthropology 9962:Environmental health 9695:Probabilistic design 9280:Principal components 9123:Exponential families 9075:Nonlinear regression 9054:General linear model 9016:Mixed effects models 9006:Errors and residuals 8983:Confounding variable 8885:Bayesian probability 8863:Van der Waerden test 8853:Ordered alternative 8618:Multiple comparisons 8497:Rao–Blackwellization 8460:Estimating equations 8416:Statistical distance 8134:Factorial experiment 7667:Arithmetic-Geometric 7416:Fractional factorial 6804:Cumulative incidence 6305:Educational Research 5555:10.1056/NEJMsb022365 5376:"Levels of evidence" 4936:Black N (May 1996). 3649:10.1136/jme.24.6.401 2067:Psychological Review 1625:10.1038/bjc.1976.220 1112:physical examination 1069:return on investment 972:recommendations the 808:Reporting of results 801:multiple comparisons 275:Austin Bradford Hill 10970:Carl Rogers Darnall 10965:Samuel Jay Crumbine 10739:Health belief model 10592:Notifiable diseases 10528:Regression analysis 10363:Waterborne diseases 9952:Cultural competence 9767:Official statistics 9690:Methods engineering 9371:Seasonal adjustment 9139:Poisson regressions 9059:Bayesian regression 8998:Regression analysis 8978:Partial correlation 8950:Regression analysis 8549:Prediction interval 8544:Likelihood interval 8534:Confidence interval 8526:Interval estimation 8487:Unbiased estimators 8305:Model specification 8185:Up-and-down designs 7873:Partial correlation 7829:Index of dispersion 7747:Interquartile range 7550:Statistical outline 7510:Sequential analysis 7475:Graeco-Latin square 7384:Multiple comparison 7331:Hierarchical model: 6711:Observational study 6643:Real world evidence 6597:experimental design 6182:2011TRPA...45..401G 5738:(9519): 1319–1327. 5584:(9671): 1233–1235. 4948:(7040): 1215–1218. 4250:10.1212/wnl.44.1.16 4138:(6991): 1360–1362. 4089:(9566): 1016–1026. 3962:10.2307/j.ctt4cgd52 3202:2018PLoSO..1306908G 2853:10.1056/NEJMe048225 2573:(7167): 1209–1212. 2170:Statistical Science 1766:10.1136/fn.76.1.f64 1296:Observational study 1059:RCTs funded by the 1000:Confidence Interval 989:GRADE Working Group 939:scientific evidence 851:in 2000 found that 720:logistic regression 172:The first reported 82:confounding factors 78:statistical control 74:randomly allocating 10568:disease prevention 10503:Case–control study 10175:Security of person 10024:Health care reform 9787:Spatial statistics 9667:Medical statistics 9567:First hitting time 9521:Whittle likelihood 9172:Degrees of freedom 9167:Multivariate ANOVA 9100:Heteroscedasticity 8912:Bayesian estimator 8877:Bayesian inference 8726:Kolmogorov–Smirnov 8611:Randomization test 8581:Testing hypotheses 8554:Tolerance interval 8465:Maximum likelihood 8360:Exponential family 8293:Density estimation 8253:Statistical theory 8213:Natural experiment 8159:Scientific control 8076:Survey methodology 7762:Standard deviation 7555:Statistical topics 7147:Statistical design 6997:Risk–benefit ratio 6964:First-in-man study 6914:Case fatality rate 6755:Case–control study 6729:Longitudinal study 6516:Gelband H (1983). 6478:University of York 6433:Annals of Medicine 6137:10.1136/adc.88.1.8 5298:(3 Suppl): 21–35. 2464:(4): 745–60, vii. 1674:10.1038/bjc.1977.1 1301:Blinded experiment 1271:Hypothesis testing 1192:The intervention: 947:systematic reviews 872:anecdotal evidence 824:CONSORT extensions 700:multiple sclerosis 673:Blinded experiment 348:Trial registration 309:clinical equipoise 231:were published by 211:first appeared in 39: 11074:Clinical research 11061: 11060: 11013: 11012: 10923:Higher education 10754:Positive deviance 10749:Health psychology 10725:Health behavioral 10652:safety management 10626:Social distancing 10400:Population health 10380:Smoking cessation 10328:Pharmacovigilance 10299:Injury prevention 10267:Infection control 10185:Social psychology 10135:Prisoners' rights 10078:Medical sociology 10046:Public health law 9942:Biological hazard 9889: 9888: 9827: 9826: 9823: 9822: 9762:National accounts 9732:Actuarial science 9724:Social statistics 9617: 9616: 9613: 9612: 9609: 9608: 9544:Survival function 9529: 9528: 9391:Granger causality 9232:Contingency table 9207:Survival analysis 9184: 9183: 9180: 9179: 9036:Linear regression 8931: 8930: 8927: 8926: 8902:Credible interval 8871: 8870: 8654: 8653: 8470:Method of moments 8339:Parametric family 8300:Statistical model 8230: 8229: 8226: 8225: 8144:Random assignment 8066:Statistical power 8000: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7845:Contingency table 7815: 7814: 7682:Generalized/power 7563: 7562: 7450:Central composite 7348:Cochran's theorem 7302:Linear regression 7279:Nuisance variable 7192:Random assignment 7169:Experimental unit 7090: 7089: 7038:Survivorship bias 7002:Systematic review 6969:Multicenter trial 6932: 6931: 6922:Likelihood-ratios 6894:Clinical endpoint 6862:Population impact 6816:Period prevalence 6593:Clinical research 6501:978-1-905177-35-6 5992:(19): 2270–2274. 5949:10.1136/bmj.g6870 5631:(12): 2184–2187. 5512:(14): 1701–1712. 5337:(7651): 995–998. 5258:978-1-86496-048-8 5187:10.1136/bmj.b1732 5091:Wittes J (2002). 5000:(7589): 349–351. 4745:(25): 1887–1892. 4701:(25): 1878–1886. 4521:10.1136/bmj.e5661 4439:(7211): 670–674. 4346:(13): 1711–1718. 4299:(9286): 958–965. 4184:(9636): 392–397. 4005:(15): 2000–2003. 3971:978-0-691-15924-9 3915:(7644): 601–605. 3477:(9306): 614–618. 3412:(9305): 515–519. 3372:(10): 1152–1160. 3319:10.1136/bmj.a2390 2959:Indian Pediatrics 2887:(12): 2338–2345. 2846:(12): 1250–1251. 2618:(22): 1242–1245. 2337:Annals of Surgery 2277:(4582): 769–782. 1713:(9429): 141–148. 1578:10.1159/000087787 1286:Pipeline planning 1276:Impact evaluation 1180:Transport science 1171:In social science 982:internal validity 978:internal validity 963:systematic review 923:scientific method 890:testicular cancer 797:subgroup analysis 772:) is appropriate. 768:after receipt of 754:survival analysis 688:CONSORT Statement 573:random allocation 569:multicenter trial 509:subgroup analyses 505:statistical power 454:in RCTs include: 176:was conducted by 94:clinical research 16:(Redirected from 11111: 11104:Research methods 11094:Causal inference 11049: 11048: 11037: 11036: 11025: 11024: 10919:Health education 10796: 10795: 10650:Food hygiene and 10631:Tropical disease 10443:Infant mortality 10418:Community health 10294:Controlled Drugs 10230:Health promotion 10160:Right to housing 10004:Health economics 9916: 9909: 9902: 9893: 9892: 9877: 9876: 9865: 9864: 9854: 9853: 9839: 9838: 9742:Crime statistics 9636: 9635: 9623: 9622: 9540: 9539: 9506:Fourier analysis 9493:Frequency domain 9473: 9420: 9386:Structural break 9346: 9345: 9295:Cluster analysis 9242:Log-linear model 9215: 9214: 9190: 9189: 9131: 9105:Homoscedasticity 8961: 8960: 8937: 8936: 8856: 8848: 8840: 8839:(Kruskal–Wallis) 8824: 8809: 8764:Cross validation 8749: 8731:Anderson–Darling 8678: 8665: 8664: 8636:Likelihood-ratio 8628:Parametric tests 8606:Permutation test 8589:1- & 2-tails 8480:Minimum distance 8452:Point estimation 8448: 8447: 8399:Optimal decision 8350: 8249: 8248: 8236: 8235: 8218:Quasi-experiment 8168:Adaptive designs 8019: 8018: 8006: 8005: 7883:Rank correlation 7645: 7644: 7636: 7635: 7623: 7622: 7590: 7583: 7576: 7567: 7566: 7543: 7542: 7480:Orthogonal array 7117: 7110: 7103: 7094: 7093: 6937:Trial/test types 6812:Point prevalence 6790: 6789: 6733:Ecological study 6716:EBM II-2 to II-3 6687:Open-label trial 6682:Blind experiment 6658:Controlled study 6586: 6579: 6572: 6563: 6562: 6557: 6551: 6541: 6533: 6531: 6524: 6512: 6510: 6504:. Archived from 6493: 6481: 6459: 6458: 6448: 6424: 6418: 6417: 6407: 6396:10.1037/a0016586 6375: 6369: 6368: 6337: 6331: 6330: 6320: 6296: 6290: 6289: 6259: 6253: 6252: 6222: 6213: 6212: 6203:Melia S (2011). 6200: 6194: 6193: 6165: 6159: 6158: 6148: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6099: 6067: 6061: 6060: 6050: 6018: 6012: 6011: 6001: 5977: 5971: 5970: 5960: 5928: 5922: 5921: 5911: 5887: 5878: 5877: 5849: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5839: 5824: 5818: 5817: 5807: 5797: 5773: 5764: 5763: 5727: 5718: 5717: 5689: 5678: 5677: 5665: 5659: 5658: 5648: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5573: 5567: 5566: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5521: 5497: 5491: 5490: 5461: 5455: 5454: 5452: 5451: 5436: 5427: 5426: 5397: 5386: 5385: 5383: 5382: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5354: 5322: 5316: 5315: 5286: 5277: 5276: 5274: 5273: 5267: 5261:. Archived from 5250: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5216: 5210: 5209: 5199: 5189: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5129: 5123: 5122: 5112: 5088: 5082: 5081: 5071: 5061: 5052:(7): 4592–4595. 5034: 5028: 5027: 5017: 4985: 4976: 4975: 4965: 4933: 4920: 4919: 4909: 4899: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4859: 10765475. 4827: 4818: 4817: 4799: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4762: 4730: 4721: 4720: 4710: 4686: 4677: 4676: 4666: 4656: 4632: 4626: 4625: 4615: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4574: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4533: 4523: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4490: 4489: 4480:. Archived from 4473: 4467: 4466: 4456: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4399: 4375: 4366: 4365: 4355: 4331: 4325: 4324: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4277: 4268:. Archived from 4226: 4220: 4219: 4201: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4155: 4123: 4117: 4116: 4106: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4031: 4025: 4024: 4014: 3990: 3984: 3983: 3949: 3943: 3942: 3932: 3900: 3889: 3888: 3878: 3846: 3840: 3839: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3768: 3762: 3761: 3751: 3723: 3706: 3705: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3660: 3628: 3622: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3570: 3561: 3560: 3550: 3540: 3516: 3510: 3509: 3507: 3501:. Archived from 3468: 3459: 3438: 3437: 3401: 3390: 3389: 3363: 3354: 3341: 3340: 3330: 3298: 3285: 3284: 3274: 3264: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3223: 3213: 3196:(11): e0206908. 3181: 3175: 3174: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3151: 3145: 3144: 3134: 3124: 3100: 3094: 3093: 3083: 3073: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3032: 3021:10.1136/bmj.c723 3000: 2991: 2990: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2937: 2913: 2907: 2906: 2896: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2855: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2816:. Archived from 2789: 2783:Jain SL (2010). 2780: 2774: 2773: 2763: 2753: 2729: 2720: 2719: 2702:(3–4): 319–329. 2691: 2685: 2684: 2674: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2590: 2558: 2552: 2551: 2523: 2517: 2516: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2391:(6): 1539–1544. 2380: 2371: 2370: 2360: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2294: 2262: 2256: 2255: 2236: 2179: 2173: 2166: 2160: 2159: 2154:. Archived from 2129: 2123:Dehue T (2000). 2120: 2114: 2113: 2081: 2075: 2074: 2064: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2014: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1967: 1961: 1960: 1911: 1905: 1901: 1878: 1872: 1871: 1861: 1829: 1823: 1822: 1794: 1788: 1787: 1777: 1745: 1739: 1738: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1685: 1653: 1647: 1646: 1636: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1561: 1555: 1554: 1544: 1520: 1514: 1513: 1503: 1492:10.1136/bmj.c869 1471: 1448: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1432: 1426: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1410: 1404: 1403: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1358: 1347:10.1136/bmj.c332 1326: 1266:Drug development 1149:publication bias 1106:situation (e.g. 957:As of 1998, the 706:Analysis of data 680:physical therapy 656:statistical test 507:, especially in 333:informed consent 293:Cochrane Library 256:Ronald A. Fisher 239:in 1901, and by 237:Edward Thorndike 233:Robert Woodworth 98:standard of care 21: 11119: 11118: 11114: 11113: 11112: 11110: 11109: 11108: 11064: 11063: 11062: 11057: 11009: 10980:Margaret Sanger 10948: 10907: 10791: 10789: 10783: 10726: 10720: 10692:Safety scandals 10651: 10645: 10567: 10561: 10495: 10489: 10485:Social medicine 10478:Race and health 10413:Child mortality 10394: 10353:Open defecation 10235:Human nutrition 10225:Family planning 10213:Behavior change 10199: 10155:Right to health 10068:Maternal health 10058:Health politics 10009:Health literacy 9925: 9920: 9890: 9885: 9848: 9819: 9781: 9718: 9704:quality control 9671: 9653:Clinical trials 9630: 9605: 9589: 9577:Hazard function 9571: 9525: 9487: 9471: 9434: 9430:Breusch–Godfrey 9418: 9395: 9335: 9310:Factor analysis 9256: 9237:Graphical model 9209: 9176: 9143: 9129: 9109: 9063: 9030: 8992: 8955: 8954: 8923: 8867: 8854: 8846: 8838: 8822: 8807: 8786:Rank statistics 8780: 8759:Model selection 8747: 8705:Goodness of fit 8699: 8676: 8650: 8622: 8575: 8520: 8509:Median unbiased 8437: 8348: 8281:Order statistic 8243: 8222: 8189: 8163: 8115: 8070: 8013: 8011:Data collection 7992: 7904: 7859: 7833: 7811: 7771: 7723: 7640:Continuous data 7630: 7617: 7599: 7594: 7564: 7559: 7537: 7519: 7496:Crossover study 7487: 7485:Latin hypercube 7421:Plackett–Burman 7400: 7397: 7396: 7388: 7291: 7283: 7224: 7216: 7133: 7126: 7121: 7091: 7086: 7057: 7021: 6983: 6928: 6882: 6856: 6830:Risk difference 6818: 6779: 6713: 6705: 6660: 6652: 6616:Trial protocols 6599: 6590: 6560: 6549: 6536: 6529: 6522: 6508: 6502: 6491: 6467: 6465:Further reading 6462: 6425: 6421: 6376: 6372: 6338: 6334: 6297: 6293: 6260: 6256: 6223: 6216: 6201: 6197: 6166: 6162: 6117: 6113: 6068: 6064: 6027:Clinical Trials 6019: 6015: 5978: 5974: 5929: 5925: 5888: 5881: 5850: 5846: 5837: 5835: 5826: 5825: 5821: 5774: 5767: 5728: 5721: 5690: 5681: 5666: 5662: 5617: 5613: 5574: 5570: 5539: 5535: 5498: 5494: 5462: 5458: 5449: 5447: 5437: 5430: 5398: 5389: 5380: 5378: 5372: 5368: 5323: 5319: 5287: 5280: 5271: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5248: 5240: 5236: 5217: 5213: 5166: 5162: 5141:(13): 690–694. 5130: 5126: 5089: 5085: 5035: 5031: 4986: 4979: 4934: 4923: 4876: 4872: 4839:(1): MR000034. 4828: 4821: 4797:10.1.1.590.2854 4780: 4776: 4731: 4724: 4687: 4680: 4633: 4629: 4592: 4588: 4551: 4547: 4500: 4496: 4487: 4485: 4476:CONSORT Group. 4474: 4470: 4425: 4421: 4376: 4369: 4332: 4328: 4288: 4284: 4275: 4273: 4227: 4223: 4173: 4169: 4124: 4120: 4075: 4071: 4036:Clinical Trials 4032: 4028: 3991: 3987: 3972: 3950: 3946: 3901: 3892: 3847: 3843: 3804: 3800: 3769: 3765: 3724: 3709: 3678: 3674: 3629: 3625: 3615: 3613: 3608:Rosenberger J. 3606: 3602: 3571: 3564: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3466: 3460: 3441: 3402: 3393: 3361: 3355: 3344: 3299: 3288: 3255:(3): e1002766. 3241: 3237: 3182: 3178: 3167: 3163: 3152: 3148: 3101: 3097: 3050: 3046: 3001: 2994: 2955: 2951: 2914: 2910: 2873: 2869: 2832: 2828: 2820: 2787: 2781: 2777: 2730: 2723: 2692: 2688: 2643: 2639: 2608: 2604: 2559: 2555: 2524: 2520: 2489: 2485: 2450: 2446: 2436: 2434: 2424: 2420: 2381: 2374: 2329: 2325: 2317:Washington Post 2312: 2308: 2263: 2259: 2180: 2176: 2167: 2163: 2158:on 12 Jul 2024. 2127: 2121: 2117: 2102:10.2307/1412596 2082: 2078: 2062: 2056: 2052: 2012: 2006: 2002: 1968: 1964: 1912: 1908: 1879: 1875: 1830: 1826: 1799:Social Research 1795: 1791: 1746: 1742: 1703: 1699: 1654: 1650: 1605: 1601: 1562: 1558: 1521: 1517: 1472: 1451: 1441: 1439: 1434: 1433: 1429: 1419: 1417: 1412: 1411: 1407: 1376: 1372: 1327: 1318: 1314: 1262: 1253: 1244: 1231: 1182: 1173: 1157: 1128: 1108:patient history 1053: 1045: 935: 927:systematic bias 916: 899: 843: 810: 781:interventions." 708: 675: 669: 660:null hypothesis 651: 645: 613: 607: 586: 549: 537: 494: 448: 434: 418: 412: 367: 365:By study design 362: 360:Classifications 350: 305: 203:W. H. R. Rivers 170: 90: 63:medical devices 59:clinical trials 53:) is a form of 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11117: 11107: 11106: 11101: 11096: 11091: 11086: 11081: 11076: 11059: 11058: 11056: 11055: 11043: 11031: 11018: 11015: 11014: 11011: 11010: 11008: 11007: 11002: 10997: 10992: 10987: 10982: 10977: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10956: 10954: 10950: 10949: 10947: 10946: 10945: 10944: 10939: 10934: 10929: 10921: 10915: 10913: 10909: 10908: 10906: 10905: 10898: 10893: 10888: 10887: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10863: 10862: 10861: 10856: 10848: 10847: 10846: 10838: 10837: 10836: 10831: 10823: 10822: 10821: 10813: 10812: 10811: 10802: 10800: 10793: 10788:Organizations, 10785: 10784: 10782: 10781: 10776: 10771: 10766: 10761: 10756: 10751: 10746: 10741: 10736: 10730: 10728: 10722: 10721: 10719: 10718: 10717: 10716: 10711: 10701: 10696: 10695: 10694: 10689: 10684: 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10655: 10653: 10647: 10646: 10644: 10643: 10638: 10633: 10628: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10612: 10611: 10601: 10600: 10599: 10589: 10588: 10587: 10577: 10571: 10569: 10563: 10562: 10560: 10559: 10554: 10553: 10552: 10544: 10535: 10530: 10525: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10499: 10497: 10494:Biological and 10491: 10490: 10488: 10487: 10482: 10481: 10480: 10475: 10470: 10460: 10455: 10453:Multimorbidity 10450: 10445: 10440: 10435: 10430: 10425: 10420: 10415: 10410: 10404: 10402: 10396: 10395: 10393: 10392: 10390:Vector control 10387: 10382: 10377: 10375:School hygiene 10372: 10371: 10370: 10365: 10360: 10358:Sanitary sewer 10355: 10350: 10345: 10335: 10330: 10325: 10324: 10323: 10316:Patient safety 10313: 10312: 10311: 10306: 10301: 10296: 10291: 10286: 10276: 10275: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10249: 10248: 10247: 10242: 10232: 10227: 10222: 10221: 10220: 10209: 10207: 10201: 10200: 10198: 10197: 10192: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10132: 10131: 10130: 10125: 10120: 10115: 10110: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10080: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10060: 10055: 10054: 10053: 10048: 10038: 10033: 10028: 10027: 10026: 10021: 10011: 10006: 10001: 9999:Harm reduction 9996: 9991: 9986: 9981: 9980: 9979: 9974: 9964: 9959: 9954: 9949: 9944: 9939: 9933: 9931: 9927: 9926: 9919: 9918: 9911: 9904: 9896: 9887: 9886: 9884: 9883: 9871: 9859: 9845: 9832: 9829: 9828: 9825: 9824: 9821: 9820: 9818: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9791: 9789: 9783: 9782: 9780: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9749: 9744: 9739: 9734: 9728: 9726: 9720: 9719: 9717: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9681: 9679: 9673: 9672: 9670: 9669: 9664: 9659: 9650: 9648:Bioinformatics 9644: 9642: 9632: 9631: 9619: 9618: 9615: 9614: 9611: 9610: 9607: 9606: 9604: 9603: 9597: 9595: 9591: 9590: 9588: 9587: 9581: 9579: 9573: 9572: 9570: 9569: 9564: 9559: 9554: 9548: 9546: 9537: 9531: 9530: 9527: 9526: 9524: 9523: 9518: 9513: 9508: 9503: 9497: 9495: 9489: 9488: 9486: 9485: 9480: 9475: 9467: 9462: 9457: 9456: 9455: 9453:partial (PACF) 9444: 9442: 9436: 9435: 9433: 9432: 9427: 9422: 9414: 9409: 9403: 9401: 9400:Specific tests 9397: 9396: 9394: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9368: 9363: 9358: 9352: 9350: 9343: 9337: 9336: 9334: 9333: 9332: 9331: 9330: 9329: 9314: 9313: 9312: 9302: 9300:Classification 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9266: 9264: 9258: 9257: 9255: 9254: 9249: 9247:McNemar's test 9244: 9239: 9234: 9229: 9223: 9221: 9211: 9210: 9186: 9185: 9182: 9181: 9178: 9177: 9175: 9174: 9169: 9164: 9159: 9153: 9151: 9145: 9144: 9142: 9141: 9125: 9119: 9117: 9111: 9110: 9108: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9087: 9085:Semiparametric 9082: 9077: 9071: 9069: 9065: 9064: 9062: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9040: 9038: 9032: 9031: 9029: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9008: 9002: 9000: 8994: 8993: 8991: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8969: 8967: 8957: 8956: 8953: 8952: 8947: 8941: 8933: 8932: 8929: 8928: 8925: 8924: 8922: 8921: 8920: 8919: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8898: 8897: 8892: 8881: 8879: 8873: 8872: 8869: 8868: 8866: 8865: 8860: 8859: 8858: 8850: 8842: 8826: 8823:(Mann–Whitney) 8818: 8817: 8816: 8803: 8802: 8801: 8790: 8788: 8782: 8781: 8779: 8778: 8777: 8776: 8771: 8766: 8756: 8751: 8748:(Shapiro–Wilk) 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8715: 8709: 8707: 8701: 8700: 8698: 8697: 8689: 8680: 8668: 8662: 8660:Specific tests 8656: 8655: 8652: 8651: 8649: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8632: 8630: 8624: 8623: 8621: 8620: 8615: 8614: 8613: 8603: 8602: 8601: 8591: 8585: 8583: 8577: 8576: 8574: 8573: 8572: 8571: 8566: 8556: 8551: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8530: 8528: 8522: 8521: 8519: 8518: 8513: 8512: 8511: 8506: 8505: 8504: 8499: 8484: 8483: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8456: 8454: 8445: 8439: 8438: 8436: 8435: 8430: 8425: 8424: 8423: 8413: 8408: 8407: 8406: 8396: 8395: 8394: 8389: 8384: 8374: 8369: 8364: 8363: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8336: 8335: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8314: 8313: 8312: 8307: 8297: 8296: 8295: 8285: 8284: 8283: 8273: 8268: 8263: 8257: 8255: 8245: 8244: 8232: 8231: 8228: 8227: 8224: 8223: 8221: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8199: 8197: 8191: 8190: 8188: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8171: 8169: 8165: 8164: 8162: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8125: 8123: 8117: 8116: 8114: 8113: 8111:Standard error 8108: 8103: 8098: 8097: 8096: 8091: 8080: 8078: 8072: 8071: 8069: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8041:Optimal design 8038: 8033: 8027: 8025: 8015: 8014: 8002: 8001: 7998: 7997: 7994: 7993: 7991: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7914: 7912: 7906: 7905: 7903: 7902: 7897: 7896: 7895: 7890: 7880: 7875: 7869: 7867: 7861: 7860: 7858: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7841: 7839: 7838:Summary tables 7835: 7834: 7832: 7831: 7825: 7823: 7817: 7816: 7813: 7812: 7810: 7809: 7808: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7787: 7781: 7779: 7773: 7772: 7770: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7733: 7731: 7725: 7724: 7722: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7710: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7672:Contraharmonic 7669: 7664: 7653: 7651: 7642: 7632: 7631: 7619: 7618: 7616: 7615: 7610: 7604: 7601: 7600: 7593: 7592: 7585: 7578: 7570: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7535: 7530: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7518: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7499: 7498: 7493: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7461: 7453: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7437: 7429: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7405: 7403: 7390: 7389: 7387: 7386: 7381: 7375: 7374: 7362: 7350: 7345: 7337: 7336: 7328: 7323: 7315: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7298: 7296: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7231: 7229: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7182:Optimal design 7177: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7138: 7136: 7128: 7127: 7120: 7119: 7112: 7105: 7097: 7088: 7087: 7085: 7084: 7081:List of topics 7077: 7070: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7033:Selection bias 7029: 7027: 7023: 7022: 7020: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6993: 6991: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6954:Animal testing 6951: 6946: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6933: 6930: 6929: 6906:Mortality rate 6892: 6890: 6884: 6883: 6866: 6864: 6858: 6857: 6828: 6826: 6820: 6819: 6798: 6796: 6787: 6781: 6780: 6778: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6752: 6751: 6750: 6745: 6735: 6721: 6719: 6707: 6706: 6704: 6703: 6702: 6701: 6699:Platform trial 6691: 6690: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6668: 6666: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6611:Clinical trial 6607: 6605: 6601: 6600: 6589: 6588: 6581: 6574: 6566: 6559: 6558: 6542: 6534: 6532:on 2016-03-03. 6513: 6511:on 2010-12-25. 6500: 6482: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6460: 6439:(4): 312–322. 6419: 6390:(4): 926–937. 6370: 6351:(4): 197–212. 6332: 6311:(3): 276–291. 6291: 6254: 6214: 6195: 6176:(5): 401–418. 6160: 6111: 6062: 6033:(4): 343–353. 6013: 5972: 5923: 5902:(4): 477–480. 5879: 5860:(4): 454–465. 5844: 5819: 5765: 5719: 5700:(2): 155–161. 5679: 5660: 5611: 5568: 5549:(7): 645–650. 5533: 5492: 5473:(6): 406–412. 5456: 5428: 5387: 5366: 5317: 5278: 5257: 5234: 5211: 5160: 5124: 5083: 5040:(April 2002). 5029: 4977: 4921: 4870: 4819: 4790:(7): 821–830. 4774: 4722: 4678: 4627: 4606:(4): W60–W66. 4586: 4565:(4): 295–309. 4545: 4494: 4468: 4419: 4390:(3): 321–333. 4367: 4326: 4282: 4221: 4167: 4118: 4069: 4042:(4): 360–365. 4026: 3985: 3970: 3944: 3890: 3861:(7499): 1049. 3841: 3798: 3779:(6): 471–484. 3763: 3734:(4): 365–374. 3707: 3672: 3643:(6): 401–408. 3623: 3600: 3581:(4): 289–311. 3562: 3511: 3439: 3391: 3342: 3286: 3235: 3176: 3161: 3146: 3095: 3044: 2992: 2965:(3): 339–340. 2949: 2928:(9): 977–984. 2908: 2881:Health Affairs 2867: 2826: 2823:on 2020-02-20. 2793:Public Culture 2775: 2721: 2686: 2637: 2602: 2553: 2534:(2): 127–148. 2518: 2499:(3): 141–145. 2483: 2444: 2418: 2372: 2343:(5): 668–676. 2323: 2306: 2257: 2219:. p. 87. 2174: 2161: 2138:(2): 264–268. 2115: 2096:(3): 328–340. 2076: 2050: 2029:10.1086/383850 2023:(4): 653–673. 2000: 1987:10.1086/444032 1962: 1933:10.1086/354775 1927:(3): 427–451. 1906: 1873: 1824: 1789: 1760:(1): F64–F65. 1740: 1697: 1648: 1619:(6): 585–612. 1599: 1556: 1535:(3): 211–217. 1515: 1449: 1427: 1405: 1370: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1261: 1258: 1252: 1249: 1243: 1240: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1181: 1178: 1172: 1169: 1156: 1153: 1127: 1124: 1052: 1051:Time and costs 1049: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1039: 1027: 1014:approval, the 1004: 1003: 992: 985: 966: 934: 931: 915: 912: 898: 895: 894: 893: 875: 842: 839: 838: 837: 834: 831: 809: 806: 805: 804: 793: 782: 774: 773: 746: 731: 707: 704: 671:Main article: 668: 665: 647:Main article: 644: 641: 635:as opposed to 609:Main article: 606: 603: 602: 601: 597: 585: 582: 581: 580: 576: 548: 545: 536: 533: 529: 528: 523:effect may be 516: 512: 493: 490: 474: 473: 470: 467: 460:selection bias 447: 444: 433: 430: 414:Main article: 411: 408: 400: 399: 393: 387: 381: 378:Parallel-group 366: 363: 361: 358: 349: 346: 318:Zelen's design 304: 301: 241:John E. Coover 221:Joseph Jastrow 194:Claude Bernard 174:clinical trial 169: 166: 141:drug reactions 118:selection bias 89: 86: 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11116: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11095: 11092: 11090: 11087: 11085: 11082: 11080: 11077: 11075: 11072: 11071: 11069: 11054: 11053: 11044: 11042: 11041: 11032: 11030: 11029: 11020: 11019: 11016: 11006: 11003: 11001: 10998: 10996: 10993: 10991: 10988: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10978: 10976: 10975:Joseph Lister 10973: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10958: 10957: 10955: 10951: 10943: 10940: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10924: 10922: 10920: 10917: 10916: 10914: 10910: 10903: 10899: 10897: 10894: 10892: 10889: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10866: 10864: 10860: 10857: 10855: 10854:Health Canada 10852: 10851: 10849: 10845: 10842: 10841: 10839: 10835: 10832: 10830: 10827: 10826: 10824: 10820: 10817: 10816: 10814: 10810: 10807: 10806: 10804: 10803: 10801: 10799:Organizations 10797: 10794: 10786: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10740: 10737: 10735: 10732: 10731: 10729: 10723: 10715: 10712: 10710: 10707: 10706: 10705: 10702: 10700: 10697: 10693: 10690: 10688: 10685: 10683: 10680: 10678: 10675: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10660: 10659: 10657: 10656: 10654: 10648: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10636:Vaccine trial 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10610: 10607: 10606: 10605: 10602: 10598: 10595: 10594: 10593: 10590: 10586: 10583: 10582: 10581: 10578: 10576: 10573: 10572: 10570: 10564: 10558: 10555: 10551: 10549: 10545: 10543: 10541: 10536: 10534: 10531: 10529: 10526: 10524: 10521: 10520: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10513:Relative risk 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10500: 10498: 10492: 10486: 10483: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10473:Health equity 10471: 10469: 10466: 10465: 10464: 10461: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10444: 10441: 10439: 10438:Health system 10436: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10428:Global health 10426: 10424: 10421: 10419: 10416: 10414: 10411: 10409: 10408:Biostatistics 10406: 10405: 10403: 10401: 10397: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10369: 10366: 10364: 10361: 10359: 10356: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10341: 10340: 10339: 10336: 10334: 10331: 10329: 10326: 10322: 10319: 10318: 10317: 10314: 10310: 10307: 10305: 10302: 10300: 10297: 10295: 10292: 10290: 10287: 10285: 10282: 10281: 10280: 10277: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10254: 10253: 10250: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10237: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10219: 10216: 10215: 10214: 10211: 10210: 10208: 10206: 10202: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10150:Right to food 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10129: 10126: 10124: 10121: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10105: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10088: 10084: 10083:Mental health 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10052: 10049: 10047: 10044: 10043: 10042: 10039: 10037: 10034: 10032: 10031:Housing First 10029: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10019:Health system 10017: 10016: 10015: 10014:Health policy 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9990: 9987: 9985: 9982: 9978: 9975: 9973: 9970: 9969: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9958: 9955: 9953: 9950: 9948: 9945: 9943: 9940: 9938: 9935: 9934: 9932: 9928: 9924: 9923:Public health 9917: 9912: 9910: 9905: 9903: 9898: 9897: 9894: 9882: 9881: 9872: 9870: 9869: 9860: 9858: 9857: 9852: 9846: 9844: 9843: 9834: 9833: 9830: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9810:Geostatistics 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9792: 9790: 9788: 9784: 9778: 9777:Psychometrics 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9740: 9738: 9735: 9733: 9730: 9729: 9727: 9725: 9721: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9683: 9682: 9680: 9678: 9674: 9668: 9665: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9645: 9643: 9641: 9640:Biostatistics 9637: 9633: 9629: 9624: 9620: 9602: 9601:Log-rank test 9599: 9598: 9596: 9592: 9586: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9578: 9574: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9553: 9550: 9549: 9547: 9545: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9532: 9522: 9519: 9517: 9514: 9512: 9509: 9507: 9504: 9502: 9499: 9498: 9496: 9494: 9490: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9472:(Box–Jenkins) 9468: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9454: 9451: 9450: 9449: 9446: 9445: 9443: 9441: 9437: 9431: 9428: 9426: 9425:Durbin–Watson 9423: 9421: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9407:Dickey–Fuller 9405: 9404: 9402: 9398: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9381:Cointegration 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9356:Decomposition 9354: 9353: 9351: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9338: 9328: 9325: 9324: 9323: 9320: 9319: 9318: 9315: 9311: 9308: 9307: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9267: 9265: 9263: 9259: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9227:Cohen's kappa 9225: 9224: 9222: 9220: 9216: 9212: 9208: 9204: 9200: 9196: 9191: 9187: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9155: 9154: 9152: 9150: 9146: 9140: 9136: 9132: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9120: 9118: 9116: 9112: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9080:Nonparametric 9078: 9076: 9073: 9072: 9070: 9066: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9041: 9039: 9037: 9033: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9003: 9001: 8999: 8995: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8970: 8968: 8966: 8962: 8958: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8918: 8915: 8914: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8887: 8886: 8883: 8882: 8880: 8878: 8874: 8864: 8861: 8857: 8851: 8849: 8843: 8841: 8835: 8834: 8833: 8830: 8829:Nonparametric 8827: 8825: 8819: 8815: 8812: 8811: 8810: 8804: 8800: 8799:Sample median 8797: 8796: 8795: 8792: 8791: 8789: 8787: 8783: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8761: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8720: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8710: 8708: 8706: 8702: 8696: 8694: 8690: 8688: 8686: 8681: 8679: 8674: 8670: 8669: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8657: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8633: 8631: 8629: 8625: 8619: 8616: 8612: 8609: 8608: 8607: 8604: 8600: 8597: 8596: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8586: 8584: 8582: 8578: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8561: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8531: 8529: 8527: 8523: 8517: 8514: 8510: 8507: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8494: 8493: 8490: 8489: 8488: 8485: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8462: 8461: 8458: 8457: 8455: 8453: 8449: 8446: 8444: 8440: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8422: 8419: 8418: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8405: 8404:loss function 8402: 8401: 8400: 8397: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8379: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8345: 8342: 8341: 8340: 8337: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8319: 8318: 8315: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8302: 8301: 8298: 8294: 8291: 8290: 8289: 8286: 8282: 8279: 8278: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8258: 8256: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8242: 8237: 8233: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8200: 8198: 8196: 8192: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8172: 8170: 8166: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8126: 8124: 8122: 8118: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8106:Questionnaire 8104: 8102: 8099: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8086: 8085: 8082: 8081: 8079: 8077: 8073: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8028: 8026: 8024: 8020: 8016: 8012: 8007: 8003: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7933:Control chart 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7915: 7913: 7911: 7907: 7901: 7898: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7885: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7870: 7868: 7866: 7862: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7842: 7840: 7836: 7830: 7827: 7826: 7824: 7822: 7818: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7792: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7782: 7780: 7778: 7774: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7734: 7732: 7730: 7726: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7659: 7658: 7655: 7654: 7652: 7650: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7624: 7620: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7605: 7602: 7598: 7591: 7586: 7584: 7579: 7577: 7572: 7571: 7568: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7525: 7522: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7505: 7501: 7500: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7491: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7459: 7455: 7454: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7435: 7431: 7430: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7411: 7407: 7406: 7404: 7402: 7395: 7391: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7379:Compare means 7377: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7361: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7343: 7339: 7338: 7335: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7321: 7320:Random effect 7317: 7316: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7299: 7297: 7295: 7290: 7286: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7269: 7265: 7263: 7262:Orthogonality 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7237: 7233: 7232: 7230: 7228: 7223: 7219: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7197:Randomization 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7184: 7183: 7179: 7178: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7137: 7135: 7129: 7125: 7118: 7113: 7111: 7106: 7104: 7099: 7098: 7095: 7083: 7082: 7078: 7076: 7075: 7071: 7069: 7068: 7064: 7063: 7060: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7030: 7028: 7024: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7012:Meta-analysis 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6994: 6992: 6990: 6986: 6980: 6979:Vaccine trial 6977: 6975: 6974:Seeding trial 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6941: 6939: 6935: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6795: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6782: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6760: 6756: 6753: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6743:Retrospective 6741: 6740: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6723: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6712: 6708: 6700: 6697: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6674: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6663:EBM I to II-1 6659: 6655: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6612: 6609: 6608: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6587: 6582: 6580: 6575: 6573: 6568: 6567: 6564: 6555: 6548: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6528: 6521: 6520: 6514: 6507: 6503: 6497: 6490: 6489: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6470: 6469: 6456: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6423: 6415: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6374: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6345: 6336: 6328: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6295: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6272:(1): 89–106. 6271: 6267: 6266: 6258: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6229: 6221: 6219: 6210: 6206: 6199: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6164: 6156: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6115: 6107: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6066: 6058: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6017: 6009: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5976: 5968: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5927: 5919: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5886: 5884: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5848: 5834:on 2014-12-16 5833: 5829: 5823: 5815: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5772: 5770: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5726: 5724: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5688: 5686: 5684: 5675: 5671: 5664: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5572: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5537: 5529: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5496: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5460: 5446: 5442: 5435: 5433: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5396: 5394: 5392: 5377: 5370: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5285: 5283: 5268:on 2017-10-14 5264: 5260: 5254: 5247: 5246: 5238: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5215: 5207: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5164: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5128: 5120: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5087: 5079: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5033: 5025: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4984: 4982: 4973: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4926: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4884:PLOS Medicine 4881: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4826: 4824: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4729: 4727: 4718: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4685: 4683: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4631: 4623: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4590: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4549: 4541: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4498: 4484:on 2019-05-09 4483: 4479: 4472: 4464: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4374: 4372: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4286: 4272:on 2005-05-10 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4230:Noseworthy JH 4225: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4171: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4122: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4073: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4030: 4022: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3989: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3948: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3845: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3767: 3759: 3755: 3750: 3749:2027.42/27041 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3611: 3604: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3569: 3567: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3515: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3400: 3398: 3396: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3249:PLOS Medicine 3246: 3239: 3231: 3227: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3172: 3165: 3157: 3150: 3142: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3099: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3077: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3040: 3036: 3031: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2997: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2953: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2912: 2904: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2830: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2800:(1): 89–117. 2799: 2795: 2794: 2786: 2779: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2738:PLOS Medicine 2735: 2728: 2726: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2690: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2657:(7131): 606. 2656: 2652: 2648: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2606: 2598: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2557: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2522: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2487: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2448: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2379: 2377: 2368: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2327: 2319: 2318: 2310: 2302: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2261: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2188: 2178: 2171: 2165: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2126: 2119: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2080: 2072: 2068: 2061: 2054: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2011: 2004: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1966: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1921: 1916: 1910: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1877: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1828: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1793: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1744: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1701: 1693: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1652: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1603: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1560: 1552: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1519: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1437: 1431: 1415: 1409: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1374: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1325: 1323: 1321: 1316: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1257: 1248: 1239: 1237: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1212: 1211: 1210: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1195: 1194: 1193: 1190: 1186: 1177: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1141: 1138: 1133: 1123: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1081: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1048: 1043:Disadvantages 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1008: 1007: 1001: 997: 993: 990: 986: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 964: 960: 956: 955: 954: 952: 948: 944: 940: 930: 928: 924: 920: 911: 908: 904: 891: 888: 884: 880: 876: 873: 869: 868: 867: 864: 861: 860: 854: 850: 849: 835: 832: 829: 828: 827: 825: 820: 817: 816: 802: 798: 794: 791: 787: 783: 779: 778: 777: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 744: 740: 736: 732: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 712: 711: 703: 701: 697: 692: 689: 683: 681: 674: 664: 661: 657: 650: 640: 638: 634: 630: 629:meta-analyses 626: 620: 618: 612: 598: 595: 591: 590: 589: 577: 574: 570: 566: 561: 558: 557: 556: 554: 544: 542: 532: 526: 521: 517: 513: 510: 506: 502: 501: 500: 497: 489: 486: 484: 479: 471: 468: 465: 461: 457: 456: 455: 453: 452:randomization 446:Randomization 443: 440: 429: 427: 426:effectiveness 423: 417: 407: 405: 397: 394: 391: 388: 385: 382: 379: 376: 375: 374: 372: 357: 355: 352:In 2004, the 345: 341: 339: 334: 329: 327: 323: 319: 314: 310: 300: 298: 294: 289: 287: 283: 278: 276: 272: 268: 264: 259: 257: 253: 248: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 204: 200: 199:Enlightenment 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 165: 163: 158: 154: 150: 144: 142: 138: 137:interventions 134: 130: 129:gold standard 125: 123: 119: 114: 112: 107: 103: 99: 95: 85: 83: 79: 75: 70: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 34: 27: 19: 11050: 11038: 11026: 10995:Radium Girls 10990:Typhoid Mary 10677:Microbiology 10547: 10539: 10507: 10423:Epidemiology 10321:Organization 10272:Oral hygiene 10262:Hand washing 10240:Healthy diet 10170:Right to sit 10063:Labor rights 9878: 9866: 9847: 9840: 9752:Econometrics 9702: / 9685:Chemometrics 9662:Epidemiology 9655: / 9628:Applications 9470:ARIMA model 9417:Q-statistic 9366:Stationarity 9262:Multivariate 9205: / 9201: / 9199:Multivariate 9197: / 9137: / 9133: / 8907:Bayes factor 8806:Signed rank 8718: 8692: 8684: 8672: 8367:Completeness 8203:Cohort study 8148: 8101:Opinion poll 8036:Missing data 8023:Study design 7978:Scatter plot 7900:Scatter plot 7893:Spearman's ρ 7855:Grouped data 7503: 7502: 7488: 7470:Latin square 7456: 7432: 7408: 7369: 7365: 7358:multivariate 7357: 7353: 7340: 7318: 7266: 7234: 7180: 7079: 7072: 7065: 6854:Hazard ratio 6738:Cohort study 6671: 6553: 6527:the original 6518: 6506:the original 6487: 6477: 6436: 6432: 6422: 6387: 6383: 6373: 6348: 6342: 6335: 6308: 6304: 6294: 6269: 6263: 6257: 6232: 6226: 6208: 6198: 6173: 6169: 6163: 6128: 6124: 6114: 6079: 6075: 6065: 6030: 6026: 6016: 5989: 5985: 5975: 5940: 5936: 5926: 5899: 5895: 5857: 5853: 5847: 5836:. Retrieved 5832:the original 5822: 5785: 5781: 5735: 5731: 5697: 5693: 5673: 5663: 5628: 5624: 5614: 5581: 5577: 5571: 5546: 5542: 5536: 5509: 5505: 5495: 5470: 5466: 5459: 5448:. Retrieved 5444: 5409:(1): 43–47. 5406: 5402: 5379:. Retrieved 5369: 5334: 5330: 5320: 5295: 5291: 5270:. Retrieved 5263:the original 5244: 5237: 5224: 5214: 5177: 5173: 5163: 5138: 5134: 5127: 5103:(1): 39–53. 5100: 5096: 5086: 5049: 5045: 5032: 4997: 4993: 4945: 4941: 4887: 4883: 4873: 4836: 4832: 4787: 4783: 4777: 4742: 4738: 4698: 4694: 4644: 4640: 4630: 4603: 4599: 4589: 4562: 4558: 4548: 4511: 4507: 4497: 4486:. Retrieved 4482:the original 4471: 4436: 4432: 4422: 4387: 4383: 4343: 4339: 4329: 4296: 4292: 4285: 4274:. Retrieved 4270:the original 4244:(1): 16–20. 4241: 4237: 4224: 4181: 4177: 4170: 4135: 4131: 4121: 4086: 4082: 4072: 4039: 4035: 4029: 4002: 3998: 3988: 3953: 3947: 3912: 3908: 3858: 3854: 3844: 3814:(2): 87–89. 3811: 3807: 3801: 3776: 3772: 3766: 3731: 3727: 3685: 3681: 3675: 3640: 3636: 3626: 3616:24 September 3614:. Retrieved 3603: 3578: 3574: 3528: 3524: 3514: 3503:the original 3474: 3470: 3409: 3405: 3369: 3365: 3310: 3306: 3252: 3248: 3238: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3170: 3164: 3155: 3149: 3115:(3): e0119. 3112: 3109:JBJS Reviews 3108: 3098: 3061: 3057: 3047: 3012: 3008: 2962: 2958: 2952: 2925: 2921: 2911: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2843: 2839: 2829: 2818:the original 2797: 2791: 2778: 2744:(11): e324. 2741: 2737: 2699: 2695: 2689: 2654: 2650: 2640: 2615: 2611: 2605: 2570: 2566: 2556: 2531: 2527: 2521: 2496: 2492: 2486: 2461: 2457: 2447: 2435:. Retrieved 2432:The Guardian 2431: 2421: 2388: 2384: 2340: 2336: 2326: 2315: 2309: 2274: 2270: 2260: 2243: 2212: 2205: 2191: 2185: 2183: 2177: 2169: 2164: 2156:the original 2135: 2131: 2118: 2093: 2089: 2079: 2070: 2066: 2053: 2020: 2016: 2003: 1981:(1): 60–70. 1978: 1974: 1965: 1924: 1918: 1909: 1897: 1893: 1876: 1844:(1): 33–47. 1841: 1837: 1827: 1802: 1798: 1792: 1757: 1753: 1743: 1710: 1706: 1700: 1665: 1661: 1651: 1616: 1612: 1602: 1569: 1565: 1559: 1532: 1528: 1518: 1483: 1479: 1440:. Retrieved 1430: 1418:. Retrieved 1408: 1386:(1): 31–49. 1383: 1379: 1373: 1338: 1334: 1254: 1245: 1232: 1208: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1174: 1166: 1158: 1142: 1129: 1120:psychosocial 1097: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1054: 1046: 1005: 936: 917: 907:sample sizes 900: 865: 857: 846: 844: 821: 813: 811: 775: 764:for time to 739:atorvastatin 709: 693: 684: 676: 652: 621: 614: 594:minimization 587: 572: 550: 538: 530: 498: 495: 487: 482: 477: 475: 449: 435: 419: 401: 371:study design 368: 351: 342: 330: 321: 306: 290: 286:heart attack 279: 267:tuberculosis 263:Streptomycin 260: 252:Jerzy Neyman 249: 245:Frank Angell 207: 171: 156: 145: 126: 115: 91: 77: 71: 50: 46: 42: 40: 26: 11099:Experiments 11052:WikiProject 10792:and history 10672:Engineering 10385:Vaccination 10257:Food safety 9880:WikiProject 9795:Cartography 9757:Jurimetrics 9709:Reliability 9440:Time domain 9419:(Ljung–Box) 9341:Time-series 9219:Categorical 9203:Time-series 9195:Categorical 9130:(Bernoulli) 8965:Correlation 8945:Correlation 8741:Jarque–Bera 8713:Chi-squared 8475:M-estimator 8428:Asymptotics 8372:Sufficiency 8139:Interaction 8051:Replication 8031:Effect size 7988:Violin plot 7968:Radar chart 7948:Forest plot 7938:Correlogram 7888:Kendall's τ 7445:Box–Behnken 7326:Mixed model 7257:Confounding 7252:Interaction 7242:Effect size 7212:Sample size 7048:Null result 7007:Replication 6902:Infectivity 6824:Association 6775:Case report 6765:Case series 6748:Prospective 6235:(1): 9–38. 6131:(1): 8–11. 4647:: e078524. 3980:j.ctt4cgd52 2200:Mann (1949) 1668:(1): 1–39. 1281:Jadad scale 1229:Criminology 1189:effective: 1100:case report 919:Peer review 914:Peer review 728:hepatitis C 716:dichotomous 643:Sample size 617:confounders 464:confounding 135:of medical 109:sources of 11068:Categories 10805:Caribbean 10682:Processing 10616:Quarantine 10538:Student's 10338:Sanitation 9972:History of 9747:Demography 9465:ARMA model 9270:Regression 8847:(Friedman) 8808:(Wilcoxon) 8746:Normality 8736:Lilliefors 8683:Student's 8559:Resampling 8433:Robustness 8421:divergence 8411:Efficiency 8349:(monotone) 8344:Likelihood 8261:Population 8094:Stratified 8046:Population 7865:Dependence 7821:Count data 7752:Percentile 7729:Dispersion 7662:Arithmetic 7597:Statistics 7401:randomized 7399:Completely 7370:covariance 7132:Scientific 6850:Odds ratio 6842:Risk ratio 6808:Prevalence 6794:Occurrence 6770:Case study 5838:2011-08-19 5788:(1): 179. 5450:2010-03-22 5381:2012-02-15 5272:2010-03-28 5038:Einhorn LH 4890:(3): e67. 4488:2010-03-29 4276:2010-03-25 4199:2115/34681 3064:(1): 332. 2437:3 November 2196:H. B. Mann 1971:Stigler SM 1312:References 1077:per capita 1019:flecainide 933:Advantages 887:metastatic 881:including 696:open-label 633:subjective 547:Restricted 520:covariates 492:Procedures 284:trials on 213:psychology 178:James Lind 157:controlled 149:initialism 92:An RCT in 10985:John Snow 10912:Education 10902:Full list 10790:education 10714:ISO 22000 10667:Chemistry 10580:Epidemics 10533:ROC curve 10343:Emergency 10123:Radiation 10103:Pollution 10087:Ministers 9984:Euthenics 9128:Logistic 8895:posterior 8821:Rank sum 8569:Jackknife 8564:Bootstrap 8382:Bootstrap 8317:Parameter 8266:Statistic 8061:Statistic 7973:Run chart 7958:Pie chart 7953:Histogram 7943:Fan chart 7918:Bar chart 7800:L-moments 7687:Geometric 7410:Factorial 7294:inference 7274:Covariate 7236:Treatment 7222:Treatment 6910:Morbidity 6898:Virulence 6800:Incidence 6365:144571336 6327:0013-1881 6286:141222135 6249:145758503 5943:: g6870. 5445:USA Today 5180:: b1732. 4853:1469-493X 4792:CiteSeerX 4531:2164/2742 4514:: e5661. 4238:Neurology 3313:: a2390. 2814:143641293 2528:Bioethics 2233:0081-4776 2225:2262/2764 2152:1935-990X 2110:0002-9556 2073:(3): 247. 1995:143685203 1915:Hacking I 1886:Jastrow J 1882:Peirce CS 1819:141036212 1805:(1): 18. 1594:143644933 1251:Criticism 1242:Education 1135:from the 1116:diagnosis 1057:Phase III 1023:encainide 883:cisplatin 637:objective 503:Maximize 396:Factorial 384:Crossover 326:screening 247:in 1907. 225:education 190:mesmerism 37:Statement 11028:Category 10727:sciences 10662:Additive 10333:Safe sex 10304:Medicine 10218:Theories 9989:Genomics 9967:Eugenics 9957:Deviance 9937:Auxology 9842:Category 9535:Survival 9412:Johansen 9135:Binomial 9090:Isotonic 8677:(normal) 8322:location 8129:Blocking 8084:Sampling 7963:Q–Q plot 7928:Box plot 7910:Graphics 7805:Skewness 7795:Kurtosis 7767:Variance 7697:Heronian 7692:Harmonic 7533:Category 7528:Glossary 7334:Bayesian 7312:Bayesian 7268:Blocking 7247:Contrast 7227:blocking 7187:Bayesian 7174:Blinding 7164:validity 7161:external 7157:Internal 7074:Glossary 7067:Category 6944:In vitro 6785:Measures 6604:Overview 6455:29616838 6414:23766545 6155:12495948 6106:29331519 6082:: 2–21. 6057:20573638 6008:16705108 5967:25491195 5918:14970094 5874:12533125 5814:21569508 5760:41035177 5752:16631910 5714:17673104 5655:19833984 5606:44991220 5598:19362661 5563:12584376 5528:15082697 5361:18456631 5312:11306229 5229:Archived 5206:19435763 5119:12119854 5078:11904381 5024:17303884 4916:18336067 4865:38174786 4814:11497536 4769:10861325 4717:10861324 4673:38981645 4664:11231881 4622:18283201 4581:18283207 4540:22951546 4463:10480822 4414:20149703 4406:12117397 4362:11277825 4321:14583372 4313:11583749 4216:13741892 4208:18675689 4113:17382828 4064:23818514 4056:17060210 4021:11308438 3939:18316340 3885:15817527 3828:15651970 3557:25490908 3499:12902486 3491:11867132 3426:11853818 3386:16522836 3337:19001484 3281:30897095 3230:30408073 3190:PLOS ONE 3141:32224633 3090:31174583 3039:20332510 3015:: c723. 2987:40317464 2979:23680610 2944:19724045 2903:22147862 2862:15356289 2770:18044980 2548:11653056 2478:10949771 2405:15547188 2367:17060757 2301:18890300 2242:(1949). 2045:23526321 1957:52201011 1900:: 73–83. 1888:(1885). 1868:16992882 1735:24361586 1727:15246726 1586:16244516 1551:19463302 1510:20332511 1486:: c869. 1365:20332509 1341:: c332. 1260:See also 1137:Cochrane 795:Whether 750:censored 667:Blinding 625:protocol 584:Adaptive 422:efficacy 133:efficacy 11040:Commons 10953:History 10850:Canada 10825:Europe 10309:Nursing 10289:Hygiene 10252:Hygiene 9977:Liberal 9930:General 9868:Commons 9815:Kriging 9700:Process 9657:studies 9516:Wavelet 9349:General 8516:Plug-in 8310:L space 8089:Cluster 7790:Moments 7608:Outline 7426:Taguchi 7394:Designs 7152:Control 6949:In vivo 6405:3678772 6178:Bibcode 6146:1719287 6097:6019115 6048:3085081 5958:4260649 5805:3113995 5646:2775780 5487:2473403 5423:9024734 5352:2364804 5197:2680945 5015:1800999 4972:8634569 4963:2350940 4907:2265762 4760:1557642 4266:2663997 4258:8290055 4162:7787537 4153:2549744 4104:2039891 3930:2267990 3793:8119063 3758:3203526 3702:2605967 3667:9873981 3595:3060315 3548:4295227 3531:: 480. 3328:3266844 3272:6428259 3221:6224098 3198:Bibcode 3132:7161716 3081:6555976 3030:2844941 2761:2082641 2716:6135666 2681:9518917 2672:1112637 2597:9794861 2588:1114158 2513:3600702 2413:5376391 2358:1856609 2292:2091872 2252:0032177 2240:Mann HB 2037:9519574 1949:1013489 1859:1533733 1784:9059193 1775:1720613 1683:2025310 1634:2025229 1501:2844943 1442:9 March 1420:9 March 1400:7261638 1356:2844940 1104:medical 941:in the 790:imputed 756:(e.g., 390:Cluster 168:History 106:blinded 102:placebo 10840:India 10815:China 10687:Safety 10368:Worker 9737:Census 9327:Normal 9275:Manova 9095:Robust 8845:2-way 8837:1-way 8675:-test 8346: 7923:Biplot 7714:Median 7707:Lehmer 7649:Center 7466:(GRBD) 7366:Ancova 7354:Manova 7289:Models 7134:method 6498: 6453: 6412: 6402: 6363: 6325: 6284: 6247: 6153: 6143: 6104: 6094: 6055: 6045: 6006: 5965: 5955: 5916: 5909:332713 5906: 5872: 5812: 5802: 5758: 5750: 5732:Lancet 5712: 5653: 5643: 5604: 5596: 5578:Lancet 5561: 5526: 5485: 5421: 5359: 5349: 5310: 5255: 5204: 5194: 5155:355881 5153: 5117: 5076: 5069:123692 5066: 5022: 5012: 4970: 4960: 4914: 4904: 4863: 4851: 4812: 4794: 4767: 4757: 4715: 4671: 4661: 4620: 4579: 4538: 4461: 4451: 4412: 4404: 4360: 4319: 4311: 4293:Lancet 4264: 4256: 4214: 4206: 4178:Lancet 4160: 4150: 4111: 4101: 4083:Lancet 4062: 4054: 4019: 3978: 3968: 3937: 3927: 3883: 3876:557221 3873: 3836:202149 3834: 3826: 3791: 3756: 3700: 3665: 3658:479141 3655: 3593: 3555: 3545: 3525:Trials 3497: 3489: 3471:Lancet 3434:291300 3432: 3424: 3406:Lancet 3384: 3335: 3325: 3279: 3269: 3228: 3218: 3139: 3129: 3088: 3078: 3058:Trials 3037: 3027: 2985: 2977: 2942: 2901: 2860: 2812: 2768: 2758: 2714: 2679: 2669: 2632:431682 2630: 2595: 2585: 2546: 2511: 2476: 2411: 2403: 2365: 2355: 2299: 2289: 2250: 2231: 2150: 2108: 2043: 2035: 1993: 1955: 1947: 1941:234674 1939: 1866: 1856: 1817: 1782: 1772: 1733: 1725: 1707:Lancet 1692:831755 1690: 1680: 1643:795448 1641: 1631: 1592: 1584: 1549: 1508: 1498: 1398: 1363: 1353: 1155:Ethics 1010:After 741:after 541:robust 535:Simple 525:biased 404:PubMed 322:before 313:ethics 303:Ethics 182:scurvy 10865:U.S. 10709:HACCP 10658:Food 10550:-test 10542:-test 10128:Light 10113:Water 9361:Trend 8890:prior 8832:anova 8721:-test 8695:-test 8687:-test 8594:Power 8539:Pivot 8332:shape 8327:scale 7777:Shape 7757:Range 7702:Heinz 7677:Cubic 7613:Index 7458:Block 6888:Other 6550:(PDF) 6530:(PDF) 6523:(PDF) 6509:(PDF) 6492:(PDF) 6361:S2CID 6282:S2CID 6245:S2CID 5756:S2CID 5602:S2CID 5266:(PDF) 5249:(PDF) 4454:28218 4410:S2CID 4317:S2CID 4262:S2CID 4212:S2CID 4060:S2CID 3976:JSTOR 3832:S2CID 3506:(PDF) 3495:S2CID 3467:(PDF) 3430:S2CID 3362:(PDF) 2983:S2CID 2821:(PDF) 2810:S2CID 2788:(PDF) 2409:S2CID 2128:(PDF) 2063:(PDF) 2041:S2CID 2013:(PDF) 1991:S2CID 1953:S2CID 1937:JSTOR 1815:S2CID 1731:S2CID 1590:S2CID 1159:If a 10641:WASH 10597:List 10585:List 10118:Soil 9594:Test 8794:Sign 8646:Wald 7719:Mode 7657:Mean 7292:and 7225:and 7159:and 6727:vs. 6595:and 6496:ISBN 6451:PMID 6410:PMID 6323:ISSN 6151:PMID 6102:PMID 6053:PMID 6004:PMID 5986:JAMA 5963:PMID 5914:PMID 5896:CMAJ 5870:PMID 5854:JAMA 5810:PMID 5748:PMID 5710:PMID 5651:PMID 5594:PMID 5559:PMID 5524:PMID 5506:JAMA 5483:PMID 5419:PMID 5357:PMID 5308:PMID 5253:ISBN 5202:PMID 5151:PMID 5115:PMID 5074:PMID 5020:PMID 4968:PMID 4912:PMID 4861:PMID 4849:ISSN 4810:PMID 4784:JAMA 4765:PMID 4713:PMID 4669:PMID 4618:PMID 4577:PMID 4536:PMID 4459:PMID 4402:PMID 4384:JAMA 4358:PMID 4340:JAMA 4309:PMID 4254:PMID 4204:PMID 4158:PMID 4109:PMID 4052:PMID 4017:PMID 3999:JAMA 3966:ISBN 3935:PMID 3881:PMID 3824:PMID 3789:PMID 3754:PMID 3698:PMID 3663:PMID 3618:2012 3591:PMID 3553:PMID 3487:PMID 3422:PMID 3382:PMID 3366:JAMA 3333:PMID 3277:PMID 3226:PMID 3137:PMID 3086:PMID 3035:PMID 2975:PMID 2940:PMID 2922:JAMA 2899:PMID 2858:PMID 2766:PMID 2712:PMID 2677:PMID 2628:PMID 2593:PMID 2544:PMID 2509:PMID 2474:PMID 2439:2020 2401:PMID 2363:PMID 2297:PMID 2229:ISSN 2148:ISSN 2106:ISSN 2033:PMID 1920:Isis 1864:PMID 1780:PMID 1723:PMID 1688:PMID 1639:PMID 1582:PMID 1547:PMID 1506:PMID 1444:2024 1422:2024 1396:PMID 1361:PMID 1065:mean 1021:and 987:The 885:for 812:The 760:and 726:for 714:For 462:and 282:ISIS 254:and 243:and 235:and 219:and 111:bias 45:(or 10108:Air 8774:BIC 8769:AIC 6441:doi 6400:PMC 6392:doi 6388:101 6353:doi 6313:doi 6274:doi 6237:doi 6186:doi 6141:PMC 6133:doi 6092:PMC 6084:doi 6080:210 6043:PMC 6035:doi 5994:doi 5990:295 5953:PMC 5945:doi 5941:349 5937:BMJ 5904:PMC 5900:170 5862:doi 5858:289 5800:PMC 5790:doi 5740:doi 5736:367 5702:doi 5641:PMC 5633:doi 5586:doi 5582:373 5551:doi 5547:348 5514:doi 5510:291 5475:doi 5471:321 5411:doi 5347:PMC 5339:doi 5335:336 5331:BMJ 5300:doi 5225:NPR 5192:PMC 5182:doi 5178:338 5174:BMJ 5143:doi 5139:299 5105:doi 5064:PMC 5054:doi 5010:PMC 5002:doi 4998:334 4994:BMJ 4958:PMC 4950:doi 4946:312 4942:BMJ 4902:PMC 4892:doi 4857:PMC 4841:doi 4802:doi 4788:286 4755:PMC 4747:doi 4743:342 4703:doi 4699:342 4659:PMC 4649:doi 4645:386 4641:BMJ 4608:doi 4604:148 4567:doi 4563:148 4526:hdl 4516:doi 4512:345 4508:BMJ 4449:PMC 4441:doi 4437:319 4433:BMJ 4392:doi 4388:288 4348:doi 4344:285 4301:doi 4297:358 4246:doi 4194:hdl 4186:doi 4182:372 4148:PMC 4140:doi 4136:310 4132:BMJ 4099:PMC 4091:doi 4087:369 4044:doi 4007:doi 4003:285 3958:doi 3925:PMC 3917:doi 3913:336 3909:BMJ 3871:PMC 3863:doi 3859:330 3855:BMJ 3816:doi 3812:182 3781:doi 3744:hdl 3736:doi 3690:doi 3653:PMC 3645:doi 3583:doi 3543:PMC 3533:doi 3479:doi 3475:359 3414:doi 3410:359 3374:doi 3370:295 3323:PMC 3315:doi 3311:337 3307:BMJ 3267:PMC 3257:doi 3216:PMC 3206:doi 3127:PMC 3117:doi 3076:PMC 3066:doi 3025:PMC 3017:doi 3013:340 3009:BMJ 2967:doi 2930:doi 2926:302 2889:doi 2848:doi 2844:351 2802:doi 2756:PMC 2746:doi 2704:doi 2667:PMC 2659:doi 2655:316 2651:BMJ 2620:doi 2616:300 2583:PMC 2575:doi 2571:317 2567:BMJ 2536:doi 2501:doi 2497:317 2466:doi 2393:doi 2389:183 2353:PMC 2345:doi 2341:244 2287:PMC 2279:doi 2221:hdl 2202:." 2140:doi 2098:doi 2025:doi 1983:doi 1979:101 1929:doi 1854:PMC 1846:doi 1807:doi 1770:PMC 1762:doi 1715:doi 1711:364 1678:PMC 1670:doi 1629:PMC 1621:doi 1574:doi 1537:doi 1496:PMC 1488:doi 1484:340 1480:BMJ 1388:doi 1351:PMC 1343:doi 1339:340 1335:BMJ 1002:)." 340:". 51:RCT 11070:: 7185:: 6924:, 6920:, 6916:, 6912:, 6908:, 6904:, 6900:, 6896:, 6878:, 6874:, 6870:, 6852:, 6848:, 6844:, 6840:, 6836:, 6832:, 6814:, 6810:, 6806:, 6802:, 6731:, 6552:. 6476:. 6449:. 6437:50 6435:. 6431:. 6408:. 6398:. 6386:. 6382:. 6359:. 6349:17 6347:. 6321:. 6309:60 6307:. 6303:. 6280:. 6268:. 6243:. 6231:. 6217:^ 6207:. 6184:. 6174:44 6172:. 6149:. 6139:. 6129:88 6127:. 6123:. 6100:. 6090:. 6074:. 6051:. 6041:. 6029:. 6025:. 6002:. 5988:. 5984:. 5961:. 5951:. 5939:. 5935:. 5912:. 5898:. 5894:. 5882:^ 5868:. 5856:. 5808:. 5798:. 5784:. 5780:. 5768:^ 5754:. 5746:. 5734:. 5722:^ 5708:. 5698:33 5696:. 5682:^ 5672:. 5649:. 5639:. 5629:99 5627:. 5623:. 5600:. 5592:. 5580:. 5557:. 5545:. 5522:. 5508:. 5504:. 5481:. 5469:. 5443:. 5431:^ 5417:. 5407:79 5405:. 5390:^ 5355:. 5345:. 5333:. 5329:. 5306:. 5296:20 5294:. 5281:^ 5227:. 5223:. 5200:. 5190:. 5176:. 5172:. 5149:. 5137:. 5113:. 5101:24 5099:. 5095:. 5072:. 5062:. 5050:99 5048:. 5044:. 5018:. 5008:. 4996:. 4992:. 4980:^ 4966:. 4956:. 4944:. 4940:. 4924:^ 4910:. 4900:. 4886:. 4882:. 4855:. 4847:. 4835:. 4822:^ 4808:. 4800:. 4786:. 4763:. 4753:. 4741:. 4737:. 4725:^ 4711:. 4697:. 4693:. 4681:^ 4667:. 4657:. 4643:. 4639:. 4616:. 4602:. 4598:. 4575:. 4561:. 4557:. 4534:. 4524:. 4510:. 4506:. 4457:. 4447:. 4435:. 4431:. 4408:. 4400:. 4386:. 4382:. 4370:^ 4356:. 4342:. 4338:. 4315:. 4307:. 4295:. 4260:. 4252:. 4242:44 4240:. 4236:. 4210:. 4202:. 4192:. 4180:. 4156:. 4146:. 4134:. 4130:. 4107:. 4097:. 4085:. 4081:. 4058:. 4050:. 4038:. 4015:. 4001:. 3997:. 3974:. 3964:. 3933:. 3923:. 3911:. 3907:. 3893:^ 3879:. 3869:. 3857:. 3853:. 3830:. 3822:. 3810:. 3787:. 3777:14 3775:. 3752:. 3742:. 3730:. 3710:^ 3696:. 3686:10 3684:. 3661:. 3651:. 3641:24 3639:. 3635:. 3589:. 3577:. 3565:^ 3551:. 3541:. 3529:15 3527:. 3523:. 3493:. 3485:. 3473:. 3469:. 3442:^ 3428:. 3420:. 3408:. 3394:^ 3380:. 3368:. 3364:. 3345:^ 3331:. 3321:. 3309:. 3305:. 3289:^ 3275:. 3265:. 3253:16 3251:. 3247:. 3224:. 3214:. 3204:. 3194:13 3192:. 3188:. 3135:. 3125:. 3111:. 3107:. 3084:. 3074:. 3062:20 3060:. 3056:. 3033:. 3023:. 3011:. 3007:. 2995:^ 2981:. 2973:. 2963:50 2961:. 2938:. 2924:. 2920:. 2897:. 2885:30 2883:. 2879:. 2856:. 2842:. 2838:. 2808:. 2798:21 2796:. 2790:. 2764:. 2754:. 2740:. 2736:. 2724:^ 2710:. 2698:. 2675:. 2665:. 2653:. 2649:. 2626:. 2614:. 2591:. 2581:. 2569:. 2565:. 2542:. 2530:. 2507:. 2495:. 2472:. 2462:14 2460:. 2456:. 2430:. 2407:. 2399:. 2387:. 2375:^ 2361:. 2351:. 2339:. 2335:. 2295:. 2285:. 2273:. 2269:. 2248:MR 2227:. 2211:. 2146:. 2136:55 2134:. 2130:. 2104:. 2094:18 2092:. 2088:. 2069:. 2065:. 2039:. 2031:. 2021:88 2019:. 2015:. 1989:. 1977:. 1951:. 1945:MR 1943:. 1935:. 1925:79 1896:. 1892:. 1884:, 1862:. 1852:. 1842:36 1840:. 1836:. 1813:. 1803:72 1801:. 1778:. 1768:. 1758:76 1756:. 1752:. 1729:. 1721:. 1709:. 1686:. 1676:. 1666:35 1664:. 1660:. 1637:. 1627:. 1617:34 1615:. 1611:. 1588:. 1580:. 1570:74 1568:. 1545:. 1531:. 1527:. 1504:. 1494:. 1482:. 1478:. 1452:^ 1394:. 1382:. 1359:. 1349:. 1337:. 1333:. 1319:^ 1118:, 1114:, 1110:, 1082:. 752:, 639:. 164:. 124:. 113:. 65:, 49:; 41:A 10904:) 10900:( 10548:Z 10540:t 10089:) 10085:( 9915:e 9908:t 9901:v 8719:G 8693:F 8685:t 8673:Z 8392:V 8387:U 7589:e 7582:t 7575:v 7372:) 7368:( 7360:) 7356:( 7116:e 7109:t 7102:v 6761:) 6757:( 6718:) 6714:( 6665:) 6661:( 6585:e 6578:t 6571:v 6556:. 6540:. 6480:. 6457:. 6443:: 6416:. 6394:: 6367:. 6355:: 6329:. 6315:: 6288:. 6276:: 6270:8 6251:. 6239:: 6233:1 6192:. 6188:: 6180:: 6157:. 6135:: 6108:. 6086:: 6059:. 6037:: 6031:7 6010:. 5996:: 5969:. 5947:: 5920:. 5876:. 5864:: 5841:. 5816:. 5792:: 5786:5 5762:. 5742:: 5716:. 5704:: 5676:. 5657:. 5635:: 5608:. 5588:: 5565:. 5553:: 5530:. 5516:: 5489:. 5477:: 5453:. 5425:. 5413:: 5384:. 5363:. 5341:: 5314:. 5302:: 5275:. 5208:. 5184:: 5157:. 5145:: 5121:. 5107:: 5080:. 5056:: 5026:. 5004:: 4974:. 4952:: 4918:. 4894:: 4888:5 4867:. 4843:: 4837:1 4816:. 4804:: 4771:. 4749:: 4719:. 4705:: 4675:. 4651:: 4624:. 4610:: 4583:. 4569:: 4542:. 4528:: 4518:: 4491:. 4465:. 4443:: 4416:. 4394:: 4364:. 4350:: 4323:. 4303:: 4279:. 4248:: 4218:. 4196:: 4188:: 4164:. 4142:: 4115:. 4093:: 4066:. 4046:: 4040:3 4023:. 4009:: 3982:. 3960:: 3941:. 3919:: 3887:. 3865:: 3838:. 3818:: 3795:. 3783:: 3760:. 3746:: 3738:: 3732:9 3704:. 3692:: 3669:. 3647:: 3620:. 3597:. 3585:: 3579:9 3559:. 3535:: 3481:: 3436:. 3416:: 3388:. 3376:: 3339:. 3317:: 3283:. 3259:: 3232:. 3208:: 3200:: 3143:. 3119:: 3113:8 3092:. 3068:: 3041:. 3019:: 2989:. 2969:: 2946:. 2932:: 2905:. 2891:: 2864:. 2850:: 2804:: 2772:. 2748:: 2742:4 2718:. 2706:: 2700:5 2683:. 2661:: 2634:. 2622:: 2599:. 2577:: 2550:. 2538:: 2532:9 2515:. 2503:: 2480:. 2468:: 2441:. 2415:. 2395:: 2369:. 2347:: 2320:. 2303:. 2281:: 2275:2 2254:. 2235:. 2223:: 2142:: 2112:. 2100:: 2071:8 2047:. 2027:: 1997:. 1985:: 1959:. 1931:: 1898:3 1870:. 1848:: 1821:. 1809:: 1786:. 1764:: 1737:. 1717:: 1694:. 1672:: 1645:. 1623:: 1596:. 1576:: 1553:. 1539:: 1533:1 1512:. 1490:: 1446:. 1424:. 1402:. 1390:: 1384:2 1367:. 1345:: 466:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.