541:. Terpenes and terpenoids are the primary constituents of the essential oils of many types of plants and flowers. Essential oils are used widely as natural flavor additives for food, as fragrances in perfumery, and in traditional and alternative medicines such as aromatherapy. Synthetic variations and derivatives of natural terpenes and terpenoids also greatly expand the variety of aromas used in perfumery and flavors used in food additives. The fragrance of
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242:
particularly for botanical products (widely available as dietary supplements in the U.S. and Canada), quality control purposes, pharmacopoeial protocols and related health regulatory frameworks. At the same time, development in other areas of research has enormously expanded the subject. The advent of the 21st century brought a renaissance of pharmacognosy, and its conventional botanical approach has been broadened up to molecular and
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700:(such as insects, animal feces, mold, fungi, etc.), and recognizing the plant by its characteristic tissue features. Techniques such as microscopic linear measurements, determination of leaf constants, and quantitative microscopy are also utilized in this evaluation. The determination of leaf constants includes stomatal number, stomatal index, vein islet number, vein termination number, and palisade ratio.
350:
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31:
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are a class of chemical compounds containing a nitrogen ring. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts
512:
are molecules in which a sugar is bound to a non-carbohydrate moiety, usually a small organic molecule. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar
253:
defines pharmacognosy as "the study of natural product molecules (typically secondary metabolites) that are useful for their medicinal, ecological, gustatory, or other functional properties." Similarly, the mission of the
Pharmacognosy Institute at the University of Illinois at Chicago involves
241:
As late as the beginning of the 20th century, the subject had developed mainly on the botanical side, being particularly concerned with the description and identification of drugs both in their whole state and in powder form. Such branches of pharmacognosy are still of fundamental importance,
857:
Harrison, E. (November 1929). "Liddell and Scott, Part IV – A Greek-English
Lexicon. Compiled by H. G. Liddell and R. Scott. A new edition … by H. Stuart Jones and R. Mckenzie. Part IV.: ⋯ξευτον⋯ω—θησαυριστικ⋯ς. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929. Paper, 10s. 6d".
611:, followed by next round of separation and assaying. Typically, such work is initiated after a given crude drug formulation (typically prepared by solvent extraction of the natural material) is deemed "active" in a particular
767:
254:
plant-based and plant-related health products for the benefit of human health. Other definitions are more encompassing, drawing on a broad spectrum of biological subjects, including
535:
produced from resins. When terpenes are modified chemically, such as by oxidation or rearrangement of the carbon skeleton, the resulting compounds are generally referred to as
663:, to name a few, prior to European colonization. Knowledge of traditional medicinal practices is disappearing in indigenous communities, particularly in the Amazon.
659:) for primary health care. Native American cultures have also relied on traditional medicine such as ceremonial smoking of tobacco, potlatch ceremonies, and
186:
409:. It is these secondary metabolites and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs—examples are
696:
Microscopic evaluation is essential for the initial identification of herbs, identifying small fragments of crude or powdered herbs, identifying
674:, traditional medicines or ancient herbal medicines are often translated into modern remedies, such as the anti-malarial group of drugs called
615:
assay. If the end-goal of the work at hand is to identify which one(s) of the scores or hundreds of compounds are responsible for the observed
1058:
607:, meaning step-by-step separation of extracted components based on differences in their physicochemical properties, and assessing the
393:—compounds which are found in a smaller range of plants, serving more specific functions. For example, some secondary metabolites are
214:
are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin, used for medicine. The study of these materials under the name
1632:
1389:
328:: the study of chemicals derived from plants (including the identification of new drug candidates derived from plant sources);
85:, and biological properties of drugs, drug substances, or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the
1252:
334:: the process by which animals self-medicate, by selecting and using plants, soils, and insects to treat and prevent disease;
196:
Originally—during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century—"pharmacognosy" was used to define the branch of
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herb, a herb that was known in
Chinese medicine to treat fever. However, it was found that its plant extracts had
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was first developed in German-speaking areas of Europe, while other language areas often used the older term
527:, which are often strong smelling and thus may have a protective function. They are the major components of
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Balick, M. J. (1990). "Ethnobotany and the identification of therapeutic agents from the rainforest".
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activity does not necessarily translate to biological activity in humans or other living systems.
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Farnsworth NR (1988). "Screening plants for new medicines". In Wilson EO, Peters FM (eds.).
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In the past, in some countries in Asia and Africa, up to 80% of the population may rely on
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1090:"Native American/Alaska Native Traditional Healing | aidsinfonet.org | The AIDS InfoNet"
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determine structure(s) of active compound(s), typically by using spectroscopic methods.
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Dhami, N. (2013). "Trends in
Pharmacognosy: A modern science of natural medicines".
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Farnsworth, N. R. (1990). "The role of ethnopharmacology in drug development".
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1147:. Ciba Foundation Symposium 154. New York: Wiley Interscience. pp. 22–31.
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fractionate the crude extract, e.g. by solvent partitioning or chromatography.
174:, meaning 'I know, perceive'), meaning 'to conceptualize' or 'to recognize'.
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1443:
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879:
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316:: the study of pharmacological qualities of traditional medicinal substances;
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The term "pharmacognosy" was used for the first time by the German physician
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A typical protocol to isolate a pure chemical agent from natural origin is
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1186:"The discovery of artemisinin and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"
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activity, leading to the Nobel Prize winning discovery of artemisinin.
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599:. Digoxin is widely used in the treatment of various heart conditions.
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by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms.
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Plant-Derived
Natural Products: Synthesis, Function, and Application
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repeat steps 1) and 2) until pure, active compounds are obtained.
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310:: the study of traditional uses of plants for medicinal purposes;
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defines pharmacognosy as "the study of the physical, chemical,
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1117:. Ciba Foundation Symposium 154. New York: Wiley Interscience.
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The stomatal index is the percentage formed by the number of
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part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use.
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1027:"Introduction to the different classes of natural products"
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Franchi, Stefano; Bianchini, Francesco, eds. (2011-01-01).
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E is the number of epidermal cells in the same unit area.
619:
activity, the path to that end is fairly straightforward:
578:
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426:
386:
1159:"This Ancient Chinese Remedy Helped Win the Nobel Prize"
1132:. Washington DC: National Academy Press. pp. 83–97.
249:
In addition to the previously mentioned definition, the
50:
copy in Arabic, describes medicinal features of various
340:: the study of chemicals derived from marine organisms.
1269:"Stomatal Index Calculator | Calculate Stomatal Index"
238:("science of crude drugs") is also used synonymously.
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983:
761:
1184:Su, Xin-zhuan; Miller, Louis H. (November 2015).
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523:, produced by a variety of plants, particularly
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762:{\displaystyle S.I.={\frac {S}{E+S}}\times 100}
322:: the study of medicinal use of plant extracts;
1323:
711:, with each stoma being counted as one cell.
573:
361:produce bright red, yellow and orange shades.
97:The word "pharmacognosy" is derived from two
557:produce shades of red, yellow and orange in
506:that give tea its astringency are phenolics.
1025:Springbob, Karen; Kutchan, Toni M. (2009).
821:Fields, Deborah; Zoppi, Lois (2016-08-01).
820:
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149:
143:
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626:test the fractions thereby generated with
1241:Shah, Biren; Seth, Avinash (2012-05-14).
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777:S is the number of stomata per unit area
490:that give grapes their purple color, the
389:, which are found in all plants; and (2)
1390:Separation of prescribing and dispensing
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29:
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993:Phytochemicals in Nutrition and Health
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482:phenolics) are compounds that contain
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846:The American Society of Pharmacognosy
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895:The Search for a Theory of Cognition
210:in their crude, or unprepared form.
27:Study of plants as a source of drugs
24:
181:(1759–1809) in his published book
25:
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960:American Society of Pharmacognosy
519:are a large and diverse class of
251:American Society of Pharmacognosy
79:American Society of Pharmacognosy
77:, and other natural sources. The
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1608:List of pharmaceutical companies
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795:List of plants used in herbalism
1628:Pharmacies in the United States
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1115:Bioactive Compounds from Plants
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1029:. In Lanzotti, Virginia (ed.).
707:divided by the total number of
460:Plants synthesize a variety of
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666:With worldwide research into
605:bioassay-guided fractionation
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1247:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
942:10.1016/j.hermed.2013.06.001
464:, but most are derivatives:
405:used to attract insects for
206:in German) which deals with
170:
109:
7:
1603:Pharmacy benefit management
1190:Science China Life Sciences
783:
774:S.I. is the stomatal index
589:that is extracted from the
183:Lehrbuch der Materia Medica
10:
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929:Journal of Herbal Medicine
574:Natural products chemistry
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103:
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1202:10.1007/s11427-015-4948-7
1064:World Health Organization
974:"Pharmacognosy Institute"
872:10.1017/s0009840x00053762
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191:Analecta Pharmacognostica
1598:Investigational New Drug
1439:Pharmaceutical chemistry
1385:Pharmacological activity
990:Meskin, Mark S. (2002).
823:"What is Pharmacognosy?"
692:Microscopical evaluation
369:as part of their normal
224:taken from the works of
1580:Pharmaceutical industry
1399:Pharmaceutical sciences
1033:. Springer. p. 3.
200:or commodity sciences (
89:from natural sources".
1273:www.calculatoratoz.com
1059:"Traditional Medicine"
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232:. In German, the term
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144:
55:
1555:Pharmacist prescriber
1540:Consultant pharmacist
903:10.1163/9789401207157
801:Pharmacognosy Reviews
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391:secondary metabolites
377:are divided into (1)
352:
345:Biological background
33:
1623:Pharmacies of Norway
1560:Pharmacy informatics
1454:Pharmacoepidemiology
1363:Prehistoric medicine
1304:at Wikimedia Commons
860:The Classical Review
717:
653:traditional medicine
433:from the flowers of
338:marine pharmacognosy
87:search for new drugs
1570:Veterinary pharmacy
1502:Pharmacy technician
1464:Pharmacocybernetics
1358:History of pharmacy
1145:Bioactive Compounds
1094:www.aidsinfonet.org
609:biological activity
379:primary metabolites
365:All plants produce
179:Johann Adam Schmidt
154:, 'know'; itself a
1565:Specialty pharmacy
1528:Community pharmacy
1497:Pharmacy residency
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413:from the roots of
397:used by plants to
373:activities. These
367:chemical compounds
363:
56:
1661:
1660:
1618:Pharmacy in China
1545:Hospital pharmacy
1523:Clinical pharmacy
1459:Pharmacovigilance
1375:Prescription drug
1300:Media related to
1254:978-81-312-3260-6
1196:(11): 1175–1179.
1071:on April 28, 2004
751:
587:cardiac glycoside
521:organic compounds
314:ethnopharmacology
300:pharmacy practice
16:(Redirected from
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1613:Medication costs
1588:Drug development
1550:Nuclear pharmacy
1427:Pharmacogenomics
1415:Pharmacodynamics
1411:Pharmacokinetics
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1067:. Archived from
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596:Digitalis lanata
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332:zoopharmacognosy
189:in 1815, in his
187:Anotheus Seydler
185:in 1811, and by
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1000:. p. 123.
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956:"About the ASP"
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709:epidermal cells
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681:Artemisia annua
657:herbal medicine
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401:and others are
399:deter predation
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