438:
874:
649:
410:
886:
42:
62:
437:
857:
Fish do not possess parathyroid glands; several species have been found to express parathyroid hormone. Developmental genes and calcium-sensing receptors in fish gills are similar to those within the parathyroid glands of birds and mammals. It has been suggested that the tetrapod glands may have been
512:
develops from the fourth pouch. During embryological development, the thymus migrates downwards, dragging the inferior glands with it. The superior pair are not dragged downwards by the fourth pouch to the same degree. The glands are named after their final, not embryological, positions. Since the
327:
seed, usually about 6 mm long and 3 to 4 mm wide, and 1 to 2 mm anteroposteriorly. There are typically four parathyroid glands. The two parathyroid glands on each side which are positioned higher are called the superior parathyroid glands, while the lower two are called the inferior
363:
The parathyroid glands are variable in number: three or more small glands, and can usually be located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. Occasionally, some individuals may have six, eight, or even more parathyroid glands. Rarely, the parathyroid glands may be within the thyroid gland
297:, with the superior glands arising from the fourth pouch and the inferior glands arising from the higher third pouch. The relative position of the inferior and superior glands, which are named according to their final location, changes because of the migration of embryological tissues.
376:
The parathyroid glands are named for their proximity to the thyroid—and serve a completely different role than the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands are quite easily recognizable from the thyroid as they have densely packed cells, in contrast with the follicular structure of the
681:
Renal disease may lead to hyperparathyroidism. When too much calcium is lost from the blood via urination, there is a compensation by the parathyroid, and parathyroid hormone is released. The glands enlarge (hypertrophy) to synthesize more parathyroid hormone. This is known as
488:
form that give rise to the face, neck, and surrounding structures. The pouches are numbered such that the first pouch is the closest to the top of the embryo's head and the fourth is the furthest from it. The parathyroid glands originate from the interaction of the
656:
Hyperparathyroidism is the state in which there is excess parathyroid hormone circulating in the blood. This may cause bone pain and tenderness, due to increased bone resorption. With increased circulating calcium, there may be other symptoms associated with
409:
602:. PTH is the major regulator of serum phosphate concentrations via actions on the kidney. It is an inhibitor of proximal tubular reabsorption of phosphorus. Through activation of vitamin D the absorption (intestinal) of Phosphate is increased.
767:
in 1852. In his description of the neck anatomy, Owen referred to the glands as "a small compact yellow glandular body attached to the thyroid at the point where the veins emerged". The glands were first discovered in humans by
732:. In this case the parathyroid glands are fully functional, and the hormone itself is not able to function, resulting in a decrease in blood calcium levels. Pseudohypoparathyroidism is often associated with the genetic condition
853:
typically have four parathyroid glands, while other types of animals typically have six. The removal of parathyroid glands in animals produces a condition resembling acute poisoning with irregular muscle contractions.
798:
in 1908, investigating tumours of the parathyroid, proposed their role in calcium metabolism. He noted that "Tetany occurs spontaneously in many forms and may be produced by the destruction of the parathyroid glands".
780:"On a New Gland in Man and Fellow Animals" as the "glandulae parathyroidae", noting its existence in dogs, cats, rabbits, oxen, horses and humans. For several years, Sandström's description received little attention.
513:
thymus's ultimate destination is in the mediastinum of the chest, it is occasionally possible to have ectopic parathyroids derived from the third pouch within the chest cavity if they fail to detach in the neck.
694:
If secondary hyperparathyroidism persists over months, the parathyroid tissue may become unresponsive to the blood calcium levels, and begin to autonomously release parathyroid hormone. This is known as
1125:
Lappas D, Noussios G, Anagnostis P, Adamidou F, Chatzigeorgiou A, Skandalakis P (September 2012). "Location, number and morphology of parathyroid glands: results from a large anatomical series".
328:
parathyroid glands. Healthy parathyroid glands generally weigh about 30 mg in men and 35 mg in women. These glands are not visible or able to be felt during examination of the neck.
873:
806:
had noticed elevated calcium levels in an elderly patient with muscle weakness. Prior to this surgery, patients with removed parathyroid glands typically died from muscular tetany.
50:. The four green shaded areas represent the most common position of the parathyroid glands, which are generally four in number and situated behind the lateral lobes of the
769:
713:
The state of decreased parathyroid activity is known as hypoparathyroidism. This is most commonly associated with damage to the glands or their blood supply during
885:
243:
661:, most commonly dehydration. Hyperparathyroidism is most commonly caused by a benign proliferation of chief cells in one parathyroid gland, and rarely in
289:
Parathyroid glands share a similar blood supply, venous drainage, and lymphatic drainage to the thyroid glands. Parathyroid glands are derived from the
1936:
810:
394:. These cells are small, and appear dark when loaded with parathyroid hormone, and clear when the hormone has been secreted, or in their resting state.
1391:
1111:
790:, and others documented the putative function of the glands in 1891, noting the connection between their removal and the development of muscular
2366:
219:
740:, is used to describe an individual with Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy with normal parathyroid hormone and serum calcium levels.
586:(through RANK/RANKL mechanism) to break down bone and release calcium. PTH increases gastrointestinal calcium absorption by activating
331:
Each parathyroid vein drains into the superior, middle and inferior thyroid veins. The superior and middle thyroid veins drain into the
2333:
733:
286:
in response to low blood calcium, which plays a key role in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones.
1929:
1529:
1491:
1458:
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1375:
1345:
1190:
1095:
1063:
737:
1652:
DuBose, Joseph; Ragsdale, Timothy; Morvant, Jason (January 2005). ""Bodies so tiny": The history of parathyroid surgery".
2328:
1583:
802:
The first successful removal of the parathyroid may have been carried out in 1928 by medical doctor Isaac Y Olch, whose
17:
1086:
Williams, S. Jacob; dissections by David J. Hinchcliffe; photography by Mick A. Turton; illustrated by Amanda (2007).
2359:
1922:
1264:
974:
1777:. United States: New York Henry Holt and Company London Williams and Norgate The University Press, Cambridge, U.S.
1054:
Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W.M. Mitchell; illustrations by
Richard; Richardson, Paul (2005).
2396:
1882:
1285:
Zajac, Jeffrey D; Danks, Janine A (July 2008). "The development of the parathyroid gland: from fish to human".
500:. The position of the glands reverses during embryological development. The pair of glands which is ultimately
2419:
683:
582:. PTH increases blood calcium levels by directly stimulating osteoblasts and thereby indirectly stimulating
485:
294:
238:
89:
1687:
Carney, JA (Sep 1996). "The glandulae parathyroideae of Ivar
Sandström. Contributions from two continents".
728:
Occasionally, an individual's tissues are resistant to the effects of parathyroid hormone. This is known as
2424:
2352:
2257:
696:
2414:
666:
319:
The parathyroid glands are two pairs of glands usually positioned behind the left and right lobes of the
2118:
460:
398:
178:
158:
648:
1981:
1053:
2429:
2391:
795:
729:
352:
348:
202:
174:
154:
2090:
2001:
1904:
1554:
Science, Medicine and
History. Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice
170:
120:
116:
625:). Both states are characterised by their symptoms, which relate to the excess or deficiency of
2113:
1578:
1521:
1483:
1450:
1417:
1337:
1182:
617:
Parathyroid disease is conventionally divided into states where the parathyroid is overactive (
452:
386:
250:
226:
214:
1546:
966:
826:
332:
141:
133:
1513:
1475:
1442:
1409:
1329:
1174:
402:, which are lighter in appearance and increase in number with age, have an unknown function.
2471:
2316:
2306:
1817:
859:
521:
336:
725:
syndrome. Hypoparathyroidism will occur after surgical removal of the parathyroid glands.
8:
2406:
2375:
2095:
2048:
2040:
638:
626:
618:
612:
555:
533:
473:
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391:
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283:
137:
1821:
1041:
Illustrated
Anatomy of the Head and Neck, Fehrenbach and Herring, Elsevier, 2012, p. 159
2383:
2013:
1963:
1835:
1748:
1723:
1385:
1310:
1232:
1207:
1150:
1105:
1016:
991:
773:
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708:
622:
569:, as well as bone physiology. Parathyroid hormone has effects antagonistic to those of
509:
501:
304:
1848:
1805:
2239:
2018:
1991:
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1853:
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1421:
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1371:
1341:
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1302:
1260:
1237:
1208:"Differential Gene Expression by Oxyphil and Chief Cells of Human Parathyroid Glands"
1186:
1175:
1154:
1142:
1091:
1059:
1021:
970:
960:
892:
760:
718:
670:
1874:
1206:
Ritter, Cynthia S.; Haughey, Bruce H.; Miller, Brent; Brown, Alex J. (August 2012).
2290:
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1996:
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207:
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2068:
1986:
1976:
1724:"On the Relation of Tetant to the Parathyroid Glands and to Calcium Metabolism"
879:
Gross pathology of a parathyroid gland (white arrow), next to the thyroid gland
822:
787:
547:
428:
1138:
783:
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2227:
2217:
2128:
2008:
1909:
1790:
714:
658:
279:
231:
51:
1890:
1830:
1007:
717: – it may be associated with rarer genetic syndromes such as
2311:
2277:
2267:
2205:
1857:
1757:
1673:
1306:
1241:
1146:
1025:
891:
Scheme showing development of branchial epithelial bodies. I, II, III, IV.
814:
764:
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662:
494:
448:
420:
99:
82:
61:
1708:
1604:
1328:
Young, Barbara; Heath, John W.; Stevens, Alan; Burkitt, H. George (2006).
1259:(3rd ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 377–8.
1173:
Young, Barbara; Heath, John W.; Stevens, Alan; Burkitt, H. George (2006).
278:. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, located on the back of the
2285:
2200:
1739:
1223:
834:
830:
566:
1772:
2262:
2247:
1839:
1782:
1618:"On a New Gland in Man and Several Mammals (Glandulæ Parathyreoideæ)".
1512:
Colledge, Nicki R.; Walker, Brian R.; Ralston, Stuart H., eds. (2010).
1441:
Colledge, Nicki R.; Walker, Brian R.; Ralston, Stuart H., eds. (2010).
1408:
Colledge, Nicki R.; Walker, Brian R.; Ralston, Stuart H., eds. (2010).
956:
583:
570:
538:
The major function of the parathyroid glands is to maintain the body's
497:
444:
416:
290:
85:
77:
47:
2344:
256:
2252:
2063:
1651:
1416:(21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp.
777:
748:
598:
587:
543:
1879:
On a New Gland in Man and
Several Mammals: (Glandulæ Parathyreoideæ)
1520:(21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. p.
1449:(21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. p.
2323:
2195:
1336:(5th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. p.
1181:(5th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. p.
846:
554:
can function properly. The parathyroid glands do this by secreting
490:
424:
282:
in variable locations. The parathyroid gland produces and secretes
275:
92:
992:"Best Practice No 183: Examination of parathyroid gland specimens"
381:. Two unique types of cells are present in the parathyroid gland:
311:, are states of either surplus or deficient parathyroid function.
196:
glandula parathyreoidea inferior, glandula parathyreoidea superior
2082:
906:
578:
562:
539:
378:
320:
41:
1124:
776:. Unaware of Owen's description, he described the glands in his
850:
803:
791:
591:
505:
477:
365:
324:
307:, characterized by alterations in the blood calcium levels and
111:
1370:(11th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. pp. 985–8.
652:
3D medical animation image showing hyperparathyroidism (right)
323:. Each gland is a yellowish-brown flat ovoid that resembles a
2212:
2187:
1058:. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. p. 918.
743:
Hypoparathyroidism may present with symptoms associated with
621:), and states where the parathyroid is under- or hypoactive (
190:
165:
149:
66:
Thyroid and parathyroids as viewed from the front of the neck
561:
Parathyroid hormone (also known as parathormone) is a small
934:
930:
926:
517:
128:
1547:"Richard Owen and the discovery of the parathyroid glands"
590:, and promotes calcium conservation (reabsorption) by the
347:
Lymphatic vessels from the parathyroid glands drain into
1556:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 217–222
1327:
1172:
565:
that takes part in the control of calcium and phosphate
1910:
University of Iowa
Hospitals & Clinics: Parathyroid
1403:
1401:
1332:
Wheater's functional histology: a text and colour atlas
1177:
Wheater's functional histology: a text and colour atlas
1212:
The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
1721:
1511:
1440:
1407:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1398:
1284:
759:
The parathyroid glands were first discovered in the
516:
Parathyroid development is regulated by a number of
459:. The cells with orange/pink staining cytoplasm are
431:
comprises 25–40% of normal parathyroid gland tissue.
1944:
1037:
1035:
772:(1852–1889), a Swedish medical student, in 1880 at
1168:
1166:
1164:
1090:(New ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
959:(1980). Williams, Peter L; Warwick, Roger (eds.).
671:surgical removal of the abnormal parathyroid gland
1500:
1434:
1361:
1359:
1357:
508:, whereas the pair of glands which is ultimately
2458:
1321:
1032:
335:, and the inferior thyroid vein drains into the
1810:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1161:
1088:Human anatomy: a clinically-orientated approach
1049:
1047:
546:levels within a very narrow range, so that the
1572:
1570:
1516:Davidson's principles and practice of medicine
1445:Davidson's principles and practice of medicine
1412:Davidson's principles and practice of medicine
1354:
1287:Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension
736:. Pseudo-pseudohypoparathyroidism, one of the
2360:
1930:
1722:Maccallum, W. G; Voegtlin, C. (Jan 9, 1909).
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1482:. Georgetown TX: Landes Bioscience. pp.
1473:
1390:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1280:
1278:
1276:
1110:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1044:
809:Parathyroid hormone was isolated in 1923 by
1803:
1620:Journal of the American Medical Association
1567:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1075:
833:capable of measuring body substances and a
817:. Studies of parathyroid hormone levels by
2367:
2353:
2334:List of human endocrine organs and actions
1937:
1923:
1770:
1689:The American Journal of Surgical Pathology
1638:
849:; they vary in their number and position.
845:Parathyroid glands are found in all adult
1873:
1847:
1829:
1804:Okabe, Masataka; Graham, Anthony (2004).
1747:
1576:
1474:Staren, Prinz; Richard, A., eds. (2000).
1273:
1248:
1231:
1015:
1538:
1366:Hall, Arthur C. Guyton, John E. (2005).
1085:
1072:
647:
2374:
989:
504:develops from the third pouch with the
14:
2459:
1686:
1254:
632:
455:, which are responsible for secreting
2348:
1918:
1881:. Translated by Carl Michael Seipel.
1806:"The origin of the parathyroid gland"
1579:"A history of the parathyroid glands"
738:longest words in the English language
702:
520:, including those coding for several
342:
1771:Councilman, WT (1913). "Chapter 1".
1728:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
1544:
1365:
955:
929:, the homeobox transcription factor
865:
734:Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy
1584:American Journal of Kidney Diseases
24:
1867:
1552:. In E. Ashworth Underwood (ed.).
493:of the third and fourth pouch and
46:Diagram showing structures in the
25:
2483:
1898:
423:. The white round structures are
1701:10.1097/00000478-199609000-00010
1632:10.1001/jama.1938.02790280087037
884:
872:
840:
747:, and is generally treated with
669:, which is generally managed by
436:
408:
274:in the neck of humans and other
60:
40:
1797:
1764:
1715:
1680:
1611:
1467:
933:, and the transcription factor
919:
390:, which synthesize and release
371:
364:itself, the chest, or even the
293:lining of the third and fourth
2397:Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism
1883:Johns Hopkins University Press
1368:Textbook of medical physiology
1199:
1118:
983:
949:
467:
13:
1:
996:Journal of Clinical Pathology
990:Johnson, S J (1 April 2005).
943:
684:secondary hyperparathyroidism
1666:10.1016/j.cursur.2004.07.012
1597:10.1016/0272-6386(95)90447-6
1299:10.1097/MNH.0b013e328304651c
697:tertiary hyperparathyroidism
676:
606:
451:. The small, dark cells are
358:
314:
7:
1577:Eknoyan G (November 1995).
1255:Larsen, William J. (2001).
1056:Gray's anatomy for students
900:
721:, which is inherited as an
689:
667:primary hyperparathyroidism
527:
415:Intermediate magnification
179:jugulodigastric lymph nodes
10:
2488:
1905:Endocrine Web: Parathyroid
829:led to the development of
754:
706:
643:
636:
610:
531:
159:inferior cervical ganglion
2438:
2405:
2382:
2299:
2276:
2238:
2186:
2164:
2136:
2127:
2104:
2081:
2039:
1962:
1953:
1139:10.1007/s12565-012-0142-1
349:deep cervical lymph nodes
249:
237:
225:
213:
201:
189:
184:
164:
148:
127:
110:
98:
76:
71:
59:
39:
34:
2430:Osteitis fibrosa cystica
2392:Pseudohypoparathyroidism
925:Namely the co-activator
912:
730:pseudohypoparathyroidism
353:paratracheal lymph nodes
155:Middle cervical ganglion
2002:Somatomammotrophic cell
1831:10.1073/pnas.0406116101
1626:(2): 197. 9 July 1938.
1008:10.1136/jcp.2002.002550
862:from these fish gills.
121:inferior thyroid artery
117:Superior thyroid artery
1774:Disease and Its Causes
860:evolutionarily derived
653:
251:Anatomical terminology
1545:Cave, A.J.E. (1953).
967:Churchill Livingstone
827:Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
770:Ivar Viktor Sandström
651:
522:transcription factors
333:internal jugular vein
142:inferior thyroid vein
134:Superior thyroid vein
88:and third and fourth
2317:Organ of Zuckerkandl
2307:Enteroendocrine cell
1740:10.1084/jem.11.1.118
1224:10.1210/jc.2011-3366
796:William G. MacCallum
337:brachiocephalic vein
2407:Hyperparathyroidism
2376:Parathyroid disease
2096:Parafollicular cell
1822:2004PNAS..10117716O
665:. This is known as
639:Hyperparathyroidism
633:Hyperparathyroidism
627:parathyroid hormone
619:hyperparathyroidism
613:Parathyroid disease
556:parathyroid hormone
534:Parathyroid hormone
480:, a series of five
457:parathyroid hormone
443:High magnification
392:parathyroid hormone
301:Hyperparathyroidism
284:parathyroid hormone
138:middle thyroid vein
2384:Hypoparathyroidism
2240:Islets of pancreas
2014:Corticotropic cell
1218:(8): E1499–E1505.
774:Uppsala University
723:autosomal dominant
709:Hypoparathyroidism
703:Hypoparathyroidism
654:
623:hypoparathyroidism
486:pharyngeal pouches
343:Lymphatic drainage
305:hypoparathyroidism
295:pharyngeal pouches
268:Parathyroid glands
35:Parathyroid glands
18:Parathyroid glands
2454:
2453:
2342:
2341:
2182:
2181:
2106:Parathyroid gland
2077:
2076:
2019:Gonadotropic cell
1992:Somatotropic cell
1531:978-0-7020-3084-0
1493:978-1-57059-574-5
1478:Endocrine surgery
1460:978-0-7020-3084-0
1427:978-0-7020-3084-0
1377:978-0-7216-0240-0
1347:978-0-443-06850-8
1192:978-0-443-06850-8
1097:978-0-443-10373-5
1065:978-0-8089-2306-0
965:(36th ed.).
893:Branchial pouches
866:Additional images
761:Indian rhinoceros
745:decreased calcium
719:DiGeorge syndrome
482:pharyngeal arches
474:early development
265:
264:
260:
16:(Redirected from
2479:
2369:
2362:
2355:
2346:
2345:
2291:Corpora arenacea
2156:Zona reticularis
2151:Zona fasciculata
2146:Zona glomerulosa
2134:
2133:
2031:Chromophobe cell
2024:Thyrotropic cell
1960:
1959:
1947:endocrine system
1939:
1932:
1925:
1916:
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1257:Human embryology
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987:
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969:. p. 1453.
953:
937:
923:
888:
876:
811:Adolph M. Hanson
552:muscular systems
440:
412:
272:endocrine glands
257:edit on Wikidata
254:
90:pharyngeal pouch
64:
54:(shaded orange).
44:
32:
31:
21:
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2446:Parathyroiditis
2434:
2401:
2378:
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2338:
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2234:
2178:
2174:Chromaffin cell
2160:
2123:
2100:
2091:Follicular cell
2073:
2054:Median eminence
2035:
1972:Pars intermedia
1955:Pituitary gland
1949:
1945:Anatomy of the
1943:
1901:
1875:Sandström, Ivar
1870:
1868:Further reading
1865:
1816:(51): 17716–9.
1802:
1798:
1769:
1765:
1720:
1716:
1685:
1681:
1654:Current Surgery
1650:
1639:
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896:
889:
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877:
868:
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819:Roger Guillemin
815:James B. Collip
757:
715:thyroid surgery
711:
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641:
635:
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609:
536:
530:
470:
463:
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317:
309:bone metabolism
261:
67:
55:
28:
27:Endocrine gland
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2244:
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2230:
2225:
2223:Granulosa cell
2220:
2210:
2209:
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2203:
2192:
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2099:
2098:
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2075:
2074:
2072:
2071:
2069:Herring bodies
2066:
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2056:
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2045:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2006:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1997:Prolactin cell
1994:
1987:Acidophil cell
1984:
1979:
1977:Pars tuberalis
1974:
1968:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1942:
1941:
1934:
1927:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1900:
1899:External links
1897:
1896:
1895:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1796:
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1714:
1695:(9): 1123–44.
1679:
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1293:(4): 353–356.
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1160:
1117:
1096:
1071:
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1043:
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1002:(4): 338–342.
982:
975:
962:Gray's Anatomy
947:
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902:
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823:Andrew Schally
788:Giulio Vassale
756:
753:
707:Main article:
704:
701:
691:
688:
678:
675:
645:
642:
637:Main article:
634:
631:
629:in the blood.
611:Main article:
608:
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529:
526:
469:
466:
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429:Adipose tissue
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2228:Corpus luteum
2226:
2224:
2221:
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2218:Theca interna
2216:
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2154:
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2143:
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2139:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2129:Adrenal gland
2126:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2111:
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2107:
2103:
2097:
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2032:
2029:
2025:
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2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2009:Basophil cell
2007:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1988:
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1983:
1982:Pars distalis
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1734:(1): 118–51.
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841:Other animals
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664:
660:
659:hypercalcemia
650:
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511:
507:
503:
499:
496:
492:
487:
483:
479:
476:of the human
475:
462:
461:oxyphil cells
458:
454:
450:
449:H&E stain
446:
439:
434:
430:
426:
422:
421:H&E stain
418:
411:
406:
405:
401:
400:
399:Oxyphil cells
396:
393:
389:
388:
384:
383:
382:
380:
369:
367:
356:
354:
350:
340:
338:
334:
329:
326:
322:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
296:
292:
287:
285:
281:
280:thyroid gland
277:
273:
269:
258:
252:
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242:
240:
236:
233:
230:
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103:
101:
97:
94:
91:
87:
84:
81:
79:
75:
70:
63:
58:
53:
52:thyroid gland
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
2278:Pineal gland
2268:Epsilon cell
2206:Sertoli cell
2119:Oxyphil cell
2105:
2049:Pars nervosa
1878:
1813:
1809:
1799:
1773:
1766:
1731:
1727:
1717:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1660:(1): 91–95.
1657:
1653:
1623:
1619:
1613:
1591:(5): 801–7.
1588:
1582:
1558:. Retrieved
1553:
1540:
1515:
1477:
1469:
1444:
1436:
1411:
1367:
1331:
1323:
1290:
1286:
1256:
1250:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1176:
1133:(3): 160–4.
1130:
1127:Anat Sci Int
1126:
1120:
1087:
1055:
999:
995:
985:
961:
951:
921:
856:
844:
831:immunoassays
813:and 1925 by
808:
801:
782:
765:Richard Owen
758:
742:
727:
712:
693:
680:
663:MEN syndrome
655:
616:
597:
577:
560:
537:
515:
495:neural crest
471:
397:
385:
375:
372:Microanatomy
362:
346:
330:
318:
299:
288:
267:
266:
220:A11.4.00.001
195:
175:prelaryngeal
83:Neural crest
29:
2472:Parathyroid
2329:Development
2312:Paraganglia
2286:Pinealocyte
2201:Leydig cell
957:Gray, Henry
835:Nobel Prize
784:Eugene Gley
751:analogues.
584:osteoclasts
567:homeostasis
468:Development
453:chief cells
387:Chief cells
185:Identifiers
171:Pretracheal
2461:Categories
2263:Delta cell
2248:Alpha cell
2114:Chief cell
1783:B0065T4O6Q
1560:2009-07-20
944:References
571:calcitonin
532:See also:
498:mesenchyme
445:micrograph
417:micrograph
291:epithelial
270:are small
86:mesenchyme
48:human neck
2420:Secondary
2253:Beta cell
2064:Pituicyte
2041:Posterior
1791:654587300
1386:cite book
1155:207431255
1106:cite book
847:tetrapods
837:in 1977.
778:monograph
749:Vitamin D
677:Secondary
607:Disorders
599:Phosphate
588:vitamin D
544:phosphate
484:and four
425:fat cells
359:Variation
315:Structure
276:tetrapods
105:Endocrine
78:Precursor
2425:Tertiary
2324:Placenta
2196:Testicle
1964:Anterior
1891:69441047
1877:(1938).
1858:15591343
1758:19867238
1674:15708157
1307:18660669
1242:22585091
1147:22689148
1026:15790694
901:See also
690:Tertiary
528:Function
510:superior
502:inferior
491:endoderm
93:endoderm
2415:Primary
2258:PP cell
2166:Medulla
2083:Thyroid
1840:3374034
1818:Bibcode
1749:2124703
1709:8764749
1605:7485136
1315:7971353
1233:3591682
1017:1770637
907:Thyroid
851:Mammals
755:History
644:Primary
592:kidneys
579:Calcium
563:protein
558:(PTH).
548:nervous
540:calcium
472:In the
379:thyroid
321:thyroid
208:D010280
72:Details
2467:Glands
2188:Gonads
2138:Cortex
1889:
1856:
1849:539734
1846:
1838:
1789:
1781:
1756:
1746:
1707:
1672:
1603:
1528:
1490:
1486:–114.
1457:
1424:
1374:
1344:
1313:
1305:
1263:
1240:
1230:
1189:
1153:
1145:
1094:
1062:
1024:
1014:
973:
804:intern
792:tetany
506:thymus
478:embryo
366:thymus
325:lentil
112:Artery
100:System
2439:Other
2300:Other
2213:Ovary
2059:Stalk
1836:JSTOR
1550:(PDF)
1311:S2CID
1151:S2CID
913:Notes
518:genes
255:[
244:13890
191:Latin
166:Lymph
150:Nerve
1887:OCLC
1854:PMID
1787:OCLC
1779:ASIN
1754:PMID
1705:PMID
1670:PMID
1601:PMID
1526:ISBN
1488:ISBN
1455:ISBN
1422:ISBN
1420:–7.
1392:link
1372:ISBN
1342:ISBN
1303:PMID
1261:ISBN
1238:PMID
1187:ISBN
1143:PMID
1112:link
1092:ISBN
1060:ISBN
1022:PMID
971:ISBN
935:GCM2
931:SIX1
927:EYA1
825:and
550:and
542:and
351:and
303:and
232:3870
215:TA98
203:MeSH
129:Vein
1844:PMC
1826:doi
1814:101
1744:PMC
1736:doi
1697:doi
1662:doi
1628:doi
1624:111
1593:doi
1522:768
1451:767
1418:766
1338:336
1295:doi
1228:PMC
1220:doi
1183:337
1135:doi
1012:PMC
1004:doi
763:by
686:.
239:FMA
227:TA2
2463::
1885:.
1852:.
1842:.
1834:.
1824:.
1812:.
1808:.
1785:.
1752:.
1742:.
1732:11
1730:.
1726:.
1703:.
1693:20
1691:.
1668:.
1658:62
1656:.
1640:^
1622:.
1599:.
1589:26
1587:.
1581:.
1569:^
1524:.
1502:^
1484:98
1453:.
1400:^
1388:}}
1384:{{
1356:^
1340:.
1309:.
1301:.
1291:17
1289:.
1275:^
1236:.
1226:.
1216:97
1214:.
1210:.
1185:.
1163:^
1149:.
1141:.
1131:87
1129:.
1108:}}
1104:{{
1074:^
1046:^
1034:^
1020:.
1010:.
1000:58
998:.
994:.
821:,
794:.
786:,
699:.
673:.
573:.
524:.
447:.
427:.
419:.
368:.
355:.
339:.
177:,
173:,
157:,
140:,
136:,
119:,
2368:e
2361:t
2354:v
1938:e
1931:t
1924:v
1893:.
1860:.
1828::
1820::
1793:.
1760:.
1738::
1711:.
1699::
1676:.
1664::
1634:.
1630::
1607:.
1595::
1563:.
1534:.
1496:.
1463:.
1430:.
1394:)
1380:.
1350:.
1317:.
1297::
1269:.
1244:.
1222::
1195:.
1157:.
1137::
1114:)
1100:.
1068:.
1028:.
1006::
979:.
895:.
594:.
259:]
144:,
123:,
20:)
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