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282:. Now the arms of the human usually extend to grasp the necks of the animals. All the figures are highly stylized, and often the whole composition is repeated underneath, facing in the opposite direction. The bodies of all three figures tend to merge at the middle into the central tube, before diverging again at the lower limbs. The "zoomorphic juncture", where the body of one animal turns into another, is very often seen, with a further human head and pair of animal heads appearing at the waist level of the top set of figures. This second human head often also has a body, and two further animal heads, these typically of cocks, project from it lower down.
440:
346:
233:
terms, differentiating between them on the basis of the form of their decoration alone. Unlike some other types of objects, very few of this group have been found by the archaeological explorations. They may also have been used with perishable elements that have not survived, either as additional decoration or to hold the ensemble together. Many ideas for their function have been suggested, without any general consensus being reached; one persistent suggestion is that leafy or flowering branches were inserted to top them. The numbers surviving suggest that the objects were not rare, and may have been affordable by most families.
483:
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591:
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567:
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298:
714:
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529:; in other pins this is clearly the case. These pieces were presumably votives for fertility. The eyes are sometimes inlaid in white, with a black dot for the pupil. The face may occupy most of the disk, or be small, at the centre of a wide border with other subjects. Other designs feature a wide range of subjects, with some purely decorative motifs, and others featuring some complex, mainly religious, scenes with many figures ("odd-looking demons and animals apparently involved in cultic and mythological activities", as Muscarella describes them).
370:
166:
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20:
678:
322:
310:
738:
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409:; when complete these come with a bar between them that goes in the horse's mouth. There are often rings in the upper or rear parts of the plates, for securing straps to tie round the horse's head. These are flat openwork plates, with a reinforced central hole for the bit mouthpiece to go through; where complete sets survive these are held in place by the ends of the mouthpiece bar being curled back.
263:), the local wild species of goat or ibex, was already domesticated millennia before; it has large curved horns with knobbly ribs. Compared to later types, the animals are more naturalistic, especially the ibex group, though not so much that their precise species can be very confidently determined. In some examples the figures are "demons", with human features except for their large horns.
518:. Many designs centre on a large face, and in general humans predominate over animals in their decoration, another difference to the other types. The diameter of the disk is typically between 6 and 9 centimetres, and the whole pin and head up to about 20 centimetres. Similar large face designs are found on some other plaques of uncertain purpose.
655:, both with rounded bottoms. Weapons are common, including a type of "spiked axehead" with spreading strips or spikes behind the axehead; these are also found in miniature votive versions. Some examples seem to have had "spikes" that were designed to be functional in combat, others perhaps not. A kind of long "
193:, though as in the later pieces, animals are a very common subject in small bronze pieces. From slightly before the period of the canonical bronzes, a number of daggers or short swords said to come from Luristan are inscribed with the names of Mesopotamian kings, perhaps reflecting patterns of military service.
266:
The next group is a less common type, often called the "idol standard". Here the feline "animal finial" type has in addition a detached human head in between the two heads of the animals, held by their front paws. The designs have become openwork, with enclosed spaces formed by the human head and the
121:
Luristan bronze objects came to the notice of the world art market from the late 1920s and were excavated in considerable quantities by local people, "wild tribesmen who did not encourage the competition of qualified excavators", and taken through networks of dealers, latterly illegally, to Europe or
420:
Though horse riding was very common among Near
Eastern elites by this date, who all used some type of bit, this large style of cheekpiece is only found in Luristan. The rigid single-piece mouthpiece bar, secured by bent back ends, is also unusual; elsewhere more flexible mouthpieces are found. Many
412:
Designs are varied, but most common are animals, very often in fantastic versions with wings, and the Master of
Animals. Other subjects include charioteers, and a subject with two figures flanking a tree-like object. Many examples survive as single plates, perhaps separated after they were dug up.
133:
Since 1938 several scientific excavations have been conducted by
American, Danish, British, Belgian, and Iranian archaeologists on the cemeteries in areas including the northern Pish Kuh valleys and the southern Pusht Kuh of LorestÄn; these are terms for the eastern "front" and western "back" slopes
232:
Among the most characteristic are a range of objects with a hollow socket or open ring, designed to be fixed at the top of a pole or other vertical support, often using a separate intervening fitting. These may be described as finials, standards and tubes; Muscarella and other writers use all these
207:
Archaeologists divide the periods producing the bronzes into "Luristan Late Iron" (Age) I to III. Luristan Late Iron II was less productive, and remains less well understood. Dates for these periods "remain fluid" but "it is possible to suggest that the material from
Luristan Iron I
490:
Large decorated pin heads are the third common and distinctive type of
Luristan bronzes, falling into two distinct groups: sculptural and openwork designs, many using the iconographic repertoire of other types of objects, and flat, normally round, disk heads. Their use is uncertain; they were
285:
In the final group, called the "anthromorphic tubes", this lower figure with projecting cock's heads is all that is left, or just the human figure, of which only the head may be at all recognisable. Thus the simplest types are just a tube with a human face near the top, sometimes a
105:(perhaps for tent-poles), horse-harness fittings, pins, cups and small fittings are highly decorated over their small surface area. Representations of animals are common, especially goats or sheep with large horns, and the forms and styles are distinctive and inventive. The "
290:
face with two heads back to back, and perhaps some simple mouldings on the tube. Whether these groups actually represent a chronological development with one type succeeding another is unclear. Other tubes are comparable, but use animal rather than human features.
267:
head and neck of each feline, and others by their hind legs. The meaning, if any, of this group is unclear, but they seem if anything to reverse the meaning of the next, much more common group, called the "master of animals standards".
642:
Other types include bronzes centred on a large ring, mostly decorated with animals in way similar to the finials and cheekpieces. These perhaps were part of horse-harnesses. Large socketed pieces are assumed to be handles for
211:
The stylistic development of the pieces is now thought to be from naturalistic depictions of humans and animals towards stylization, though it is not yet clear if this was a consistent trend. This reverses the trend proposed by
413:
The common story that the pieces were often found placed underneath the heads of men in burials seems not to be true. Most pieces were found in unrecorded contexts, but one example of a
Luristan
270:
These have a fuller figure, now seen down to the waist with an essentially human shape (including what may be divine and "demonic" figures) in between the two animals, grasping them to form the
659:-axe" has the head of an animal perched at the top of the blade, and spikes on the other side. Pieces of bronze jewellery such as rings, bracelets pendants and arm or anklets are also found.
614:
521:
The faces are mostly rounded to fill a circular space, and may be intended as female. They lack beards, and some full figures are clearly female, sitting with open legs displaying a
602:
204:
before 1000 BC seems to have significantly affected the area. The few pieces attributed to
Luristan that carry inscriptions are unrecorded pieces from the antiquities market.
427:
357:
78:, and those found in recorded excavations are generally found in burials. The ethnicity of the people who created them remains unclear, though they may well have been
122:
America, without information about the contexts in which they were found. Previous sporadic examples reaching the West had been assigned to various places, including
499:
suggests, but also worn as decoration or for fastening clothes. Other uses have been suggested. These have not been found in excavated tombs. Pin heads in bone and
421:
pieces have small spikes on the reverse of the plates; it is thought these were either used to control the horse, or to fix backing pads of softer material.
333:
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Taking the groups in what is now generally considered to be their broad chronological sequence, the first are the "animal finials", with two rampant
665:
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sheep) or felines, facing each other with a central tube or open rings (formed at the junctions of their front and hind feet) between them. The
138:, which define the region where the bronzes seem to have been found. How these cemeteries related to contemporary settlements remains unclear.
779:"Luristan" remains the usual spelling in art history for the bronzes, as for example in EI, Muscarella, Frankfort, and current museum practice
590:
177:
The term "Luristan bronze" is not normally used for earlier bronze artifacts from LorestÄn between the fourth millennium BC and the (Iranian)
626:
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was manufactured in the years around 1000 B.C., that of Iron II about 900/800â750, and that of Iron III about 750/725â650."
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in western Iran. They include a great number of ornaments, tools, weapons, horse-fittings and a smaller number of vessels including
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200:. As a mountainous rural region, what the rise and fall of these empires meant for the region remains largely uncertain; a
454:
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Bronze in
Luristan: Preliminary analytical evidence from copper/bronze artifacts excavated by the Belgian mission in Iran
297:
181:(c. 2900â1250 BC), although they are often quite similar. These earlier bronze objects, including those from the
466:
321:
309:
224:
Though there is a wide range of objects, certain types are especially common, distinctive, and hence "canonical".
130:. There is strong suspicion that the many thousands of pieces sourced from the art trade include some forgeries.
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people, for whom all possessions needed to be light and portable, and necessary objects such as weapons,
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Somewhat curiously, two very characteristic
Luristan pieces have been excavated in the Greek world, on
1333:
Bronzen and
Keramik aus Luristan und anderen Gebieten Irans im Museum fĂŒr Vor- and FrĂŒhgeschichte
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who have given their name to the area. They probably date to between about 1000 and 650 BC.
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Small cast objects decorated with bronze sculptures from the Early Iron Age found in Iran
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is common but typically highly stylized. Some female "mistress of animals" are seen.
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Pair of cheekpieces with intact bit; the loops at the ends of the torso can be seen
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Bronze and Iron: Ancient Near Eastern Artifacts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Frankfort, 343-48; Muscarella, 117 is less confident that they were not settled.
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Magier mit Feuer und Erz, Bronzekunst der frĂŒhen Bergvölker in Luristan, Iran.
196:
For most of the period of the bronzes it was, at least in theory, part of the
27:
standard", here on two levels, showing "zoomorphic juncture"; 8.5 inches high.
1394:
647:. Other pieces made from sheet metal include sheets for the front covers of
608:
Animal-headed deity as master of animals, holding two panthers by their tails
514:
and other techniques, so differing from the types described above, which are
414:
94:
1272:, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art),
1223:
976:
EI, I; Muscarella, 117â119; EI II suggests "ca. 1300/1250 to 700/650 BCE"
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54:(rarely "LorestÄn", "LorestÄni" etc. in sources in English) are small
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Some horse cheekpieces have the animal "body" reduced to a rectangle.
154:
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motif, already over 2000 years old at this point, and a mainstay of
405:
Another common class of bronzes is pairs of horse cheekpieces from
127:
90:
185:, which included LorestÄn, were broadly similar to those found in
23:
One of the distinctive "canonical" types of Luristan bronze, the "
744:
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123:
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Catalogue of the Ancient Persian Bronzes in the Ashmolean Museum
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Persia's Ancient Splendour: Mining, Handicraft and Archaeology
522:
287:
146:
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109:" motif, showing a human positioned between and grasping two
160:
1317:
Fleming, S. J., V. C. Pigott, C. P. Swann, and S. K. Nash.
1020:. Science 24 March 2000: Vol. 287. no. 5461, pp. 2254â2257
541:
170:
150:
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is known; it is unclear if it was from the same period.
134:
of the Kabīrkƫh range of mountains, part of the larger
1122:
Muscarella, 122â132 on bronze Surkh Dum finds, 173â180
596:
Disk pin with woman giving birth, flanked by antelopes
227:
1326:
Iran: from the earliest times to the Islamic conquest
251:, generally a pair of large-horned ibex (or goats or
1213:
1374:, Museum fĂŒr Vor-und FrĂŒhgeschichte: MĂŒnchen, 2002.
1352:Overlaet, B. "Luristan Metalwork in the Iron Age",
1312:Les Antiquités du Luristan. Collection David-Weill
506:The disk-headed pins are made from sheet metal by
495:, as the numbers found in the excavated temple at
762:Harness pieces and disc headed pins in the Louvre
1392:
893:Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Material
1270:The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient
363:Master of Animals standard, double composition
216:, one of the earliest writers on the bronzes.
173:horse trapping in cast bronze, c. 2600â2400 BC
1314:, Paris, 1976 (many items now in the Louvre)
632:Disk pin; face with one remaining inlaid eye
486:Face from an otherwise undecorated disk pin
1018:) in the Zagros Mountains 10,000 Years Ago
97:. They represent the art of a nomadic or
66:which have been found in large numbers in
1356:, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum: Bochum, 2004.
887:EI III; Muscarella, 112â113; EI I; EI II;
161:Context, dating and stylistic development
1247:"Luristan bronzes i, the Field Research"
481:
396:
235:
164:
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1059:Muscarella, 147â150; Frankfort, 344-45
940:Muscarella, 223â237, especially 229â237
1426:Ancient Near East art and architecture
1393:
1385:LorestÄn bronze weapons and artifacts
1372:ArchĂ€ologische Staatssammlung MĂŒnchen
1368:Luristan: Antike Bronzen aus dem Iran
620:Unusual silver pin with complex scene
1289:, 1988, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
1014:The Initial Domestication of Goats (
743:Quiver-cases, swords and spiked and
392:
89:The bronzes tend to be flat and use
985:EI, I; Muscarella, 117â119, 136â137
731:Whetstone socket, Master of Animals
228:Animal finials, standards and tubes
219:
13:
1411:Archaeological discoveries in Iran
1304:
47:Harness ring with ibex and felines
14:
1452:
1378:
1257:"Luristan bronzes ii, Chronology"
967:Muscarella, 117, 120 note 6; EI I
82:, possibly related to the modern
1387:â World Museum of Man Collection
1216:
1149:Muscarella, 202â206; EI I quoted
904:Muscarella, 114â117; EI I; EI II
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572:Pinhead with idol standard motif
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1349:. British Museum: London, 1974.
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327:Feline animal finial with rings
315:Feline animal finial with rings
1363:Museum Rietberg: ZĂŒrich, 1992.
958:EI II; Muscarella, 120, note 6
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503:were also found at Surkh Dum.
1:
1401:Archaeological artefact types
1347:Ancient Bronzes from Luristan
1209:
303:Ibex animal finial with rings
149:, but none in other parts of
1255:"EI III" = Overlaet, Bruno,
869:Muscarella, 113; EI I; EI II
477:
116:
7:
1245:"EI II" = Overlaet, Bruno,
445:Single plate with a winged
35:Horse bit cheekpiece with "
10:
1457:
1335:. Frankfurt am Main: 1984.
1095:Muscarella, 155â157; EI II
1086:Muscarella, 155â157; EI II
351:Master of Animals standard
994:Muscarella, 114â115; EI I
806:Muscarella, 116â117; EI I
797:Muscarella, 115â116; EI I
261:capra aegagrus aegagrusis
1321:. Iranica Antiqua: 2005.
1185:Muscarella, 135, 184â191
1032:Muscarella, 136, 142â146
767:
1283:Muscarella, Oscar White
1233:Muscarella, Oscar White
949:Muscarella, 120, note 6
683:Nipple beaker or situla
58:objects decorated with
1328:. Penguin Books: 1954.
491:probably both used as
487:
402:
244:
174:
48:
40:
28:
1237:"Bronzes of Luristan"
931:EI I; Muscarella, 117
485:
400:
239:
169:A predecessor: early
168:
46:
39:" motif, about 700 BC
34:
22:
1261:Encyclopedia Iranica
1251:Encyclopedia Iranica
1241:Encyclopedia Iranica
508:repoussé and chasing
387:"Anthromorphic tube"
339:"Idol standard" type
1421:Kermanshah province
1203:Muscarella, 180â181
1176:Muscarella, 192â202
1167:Muscarella, 182â183
1158:Muscarella, 164â165
1140:Muscarella, 202â206
1068:Muscarella, 151â153
1050:Muscarella, 146â147
1003:Muscarella, 136â140
851:Muscarella, 125â126
788:Muscarella, 112â113
525:, perhaps shown in
214:Michael Rostovtzeff
198:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1338:Moorey, P. R. S.,
671:Ring, for harness?
488:
403:
280:art of Mesopotamia
249:confronted animals
245:
175:
111:confronted animals
49:
41:
29:
1416:Lorestan province
1345:Moorey, P. R. S.
1331:Meier-Arendt, W.
1297:, 9780870995255,
842:Frankfort, 344-45
584:Openwork pin head
560:Human on pin head
460:Master of Animals
393:Horse cheekpieces
272:Master of Animals
241:Master of Animals
107:Master of Animals
68:LorestÄn Province
37:Master of Animals
25:Master of Animals
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136:Zagros Mountains
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52:Luristan bronzes
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598:
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588:
586:
583:
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571:
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550:
540:
533:
479:
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437:
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394:
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367:
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355:
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331:
329:
326:
319:
317:
314:
307:
305:
302:
295:
229:
226:
221:
218:
202:climate change
183:Elamite Empire
162:
159:
118:
115:
64:Early Iron Age
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1453:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1373:
1369:
1366:Zahlhaas, G.
1365:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1351:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1337:
1334:
1330:
1327:
1323:
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1300:
1296:
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1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
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1248:
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1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1214:
1200:
1191:
1182:
1173:
1164:
1155:
1146:
1137:
1128:
1119:
1110:
1101:
1092:
1083:
1074:
1065:
1056:
1047:
1038:
1029:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1009:
1000:
991:
982:
973:
964:
955:
946:
937:
928:
919:
910:
901:
894:
890:
884:
875:
866:
857:
848:
839:
830:
821:
812:
803:
794:
785:
776:
772:
758:
753:
750:
746:
739:
734:
727:
722:
715:
710:
703:
698:
691:
686:
679:
674:
667:
662:
661:
660:
658:
654:
650:
646:
628:
623:
616:
611:
604:
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592:
587:
580:
575:
568:
563:
556:
551:
547:
543:
537:
532:
531:
530:
528:
524:
519:
517:
513:
509:
504:
502:
498:
494:
484:
468:
463:
456:
451:
448:
441:
436:
429:
424:
423:
422:
418:
416:
410:
408:
399:
383:
378:
375:Support piece
371:
366:
359:
354:
347:
342:
335:
330:
323:
318:
311:
306:
299:
294:
293:
292:
289:
283:
281:
277:
273:
268:
264:
262:
258:
254:
250:
242:
238:
234:
225:
217:
215:
209:
205:
203:
199:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
172:
167:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
139:
137:
131:
129:
125:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
45:
38:
33:
26:
21:
1441:Iron Age art
1367:
1360:
1353:
1346:
1339:
1332:
1325:
1318:
1311:
1299:Google books
1286:
1269:
1260:
1250:
1240:
1199:
1190:
1181:
1172:
1163:
1154:
1145:
1136:
1127:
1118:
1109:
1100:
1091:
1082:
1073:
1064:
1055:
1046:
1037:
1028:
1017:
1016:Capra hircus
1013:
1008:
999:
990:
981:
972:
963:
954:
945:
936:
927:
918:
909:
900:
892:
883:
878:EI I; EI III
874:
865:
856:
847:
838:
829:
820:
811:
802:
793:
784:
775:
641:
520:
505:
489:
419:
415:horse burial
411:
404:
284:
269:
265:
260:
246:
231:
223:
210:
206:
195:
176:
140:
132:
120:
95:Scythian art
88:
51:
50:
1436:Iranian art
1431:Persian art
1310:Amiet, P.,
1224:Asia portal
707:Halberd-axe
638:Other types
276:iconography
257:bezoar ibex
189:and on the
187:Mesopotamia
99:transhumant
1406:Bronzeware
1395:Categories
1295:0870995251
1278:0140561072
1210:References
645:whetstones
527:childbirth
472:Charioteer
179:Bronze Age
84:Lur people
72:Kermanshah
1231:"EI I" =
512:engraving
497:Surkh Dum
478:Pin heads
155:Near East
117:Discovery
62:from the
1259:, 2006,
1249:, 2006,
1239:, 1989,
895:, p. 171
889:Wisseman
548:pin head
243:standard
128:Anatolia
91:openwork
747:-axes,
745:halberd
657:halberd
653:situlae
649:quivers
546:mouflon
501:faience
278:in the
253:mouflon
171:Elamite
153:or the
124:Armenia
103:finials
80:Iranian
76:situlae
1293:
1276:
749:Louvre
510:work,
447:sphinx
1194:EI II
1131:EI II
815:EI, I
768:Notes
523:vulva
288:Janus
147:Crete
143:Samos
1291:ISBN
1274:ISBN
922:EI I
833:EI I
542:Ibex
516:cast
407:bits
151:Iran
145:and
126:and
70:and
56:cast
544:or
1397::
1370:.
1285:,
1268:,
1235:,
891:,
157:.
259:(
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