128:
227:
36:
2668:
2682:
93:
443:
for instance, the Jewish and
Christian communities easily understood each other's Aramaic. In others, like Sanandaj, Jews and Christians who spoke different forms of Aramaic could not understand each other. Among the different Jewish dialects, mutual comprehension became quite sporadic.
260:
was one of the areas in which
Aramaic remained dominant, and its use continued among Babylonian Jews as well. The destruction of Persian power, and its replacement with Greek rule helped the final decline of Hebrew to the margins of Jewish society. Writings from the Seleucid and
426:
Aramaic continued to be the first language of the Jewish communities that remained in
Aramaic-speaking areas throughout Mesopotamia. At the beginning of the 20th century, dozens of small Aramaic-speaking Jewish communities were scattered over a wide area extending between
333:, translations of the Jewish scriptures into Aramaic, became more important since the general population ceased to understand the original. Perhaps beginning as simple interpretive retellings, gradually 'official' standard Targums were written and promulgated, notably
320:
and colloquialism. The dialect of
Babylon, the basis for Standard Aramaic under the Persians, continued to be regarded as normative, and the writings of Jews in the east were held in higher regard because of it. The division between
409:
was spread more thinly, Aramaic began to give way to other languages as the first language of widespread Jewish communities. Like Hebrew before it, Aramaic eventually became the language of religious scholars. The 13th-century
217:
The phases took place over a protracted period, and the rate of change varied depending on the place and social class in question: the use of one or other language was probably a social, political, and religious barometer.
341:: they were originally in a Palestinian dialect but were to some extent normalised to follow Babylonian usage. Eventually, the Targums became standard in Judaea and Galilee also. Liturgical Aramaic, as used in the
377:
of 135, with their severe Roman reprisals, led to the breakup of much of Jewish society and religious life. However, the Jewish schools of
Babylon continued to flourish, and in the west, the rabbis settled in
451:
led to the disruption of centuries-old
Aramaic-speaking communities. Today, most first-language speakers of Jewish Aramaic live in Israel, but their distinct languages are gradually being replaced by
349:
and the
Targums. Among religious scholars, Hebrew continued to be understood, but Aramaic appeared in even the most sectarian of writings. Aramaic was used extensively in the writings of the
394:, once a colloquial northern dialect, influenced the writings in the west. Most importantly, it was the Galilean dialect of Aramaic that was most probably the first language of the
570:. The full scope of Judeo-Aramaic studies includes not only linguistic, but rather the entire cultural heritage of Aramaic-speaking Jewish communities, both historical and modern.
398:, who composed signs to aid in the pronunciation of scripture, Hebrew as well as Aramaic. Thus, the standard vowel marks that accompany pointed versions of the
418:, published in Bohemia, testify to the continued importance of the language of the Talmud long after it had ceased to be the language of the people.
2172:
819:
2562:
1245:
2522:
2720:
1040:
190:
as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language.
573:
Some scholars, who are not experts in Jewish or
Aramaic studies, tend to overlook the importance of Judeo-Aramaic cultural heritage.
1069:
382:
to continue their study. Jewish
Aramaic had become quite distinct from the official Aramaic of the Persian Empire by this period.
2568:
2895:
1668:
1122:
539:
316:
of
Aramaic began to appear during the Hasmonaean period, and legal, religious, and personal documents show different shades of
2870:
1663:
784:
765:
526:
226:
127:
1572:
2885:
2880:
1683:
1678:
1102:
487:
470:
97:
2495:
1372:
3426:
1523:
1377:
1008:
968:
945:
922:
901:
880:
859:
805:
746:
725:
79:
57:
265:
periods show the complete supersession of Aramaic as the language of the Jewish people. In contrast, Hebrew was the
50:
3504:
1432:
1340:
662:
Frye, Richard N.; Driver, G. R. (1955). "Review of G. R. Driver's "Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C."".
402:
may be more representative of the pronunciation of Middle Galilean Aramaic than of the Hebrew of earlier periods.
3514:
3280:
2940:
2597:
1791:
154:, the messengers of Hezekiah, king of Judah, demand to negotiate with ambassadors in Aramaic rather than Hebrew (
151:
2713:
1473:
1033:
17:
147:. It became the language of diplomacy and trade, but it was not yet used by ordinary Hebrews. As described in
3465:
2574:
1895:
439:. Throughout the same region l, there were also many Aramaic-speaking Christian populations. In some places,
463:
Modern Jewish Aramaic languages are still known by their geographical location before the return to Israel.
3295:
2890:
2875:
2637:
2505:
2500:
1688:
1673:
1437:
1392:
1137:
517:
504:
3459:
2980:
2602:
2587:
1468:
1328:
136:
834:
3509:
2945:
2855:
2556:
2450:
2101:
1995:
1703:
1636:
1197:
1087:
587:
391:
370:
322:
246:
in the years from 331 BCE overturned centuries of Mesopotamian dominance and led to the ascendancy of
2849:
2844:
2706:
2672:
2612:
2510:
2490:
2360:
2285:
2145:
2012:
1698:
1658:
1026:
582:
383:
326:
179:
820:"National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times"
3158:
3126:
2592:
2423:
1722:
1597:
178:
proclaimed that Aramaic would be the official language for the western half of his empire, and the
44:
3272:
3173:
3021:
2545:
2534:
2128:
2049:
1754:
1592:
1478:
1451:
559:
281:. The language shows a number of Hebrew features have been taken into Jewish Aramaic: the letter
213:
Aramaic gradually replaces Hebrew in the home, and the latter is used only in religious activity.
529: – or Lishanid d'Janan – originally spoken in three villages near
3519:
2581:
2551:
1614:
61:
851:
A Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dictionary: Dialects of Amidya, Dihok, Nerwa and Zakho, Northwestern Iraq
3469:
3455:
3002:
2955:
2935:
2928:
2918:
2913:
2905:
2737:
2607:
2528:
2310:
2017:
1900:
1641:
1631:
1624:
1609:
1495:
116:
3416:
3367:
3199:
2642:
2632:
2135:
1107:
294:
167:
8:
3406:
2960:
2950:
2290:
2258:
2184:
2093:
2039:
1646:
1446:
1180:
1145:
243:
198:
3341:
3333:
3247:
3193:
3068:
3030:
2996:
2923:
2622:
2617:
2428:
2150:
2027:
2022:
2007:
1977:
1930:
1853:
1759:
1619:
1192:
1097:
1064:
679:
491:
210:
Aramaic gradually becomes the language of outer life (in the marketplace, for example).
175:
3233:
1905:
1781:
207:
Aramaic is used for communication between subjects and in the imperial administration.
3436:
3422:
3388:
3254:
2406:
2337:
2219:
2204:
1987:
1858:
1823:
1112:
1004:
985:
964:
941:
918:
897:
876:
855:
801:
780:
761:
742:
721:
602:
521:
374:
235:
186:
became the official standard. In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of
158:, literally "Judean" or "Judahite") so that the common people would not understand.
3396:
3353:
3348:
3337:
3316:
3305:
3261:
3078:
3043:
3006:
2862:
2839:
2792:
2729:
2472:
2440:
2401:
2372:
2355:
2305:
2106:
1915:
1848:
1801:
1749:
1717:
1708:
1693:
1567:
1542:
1518:
1402:
1333:
1250:
1117:
671:
597:
592:
474:
350:
346:
270:
187:
112:
3412:
3402:
3392:
3179:
3097:
3058:
2817:
2812:
2797:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2746:
2382:
2377:
2189:
2116:
1949:
1920:
1843:
1833:
1796:
1771:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1562:
1557:
1547:
1532:
1323:
1240:
1207:
1165:
1155:
998:
956:
933:
912:
891:
870:
849:
795:
736:
715:
644:
607:
567:
406:
338:
251:
108:
139:, and the two share many features. From the 7th century BCE, Aramaic became the
3485:
3216:
3206:
3167:
3102:
2807:
2802:
2686:
2661:
2482:
2389:
2347:
2327:
2315:
2295:
2209:
2199:
2167:
2160:
2140:
2111:
2083:
2078:
2044:
1954:
1878:
1868:
1806:
1604:
1552:
1463:
1458:
1220:
1215:
1150:
1079:
563:
334:
286:
274:
247:
148:
3498:
3447:
3363:
3310:
3300:
3290:
3186:
3116:
3089:
2991:
2986:
2776:
2455:
2300:
2227:
2034:
1968:
1941:
1890:
1838:
1811:
1786:
1776:
1537:
1483:
1417:
1397:
1387:
1382:
1355:
1301:
1230:
1175:
989:
612:
452:
140:
893:
A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods
3240:
2435:
2232:
2194:
2155:
1744:
1488:
1427:
1407:
1367:
1350:
1318:
1306:
1267:
1185:
1160:
815:
345:
and a few other prayers, was a mixed dialect, to some extent influenced by
278:
979:
797:
Studies in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: Based Upon Early Eastern Manuscripts
3432:
3226:
3108:
2445:
1960:
1885:
1863:
1766:
1360:
1289:
1284:
1272:
1262:
738:
A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam
282:
171:
144:
3359:
2539:
2246:
1828:
1422:
1170:
1092:
845:
683:
428:
415:
96:
Distribution of modern Judeo-Aramaic languages and dialects before the
3285:
3134:
3083:
3063:
2460:
1925:
1816:
1727:
1345:
1279:
642:
395:
298:
262:
193:
Documentary evidence shows the gradual shift from Hebrew to Aramaic:
1296:
675:
254:, but significant pockets of Aramaic-speaking resistance continued.
131:
Incantation bowl, with inscription written in Judeo-Aramaic language
27:
Branch of the Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic languages influenced by Hebrew
3139:
2698:
2179:
2121:
2066:
2061:
1732:
1018:
543:
495:
436:
317:
231:
2976:
872:
A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period
3211:
3144:
3073:
3039:
2394:
2278:
2273:
2263:
2251:
2071:
2056:
2000:
1935:
1910:
1873:
1737:
1412:
1311:
1235:
1127:
1053:
414:, published in Spain, and the popular 16th-century Passover song
379:
358:
354:
342:
329:
dialects of Aramaic is clear among different Jewish communities.
183:
542: – or Lishan Huddaye originally from the village
447:
In the middle of the 20th century, the founding of the State of
174:
much more into the daily life of ordinary Jews. Around 500 BCE,
92:
2465:
2332:
2268:
643:
F. Rosenthal; J. C. Greenfield; S. Shaked (December 15, 1986),
499:
482:
448:
399:
387:
330:
197:
Hebrew is used as first language and in society; other similar
3048:
2416:
2411:
2365:
2320:
2241:
2236:
1500:
1255:
1225:
530:
512:
440:
432:
411:
257:
204:
Aramaic is used in international diplomacy and foreign trade.
558:
Judeo-Aramaic studies are well established as a distinctive
2515:
1049:
547:
534:
508:
478:
717:
The Aramaic Language: Its Distribution and Subdivisions
963:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 660–670.
940:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 610–619.
691:
386:
was the dominant dialect, and it is the basis of the
507: – originally spoken in northeastern
250:, which became the dominant language throughout the
269:. The early witness to the period of change is the
221:
3496:
961:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
938:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
624:
2714:
1034:
981:A dictionary of Christian Palestinian Aramaic
2523:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation
793:
697:
2721:
2707:
1041:
1027:
777:The Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Sanandaj
661:
996:
954:
931:
720:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
1070:Index of Jewish history-related articles
977:
917:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
910:
896:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
889:
875:. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press.
868:
553:
225:
126:
91:
43:This article includes a list of general
2569:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
1206:
854:. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
814:
520: – originally spoken in
490: – originally spoken in
473: – originally spoken in
14:
3497:
758:The Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Urmi
734:
636:
540:Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure
301:verbal stem, and the masculine plural
2702:
1022:
1000:Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic
844:
713:
630:
527:Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani
2728:
1048:
827:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies
774:
755:
29:
488:Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia
471:Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho
242:The conquest of the Middle East by
161:
98:Israeli Declaration of Independence
24:
2516:YIVO Institute for Jewish Research
2496:American Jewish Historical Society
664:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
458:
238:, dating to the 4th-6th century CE
49:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
3531:
230:A Judeo-Aramaic inscription from
2680:
2667:
2666:
170:brought the working language of
166:During the 6th century BCE, the
34:
421:
222:From Greek conquest to Diaspora
2588:Relations with other religions
997:Stevenson, William B. (1924).
914:A Dictionary of Judean Aramaic
655:
13:
1:
3466:Algerian Jewish Sign Language
2575:Encyclopedia of the Holocaust
794:Morgenstern, Matthew (2011).
618:
2506:Leo Baeck Institute New York
2501:American Sephardi Federation
934:"Jewish Palestinian Aramaic"
800:. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.
518:Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic
505:Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic
353:, and to some extent in the
122:
7:
1329:Constantinopolitan Karaites
1003:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
957:"Jewish Babylonian Aramaic"
955:Sokoloff, Michael (2012b).
932:Sokoloff, Michael (2012a).
576:
364:
135:Aramaic, like Hebrew, is a
10:
3536:
2856:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
2557:National Library of Israel
1198:Zionism, race and genetics
978:Sokoloff, Michael (2014).
911:Sokoloff, Michael (2003).
890:Sokoloff, Michael (2002).
869:Sokoloff, Michael (1990).
706:
588:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
289:to mark a word-final long
137:Northwest Semitic language
3479:
3446:
3381:
3326:
3271:
3157:
3125:
3038:
3029:
3020:
2969:
2904:
2830:
2785:
2754:
2745:
2736:
2655:
2511:Yeshiva University Museum
2491:Center for Jewish History
2481:
2346:
2218:
2092:
1986:
1517:
1136:
1078:
1060:
833:(2): 5–22. Archived from
583:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
562:of collaboration between
384:Middle Babylonian Aramaic
285:is often used instead of
201:are known and understood.
3296:Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi
1103:Ancient Israel and Judah
741:. Leiden-Boston: Brill.
105:Judaeo-Aramaic languages
3505:Judeo-Aramaic languages
3427:Portuguese-based Creole
1479:North African Sephardim
1452:Jewish tribes of Arabia
775:Khan, Geoffrey (2009).
756:Khan, Geoffrey (2008).
735:Gzella, Holger (2015).
560:interdisciplinary field
180:Eastern Aramaic dialect
64:more precise citations.
3515:Languages of Kurdistan
2582:Holocaust Encyclopedia
2552:Jewish Virtual Library
371:First Jewish–Roman War
239:
132:
101:
3470:village sign language
3456:Israeli Sign Language
2529:Encyclopaedia Judaica
2311:Sefer Raziel HaMalakh
1496:Sephardic Bnei Anusim
1246:Udmurt and Tatar Jews
779:. Gorgias Press LLC.
760:. Gorgias Press LLC.
714:Beyer, Klaus (1986).
649:Encyclopaedia Iranica
554:Judeo-Aramaic studies
435:, and as far east as
229:
130:
117:Neo-Aramaic languages
107:represent a group of
95:
2946:Judaeo-Tripolitanian
1108:Second Temple period
168:Babylonian captivity
3306:Judeo-Yazdi–Kermani
2546:Jewish Encyclopedia
2291:Hekhalot literature
2102:Religious movements
1637:Judeo-Tripolitanian
984:. Leuven: Peeters.
244:Alexander the Great
199:Canaanite languages
3334:Jewish Koine Greek
3194:Judaeo-Piedmontese
2941:Judaeo-Palestinian
2786:Reading traditions
2687:Judaism portal
2623:Jews and Halloween
2618:Jews and Christmas
2008:Rabbinic authority
1760:Judaeo-Piedmontese
1193:Xueta Christianity
1098:Origins of Judaism
1065:Outline of Judaism
492:Iranian Azerbaijan
361:alongside Hebrew.
240:
176:Darius I of Persia
133:
102:
3510:Aramaic languages
3492:
3491:
3486:extinct languages
3423:Judaeo-Papiamento
3377:
3376:
3255:Judaeo-Portuguese
3153:
3152:
3016:
3015:
2826:
2825:
2696:
2695:
2662:extinct languages
2563:YIVO Encyclopedia
2338:Hebrew literature
2306:Sefer HaEtz Chaim
2146:Reconstructionist
1824:Judaeo-Portuguese
1513:
1512:
1469:Eastern Sephardim
1113:Synagogal Judaism
786:978-1-60724-134-8
767:978-1-59333-425-3
603:Semitic languages
522:Iranian Kurdistan
511:in the region of
481:and Southeastern
431:and the Plain of
388:Babylonian Talmud
375:Bar Kokhba revolt
90:
89:
82:
16:(Redirected from
3527:
3403:Judaeo-Malayalam
3317:Judeo-Golpaygani
3262:Judaeo-Aragonese
3180:Judaeo-Livornese
3036:
3035:
3027:
3026:
2752:
2751:
2743:
2742:
2730:Jewish languages
2723:
2716:
2709:
2700:
2699:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2670:
2669:
1802:Judeo-Golpaygani
1403:Palestinian Jews
1378:Alexandrian Jews
1334:Crimean Karaites
1251:Unterlander Jews
1204:
1203:
1118:Rabbinic Judaism
1043:
1036:
1029:
1020:
1019:
1014:
993:
974:
951:
928:
907:
886:
865:
841:
839:
824:
811:
790:
771:
752:
731:
701:
698:Morgenstern 2011
695:
689:
687:
670:(3/4): 456–461.
659:
653:
652:
651:, Iranica Online
640:
634:
628:
598:Israelian Hebrew
593:Galilean dialect
475:Kurdistan Region
392:Galilean Aramaic
351:Dead Sea Scrolls
347:Biblical Aramaic
273:of the books of
271:Biblical Aramaic
188:Imperial Aramaic
162:Gradual adoption
85:
78:
74:
71:
65:
60:this article by
51:inline citations
38:
37:
30:
21:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3495:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3475:
3442:
3413:Judaeo-Georgian
3373:
3322:
3267:
3234:Judeo-Provençal
3149:
3121:
3012:
2965:
2956:Judaeo-Tunisian
2936:Judaeo-Moroccan
2929:Judaeo-Baghdadi
2919:Judaeo-Egyptian
2914:Judaeo-Algerian
2900:
2891:Lishanid Noshan
2822:
2781:
2732:
2727:
2697:
2692:
2681:
2679:
2651:
2477:
2342:
2214:
2088:
1982:
1797:Judeo-Borujerdi
1772:Judeo-Malayalam
1718:Judeo-Aragonese
1689:Lishanid Noshan
1521:
1509:
1241:Oberlander Jews
1202:
1132:
1074:
1056:
1047:
1017:
1011:
971:
948:
925:
904:
883:
862:
837:
822:
808:
787:
768:
749:
728:
709:
704:
696:
692:
676:10.2307/2718444
660:
656:
641:
637:
629:
625:
621:
608:Aramaic studies
579:
568:Aramaic studies
556:
466:These include:
461:
459:Modern dialects
424:
407:Jewish diaspora
367:
339:Targum Jonathan
305:often replaces
252:Seleucid Empire
224:
164:
125:
86:
75:
69:
66:
56:Please help to
55:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3533:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3490:
3489:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3474:
3473:
3463:
3452:
3450:
3448:Sign languages
3444:
3443:
3441:
3440:
3430:
3420:
3410:
3400:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3364:Judaeo-Marathi
3357:
3345:
3330:
3328:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3320:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3277:
3275:
3273:Judaeo-Iranian
3269:
3268:
3266:
3265:
3258:
3251:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3219:
3207:Judaeo-Spanish
3204:
3203:
3202:
3197:
3190:
3187:Judaeo-Mantuan
3183:
3174:Judaeo-Italian
3171:
3168:Judaeo-Catalan
3163:
3161:
3159:Judaeo-Romance
3155:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3131:
3129:
3127:Jewish English
3123:
3122:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3105:
3103:Judeo-Alsatian
3095:
3094:
3093:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3055:
3053:
3033:
3024:
3018:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3010:
3000:
2984:
2973:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2921:
2916:
2910:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2834:
2832:Judaeo-Aramaic
2828:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2758:
2756:
2749:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2726:
2725:
2718:
2711:
2703:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2676:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2629:non-Christian
2627:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2585:
2578:
2571:
2566:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2525:
2520:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2487:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2404:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2387:
2386:
2385:
2375:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2363:
2352:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2328:Shulchan Aruch
2325:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2316:Sefer Yetzirah
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2296:Pardes Rimonim
2293:
2286:Kabbalah texts
2283:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2230:
2224:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2098:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2079:Land of Israel
2076:
2075:
2074:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2004:
2003:
1992:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1965:
1964:
1957:
1955:Judeo-Alsatian
1947:
1946:
1945:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1807:Judeo-Hamedani
1804:
1799:
1794:
1784:
1782:Judaeo-Occitan
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1723:Jewish English
1720:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1654:Judaeo-Aramaic
1651:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1642:Judeo-Tunisian
1639:
1634:
1632:Judeo-Moroccan
1629:
1628:
1627:
1625:Judeo-Baghdadi
1612:
1607:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1529:
1527:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1503:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1481:
1476:
1474:Livornese Jews
1471:
1461:
1456:
1455:
1454:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1337:
1336:
1331:
1321:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1221:Afrikaner-Jode
1212:
1210:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1142:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1084:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1046:
1045:
1038:
1031:
1023:
1016:
1015:
1009:
994:
975:
969:
952:
946:
929:
923:
908:
902:
887:
881:
866:
860:
842:
840:on 2007-11-28.
812:
806:
791:
785:
772:
766:
753:
747:
732:
726:
710:
708:
705:
703:
702:
690:
654:
635:
622:
620:
617:
616:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
578:
575:
564:Jewish studies
555:
552:
551:
550:
537:
524:
515:
502:
485:
460:
457:
423:
420:
366:
363:
335:Targum Onkelos
293:vowel and the
223:
220:
215:
214:
211:
208:
205:
202:
163:
160:
124:
121:
88:
87:
42:
40:
33:
26:
18:Jewish Aramaic
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3532:
3521:
3520:Assyrian Jews
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3487:
3483:
3478:
3471:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3445:
3438:
3434:
3431:
3428:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3380:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3358:
3355:
3351:
3350:
3346:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3314:
3312:
3311:Judeo-Kashani
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3301:Judeo-Shirazi
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3291:Judeo-Persian
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3264:
3263:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3248:Judaeo-French
3245:
3243:
3242:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3191:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3182:
3181:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3156:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3124:
3118:
3117:Scots-Yiddish
3115:
3111:
3110:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3099:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3090:Klezmer-loshn
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3022:Indo-European
3019:
3008:
3004:
3003:Judaeo-Berber
3001:
2998:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2962:
2961:Judaeo-Yemeni
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2951:Judaeo-Syrian
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2906:Judaeo-Arabic
2903:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2719:
2717:
2712:
2710:
2705:
2704:
2701:
2689:
2688:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2613:Protestantism
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2388:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2301:Sefer HaBahir
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2287:
2284:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2228:Sifrei Kodesh
2226:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2084:Who is a Jew?
2082:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2013:Chosen people
2011:
2009:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1979:
1976:
1970:
1969:Scots-Yiddish
1967:
1963:
1962:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1942:Klezmer-loshn
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1812:Judeo-Shirazi
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1787:Judeo-Persian
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1777:Judeo-Marathi
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1755:Judeo-Italian
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1610:Judeo-Amazigh
1608:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1433:Hadhrami Jews
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1398:Mountain Jews
1396:
1394:
1393:Egyptian Jews
1391:
1389:
1388:Bukharan Jews
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1176:Lists of Jews
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1021:
1012:
1010:9781725206175
1006:
1002:
1001:
995:
991:
987:
983:
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970:9783110251586
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947:9783110251586
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924:9789652262615
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882:9789652261014
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861:9783447045575
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828:
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816:Parpola, Simo
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613:Assyrian Jews
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373:of 70 CE and
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32:
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19:
3481:
3433:Judaeo-Malay
3347:
3315:
3260:
3253:
3246:
3241:Judeo-Gascon
3239:
3232:
3225:
3200:Judaeo-Roman
3192:
3185:
3178:
3166:
3107:
3088:
3047:
2990:
2981:Ethiosemitic
2924:Judaeo-Iraqi
2886:Lishán Didán
2881:Lishana Deni
2861:
2854:
2831:
2678:
2671:
2657:
2580:
2573:
2561:
2544:
2527:
2361:perspectives
2195:Samaritanism
2156:Neo-Hasidism
2136:Conservative
2050:Names of God
1959:
1940:
1750:Judaeo-Greek
1745:Judeo-Gascon
1684:Lishán Didán
1679:Lishana Deni
1653:
1647:Judeo-Yemeni
1615:Judeo-Arabic
1489:Meshuchrarim
1408:Persian Jews
1341:Kurdish Jews
1319:Kaifeng Jews
1268:Beta Abraham
1231:Galitzianers
1186:Antisemitism
1161:Israeli Jews
1146:Assimilation
999:
980:
960:
937:
913:
892:
871:
850:
835:the original
830:
826:
796:
776:
757:
737:
716:
693:
667:
663:
657:
648:
638:
626:
572:
557:
477:of Northern
465:
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446:
425:
422:20th century
404:
368:
313:
311:
306:
302:
290:
266:
256:
241:
216:
192:
165:
155:
134:
111:-influenced
104:
103:
76:
67:
48:
3460:German Sign
3227:Judeo-Latin
3109:Lachoudisch
2738:Afroasiatic
2603:Catholicism
2185:Hellenistic
2023:Eschatology
1961:Lachoudisch
1886:Lotegorisch
1864:Lachoudisch
1854:Koiné Greek
1767:Judeo-Latin
1704:Palestinian
1598:Palestinian
1447:MustaĘżravim
1373:Afghan Jews
1361:Berber Jews
1285:Bene Israel
1273:Falash Mura
1263:Beta Israel
1181:Persecution
1123:Middle Ages
846:Sabar, Yona
267:holy tongue
172:Mesopotamia
145:Middle East
62:introducing
3499:Categories
3417:Kartvelian
3368:Indo-Aryan
3360:Judeo-Urdu
2598:Anabaptism
2540:Jew (word)
2407:Leadership
2220:Literature
2205:Secularism
2151:Humanistic
2018:Conversion
1988:Philosophy
1829:Judeo-Urdu
1593:Babylonian
1438:Saada Jews
1423:Adeni Jews
1216:Ashkenazim
1171:Samaritans
1138:Population
1093:Israelites
631:Beyer 1986
619:References
544:Bar Tanura
429:Lake Urmia
416:Chad Gadya
312:Different
263:Hasmonaean
45:references
3484:indicate
3407:Dravidian
3286:Judeo-Tat
3135:Yeshivish
3084:Udmurtish
3079:Ukrainish
3064:Galitzish
2793:Ashkenazi
2660:indicate
2608:Mormonism
2593:Christian
2473:Symbolism
2461:Synagogue
2441:Mythology
2402:Education
2373:Astronomy
2356:Astrology
2173:relations
1978:Zarphatic
1926:Galitzish
1728:Yeshivish
1605:Catalanic
1568:Samaritan
1543:Ashkenazi
1524:Diasporic
1519:Languages
1464:Sephardim
1459:Romaniote
1346:Krymchaks
1280:Desi Jews
1156:Buddhists
990:894312905
645:"Aramaic"
396:Masoretes
390:. Middle
299:causative
123:Early use
3389:Krymchak
3342:Hellenic
3140:Yinglish
3044:dialects
3031:Germanic
2997:Cushitic
2896:Betanure
2863:Galilean
2850:Talmudic
2840:Biblical
2818:Tiberian
2813:Yemenite
2798:Sephardi
2772:Medieval
2767:Mishnaic
2762:Biblical
2673:Category
2643:Hinduism
2633:Buddhism
2535:Genetics
2451:Politics
2424:Marriage
2383:Holidays
2378:Calendar
2259:Rabbinic
2235:/Hebrew
2180:Haymanot
2107:Orthodox
2094:Branches
2067:Kabbalah
2062:Haskalah
2040:Holiness
1916:dialects
1896:Shassagh
1859:Krymchak
1839:Kayliñña
1733:Yinglish
1709:Galilean
1699:Talmudic
1694:Biblical
1669:Betanure
1588:Biblical
1583:Mishnaic
1578:Medieval
1563:Tiberian
1558:Yemenite
1548:Sephardi
1484:Paradesi
1428:Ḥabbanim
1418:Teimanim
1383:Baghdadi
1356:Maghrebi
1324:Karaites
1302:GruzĂnim
1290:Kochinim
1208:Diaspora
1166:Karaites
1151:Atheists
1088:Timeline
848:(2002).
818:(2004).
577:See also
498:area in
496:Lake Van
437:Sanandaj
365:Diaspora
357:and the
331:Targumim
318:hebraism
232:Mtskheta
3482:Italics
3437:Malayic
3349:Knaanic
3338:Yevanic
3281:Bukhori
3217:Tetuani
3212:Haketia
3145:Heblish
3098:Western
3074:Poylish
3069:Litvish
3059:Eastern
3040:Yiddish
2876:Hulaulá
2871:Barzani
2808:Italian
2803:Mizrahi
2658:Italics
2483:Studies
2429:Divorce
2395:Kashrut
2390:Cuisine
2348:Culture
2279:Midrash
2274:Tosefta
2264:Mishnah
2252:Ketuvim
2247:Nevi'im
2210:Schisms
2200:Science
2190:Karaite
2161:Renewal
2122:Litvaks
2117:Hasidic
2072:Sefirot
2057:Halakha
2028:Messiah
2001:Mitzvah
1996:Beliefs
1950:Western
1936:Poylish
1931:Litvish
1921:Eastern
1911:Yiddish
1906:Shuadit
1891:Qwareña
1879:Tetuani
1874:Haketia
1849:Knaanic
1844:Kivruli
1792:Bukhori
1738:Heblish
1674:Hulaulá
1664:Barzani
1620:Yahudic
1553:Mizrahi
1413:Urfalim
1368:Mizrahi
1312:Neofiti
1307:Italkim
1236:Lita'im
1128:Zionism
1080:History
1054:Judaism
707:Sources
688:p. 457.
684:2718444
405:As the
380:Galilee
359:Tosefta
355:Mishnah
343:Kaddish
327:eastern
323:western
297:of the
236:Georgia
184:Babylon
156:yehudit
149:2 Kings
143:of the
113:Aramaic
100:in 1948
58:improve
3397:Turkic
3393:Karaim
3382:Others
3354:Slavic
3327:Others
3049:argots
3007:Berber
2970:Others
2845:Targum
2777:Modern
2747:Hebrew
2466:Hazzan
2456:Prayer
2333:Siddur
2269:Talmud
2233:Tanakh
2168:Neolog
2141:Reform
2129:Modern
2112:Haredi
2035:Ethics
1901:Shassi
1869:Ladino
1834:Karaim
1817:Juhuri
1659:Targum
1573:Signed
1538:Modern
1533:Hebrew
1501:Xuetes
1297:Dönmeh
1256:Yekkes
1007:
988:
967:
944:
921:
900:
879:
858:
804:
783:
764:
745:
724:
682:
500:Turkey
483:Turkey
449:Israel
400:Tanakh
314:strata
295:prefix
275:Daniel
258:Judaea
109:Hebrew
47:, but
2992:Qwara
2987:Kayla
2977:Geʽez
2638:Islam
2446:Names
2436:Music
2417:Rebbe
2412:Rabbi
2366:Monen
2321:Zohar
2242:Torah
2237:Bible
1351:Lemba
1226:Chuts
838:(PDF)
823:(PDF)
680:JSTOR
531:Aqrah
513:Arbil
441:Zakho
433:Mosul
412:Zohar
287:Aleph
248:Greek
152:18:26
2755:Eras
1052:and
1050:Jews
1005:ISBN
986:OCLC
965:ISBN
942:ISBN
919:ISBN
898:ISBN
877:ISBN
856:ISBN
802:ISBN
781:ISBN
762:ISBN
743:ISBN
722:ISBN
566:and
548:Iraq
535:Iraq
509:Iraq
494:and
479:Iraq
369:The
337:and
325:and
279:Ezra
277:and
115:and
2045:God
672:doi
546:in
533:in
307:-Ä«n
303:-Ä«m
182:of
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