410:, which later came to be seen as more of a "Chechen custom" than a "Muslim or Qadiri custom", is the circular dance accompanied with chanting or singing, and was largely specific to the Qadiri sect (although later it became more ethnic as non-Qadiris joined in). Finally, the Qadiri sect focused much more on individual salvation rather than the need to improve society (as the Nakshbandi did). For this reason, the Russian government initially viewed this mass transition with the hope that its allegedly less societal mindset would mean an end to Chechen resistance to their rule. However, in protest of unfavorable conditions, the Chechens rose up again in 1877–8, and the Qadiris played a major role in organizing the movement.
419:
this promise. The
Russian government seized large swathes (hundreds of thousands of hectares) of the best farming land and the best wooded land, and gave them to Cossacks. Considerable land was also awarded to Russian soldiers who would later assimilate with the surrounding Cossacks, identifying themselves as Cossacks. These confiscations impoverished generations of Chechens and made large numbers of them land-hungry, sparking escalation of conflicts between Chechens and Cossacks. Chechen and Ingush clans in the area previously were forced to go without their traditional lands, and they maintained claims on the land throughout the whole period, jumping to reclaim the land as Russia receded in 1917.
42:
466:) for the oil-mining Russian colonists. The immigration of colonists from Russia brought about a three-way distinction between Chechens and Ingush on one hand, Cossacks on a second, and "other-towners" (inogorodtsy), namely Russians and Ukrainians, who came to work as laborers. A debatable fourth group, including Armenian bankers and richer Russians, and even some rich Chechens (such as
371:, at that time a (debatably) separate people, were completely wiped out as a distinct group: according to official documents, 1,366 Arshtin families disappeared (i.e. either fled or were killed), and only 75 families remained. These 75 families, realizing the impossibility of existing as a nation of only hundreds of people, joined (or rejoined) the Chechen nation as the Erstkhoi
445:
In addition to the initial land seizures, long term
Russian policies favored the acquisition of more and more land by Russians at the expense of Chechens. In 1912, in their own homeland (and not including the lands north of the Terek that are often considered part of Chechnya and are currently within
436:
During the
Tsarist period, Cossacks and Russians were tried for all crimes in civilian courts, usually being taken into custody by civil authorities. By contrast, Chechens and Ingush (as well as some other ethnic groups in the region) were dealt with exclusively by the military and tried in military
362:
forced the exile of millions of
Caucasians (including at least 100,000 Chechens) in 1860–1866. Although Circassians were the main (and most notorious) victims (hence the "Circassian Genocide"), the expulsions also gravely affected other peoples in the region. It was estimated that 80% of the Ingush
418:
In 1864, trying to dissuade further resistance, Tsar
Alexander II issued a decree regarding the Caucasians' "religion, adat , lands and woods" stating that they would be preserved and protected "in perpetuity for the peoples of the North Caucasus". However, it did not take Alexander long to break
478:
During the late 1860s and 1870s, a modest
Chechen national awakening in literary circles occurred. The conflict with Russia and its final incorporation into the empire, however, brought about the formation of a modern, European, nationalist identity of some Chechen writers, though it ironically
363:
left
Ingushetia for the Middle East in 1865. Lowland Chechens as well were evicted in large numbers, and while many came back, the former Chechen lowlands lacked their historical Chechen populations for a long period until Chechens were settled in the region during their return from their
427:
Ethnic discrimination occurred in many forms against
Chechens during the Tsarist era of Chechen history, largely due to the colonialist viewpoint of the Russian government, viewing Chechens as inferior, savage and subversive, one of many peoples who Russia had a "moral duty to civilize".
486:, and Ismail Mutushev. Later Tsarist-era Chechen nationalists include the five Sheripov brothers, among others. Among these, Sarakayev, Mutushev, Akhmetkhan and Danilbek Sheripov were notably democratic-minded writers, while Danilbek's younger brother, Aslanbek, would adopt communism.
479:
solidified their separation, mainly over politics, from the Ingush. The nation was held to be all-important, trumping religion, political belief, or any other such distinction. In 1872, Umalat
Laudaev, an early Chechen nationalist, recorded the contemporary customs of the Chechens.
403:
gained large numbers of followers among the
Chechens (largely at the expense of the Nakshbandi sect). Eventually, an overwhelming majority of Chechens were Qadiri, separating them from their eastern neighbors in Dagestan who continued to follow the Nakshbandi sect. The
446:
its jurisdiction), Chechens and Ingush owned well less than half as much land as Terek Cossacks did, per capita. Chechens had 5.8 desyatinas on average, Ingush had 3.0, and Terek Cossacks had 13.6.
378:
As Dunlop points out, the 100,000 Chechens who were exiled in 1860–1864 may have comprised over half the nation at that time, as in the 1896 Russian census, there were only 226,171 Chechens listed.
386:
Some Chechens tried to return, but the Tsarist government refused to let them, even when they promised to convert to the Orthodox faith if they did. Nonetheless, some managed to return regardless.
470:), arose later. Some Chechens got rich off oil, and the industry brought wealth to Chechnya, and (along with other factors) caused a growth of a Chechen bourgeoisie and intelligentsia.
793:
243:
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322:, the emergence of social movements, reorientation of the Chechen economy towards oil, heavy ethnic discrimination at the expense of
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courts, where they were typically given drastically harsher sentences, often death for crimes such as stealing food.
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213:
318:. Tsarist rule was marked by a transition into modern times, including the formation (or re-formation) of a Chechen
557:
41:
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462:(early 1890s), brought economic prosperity to the region (then administered as part of the
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deposits were discovered around Grozny (1893) which along with the arrival of the
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331:
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575:"Chechnya: Chaos of Human Geography in the North Caucasus, 484 BC – 1957 AD"
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Other notable early Chechen nationalists included Akhmetkhan,
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334:, and a religious transition among the Chechens towards the
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650:
Russia confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict
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449:
413:
345:
676:Revolution and Sovietization in the North Caucasus
794:History of the Caucasus under the Russian Empire
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638:
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545:"Caucasus and central Asia newsletter. Issue 4"
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310:was first incorporated as a whole into the
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281:
422:
489:
776:
454:By the end of the 19th century, major
450:Socioeconomic and Demographic changes
399:In the mid-1800s, the Qadiri sect of
381:
13:
704:Note:1 desyatina is 1.09 hectares.
553:University of California, Berkeley
414:Land confiscation from the natives
14:
805:
715:The Formation of the Soviet Union
440:
346:Deportation of Chechens to Turkey
682:, 1 (1955), 49. Cited in Dunlop.
389:
365:1944–1957 deportation to Siberia
40:
758:
745:
733:
720:
707:
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583:. November 2007. Archived from
350:In 1860, Russia commenced with
314:in 1859 after the decades-long
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511:
1:
254:Chechen Republic of Ichkeria
7:
431:
214:Checheno-Ingush Aut. Oblast
10:
810:
395:Conversion to Qadiri Islam
506:Russia confronts Chechnya
204:Chechen Autonomous Oblast
615:The Chechens: A Handbook
521:. Page 363, see also 371
474:Emergence of nationalism
326:and others in favor of
184:North Caucasian Emirate
556:. 2003. Archived from
194:Chechen National Okrug
519:Emigration of Muslims
423:Ethnic Discrimination
753:Chechens: A Handbook
600:Anchabadze, George.
490:Notes and references
244:Checheno-Ingush ASSR
224:Checheno-Ingush ASSR
784:History of Chechnya
59:Kura–Araxes culture
751:Jaimoukha, Amjad.
741:Lone Wolf and Bear
728:Lone Wolf and Bear
691:Jaimoukha, Amjad.
663:Lone Wolf and Bear
613:Jaimoukha, Amjad.
532:Lone Wolf and Bear
484:Ibraghim Sarakayev
382:Attempts to return
356:ethnically cleanse
358:the region. Tsar
352:forced emigration
305:
304:
272:
271:
174:Mountain Republic
151:Caucasian Imamate
74:Kharachoi culture
801:
769:
766:Kul'turi Chechni
762:
756:
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731:
730:. Pages 119–140.
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713:Pipes, Richard.
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705:
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696:
689:
683:
680:Caucasian Review
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666:
659:
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648:Dunlop, John B.
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628:Punished Peoples
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264:Chechen Republic
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69:Kayakent culture
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726:Gammer, Moshe.
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587:on 2010-12-20.
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563:on 2008-02-27.
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312:Russian Empire
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64:Maykop culture
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789:Russification
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508:. Pages 29–31
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717:. Pages 94–6
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652:.Pages 31–36
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602:The Vainakhs
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585:the original
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360:Alexander II
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268:2000–present
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138:Early modern
630:. Page 107.
617:. Page 259.
580:www.semp.us
320:bourgeoisie
31:History of
778:Categories
764:Turkayev.
695:. Page 152
468:Tchermoeff
338:tariqa of
102:Cimmerians
50:Prehistory
755:. Page 13
665:. Page 75
626:Nekrich.
604:. Page 29
258:1991–2000
248:1957–1991
238:1944–1957
228:1936–1944
218:1934–1936
208:1922–1934
198:1920–1922
188:1919–1920
178:1917–1921
739:Gammer.
517:Fisher.
460:railroad
432:Judicial
369:Arshtins
328:Russians
324:Chechens
308:Chechnya
146:Ichkeria
116:Medieval
97:Durdzuks
33:Chechnya
22:a series
20:Part of
674:Kozok.
373:tukkhum
88:Ancient
401:Sufism
367:. The
340:Sufism
336:Qadiri
164:Modern
130:Simsim
125:Alania
24:on the
561:(PDF)
548:(PDF)
107:Alans
534:. 80
407:zikr
330:and
456:oil
354:to
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635:^
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