270:, the first gold coin issued by any Italian city-state. At the same time, the newfound wealth was unevenly distributed, accruing mostly to the hands of a few noble merchant families, and both popular discontent and the Guelph–Ghibelline divide continued to simmer beneath the surface. This came to the fore in 1256, when a succession of crises assailed the Republic. France stopped putting orders for new ships and refused to pay her previous orders; coupled with the end of the conflict with the Emperor, this left the Genoese economy, which had been long geared towards equipping warships, dry. The brewing trouble in the economy manifested itself when the Negrobono and Calvo banks and several wool workers went bankrupt in 1256. Domestically, the government had to enforce a Papal ordnance against heretics, while abroad, Genoa's position in Sicily and the
424:
their inheritance from the now-abolished viscounts of the region. The banking crisis continued into 1259, with mixed success. Boccanegra managed to avert the bankruptcy of the
Aschieri bank, and the influence of his brother, Lanfranco, resulted in the rescue of the bank of Oberto di Nizza, but despite promising to pay its creditors 90% of their debts, he was unable to prevent the bankruptcy of one of the most important banks, that of Guglielmo Leccacorvo. At the same time, Boccanegra encouraged the organization of the city's artisans into guilds, and from 1259 on included the heads of the guilds are represented, along with the Commune councillors and the
31:
412:
taxes, so with a decree issued on 16 June 1259, he converted all public debt into a consolidated and redeemable loan, at a modest and fixed interest of eight percent. This measure, which was sworn to by both the popular assembly and prominent
Ghibelline nobles, not only hurt many magnates, but also gave Boccanegra the funds necessary for an expansionary fiscal policy. The chief pillar of this policy was a public works programme, including the building of a new town hall—the
183:
260:('Captains of the People and of the Commune'), but with restricted powers. When Frederick II died in 1250, the Guelph nobles prudently allowed the exiled Ghibelline opponents to return to the city, and even gave them some compensation, in an effort to strengthen the nobility's position against the common people.
375:
excluded from governance. The
Ghibelline nobles, who had wanted to see a change of faction rather than the installation of a new regime, began to oppose Boccanegra. Opposed by the aristocracy, Boccanegra's regime would gradually become more authoritarian and increasingly rely on support from the common people.
411:
With his position consolidated, Boccanegra turned to the mounting financial crisis he had inherited. The
Commune's taxable revenue had been already purchased in advance by officials of the previous regime at low prices, in contravention of the existing laws. Boccanegra was loath to raise new indirect
378:
With popular backing, and the support of some of the
Ghibelline families, Boccanegra was able to weather the first crisis of his regime, Boccanegra reserved the nomination of all officials for himself. The Guelph nobles soon conspired against him, but Boccanegra, apprised of their plans, allowed them
263:
This policy was helped by the economic boom experienced during the 1250s: despite constant military commitments overseas, trade expanded, leading to an influx of bankers and money-changers, as well as artisans, from other parts of Italy and France. This prosperity was epitomized by the coining of the
503:
by the
Nicaeans barely a fortnight after the treaty was signed, without the need for Genoese naval assistance. Nevertheless, Michael VIII scrupulously observed the terms of the Treaty of Nymphaeum, as Genoese naval strength was still necessary to confront a potential Venetian counterstrike while a
423:
marquesses and other lords of the
Ligurian countryside, that pre-dated the establishment of the Genoese Commune; he purchased at a favorable rate the rights of the Archbishopric of Genoa on maritime trade; and tried, without success, to eliminate the taxes levied by a few noble families as part of
472:
The main problem that
Boccanegra had inherited, however, was the conflict with Venice over access to the markets of the Levant: the War of Saint Sabas. Following two naval defeats, in 1258 the Genoese lost Acre, their main trade entrepot to the region, to the Venetians allied with the Pisans. The
374:
resigned, and was replaced by another, more amenable to
Boccanegra. According to Epstein, the people who actually brought Boccanegra to power were the disenfranchised middle classes—the "middling traders and master artisans"—that had gained in prosperity during the previous years, but were still
290:
It was this atmosphere of crisis that
Boccanegra came to the fore, but why exactly remains a puzzle; as the historian Steven Epstein comments, his recorded career until this point was unexceptional. The historian Robert Lopez suggested that as councilman, he had attacked the abuses and suggested
499:. In exchange, however, the Genoese secured very advantageous commercial terms; following a successful recovery of Constantinople, the Genoese stood to effectively inherit and even expand upon the privileged position that the Venetians held in the Latin Empire. In the event, Constantinople was
348:
extended his tenure to ten years, rather than the usual single year, and it was stipulated that if he died before that, one of his brothers would succeed him. A yearly salary of a thousand pounds, the palace of the Richerio family, a personal staff of a knight, two notaries and a judge, and a
481:, offered to accommodate the Genoese there instead, but the defeats eroded Boccanegra's prestige, and showed the problems arising from the new regime: the defeated admirals were not chosen for ability, but for political reliability, and the war exacerbated the Republic's financial situation.
547:
Nevertheless, the memory of Boccanegra's rule was controversial: the annalists, who represent the interests of the city's elites, treat him with hostility, but the common people soon grew nostalgic for a "popular" government. This sentiment would aid Guglielmo's great-grandson,
387:, who had arrived under the pretext of a diplomatic mission, but in reality to stir up opposition against him, was forced to leave the city after the people rioted. By 1260, Boccanegra was at the height of his power and prestige, and governed the city as a
167:" (burghers). Its first known member may have been a certain "Buccanigra" who is attested in 1201, and within a generation, several members are attested as merchants in the Western Mediterranean. In 1235, a Rinaldo Boccanegra was member of the
291:
reforms, but Epstein remarks that he may have "possessed the political knack of being all things to all people": his wealth made him suitable to the elite, while his non-noble origin made him popular with the common people.
256:—and expelled its Ghibellines from the city. During the conflict, in order to broaden the basis of the regime and gain popular backing, the Guelph nobles that dominated the Republic had established the magistracy of the two
379:
to be warned that he would severely punish them. As a result, the nobles fled the city, and were promptly banned from returning. In the aftermath of this affair, Boccanegra settled in the palace of one of their leaders,
452:
to Genoese commerce. This was a departure from the policy followed by the Guelph-dominated government until then, which sought to impose terms on Manfred via the Papacy. On the other hand, the ongoing war with
495:
on 13 March 1261. The treaty obliged Genoa to furnish a fleet of 50 vessels, with their expenses paid by the Emperor, for service against Venice and in support of Palaiologos' aim of recovering
416:—and the expansion of the harbour facilities. Apart from the functional and symbolical value of these constructions, these new buildings also employed many citizens, helping to end the crisis.
315:, for embezzlement. Although his guilt was plain, he was only condemned to imprisonment and a fine, leading to riots by the common people. Incited by the Ghibelline faction with the cry of
512:
However, Boccanegra failed to silence the domestic opposition of the old noble families, who deposed him in a bloody coup in May 1262. In exile, Boccanegra entered the service of the
301:
306:
504:
native Byzantine fleet was slowly being re-established. With the Emperor's subsidies, the Genoese were able to increase their fleet strength considerably.
380:
544:. This lasted until 1311, and is generally considered by historians as "the most brilliant phase of the city's prosperity and influence".
362:
According to Lopez, the long term of office, and the provision for a quasi-dynastic succession, effectively made Boccanegra's rule into a
933:
928:
171:
council, followed by Marino Boccanegra 13 years later. Like other Genoese families, the Boccanegra were active participants in the
340:. Boccanegra was given supreme power in order to reform the statutes of the commune, and was to be assisted by a council of 32
194:
in 1229, but no evidence to substantiate this exists. He is first securely attested in 1249, as one of the Genoese consuls at
837:
913:
889:
875:
319:('power to the people'), in January 1257 the common people took up arms, assembled at the square in front of the church of
349:
personal guard (12 guards and fifty armed servants) were placed at his disposal, all to be paid from the public treasury.
206:, Louis IX's younger brother. On his return from the Crusade, he became a commune councilman, in 1251 and again in 1256.
923:
938:
870:
478:
329:. Boccanegra, initially reluctant, was led into the church of San Siro, where the people swore allegiance to him.
344:('elders'), four for each of the city's eight wards. A few days later, his position was further enhanced: the
191:
500:
370:
was reduced to handling the minutiae of day-to-day government. Seeing his powers curtailed, the incumbent
492:
146:, from 1257 to 1262, exercising a real lordship, assisted in the government by a council of 32 elders.
231:
488:
310:
528:
Boccanegra's rule inaugurated a period in Genoese history named after the recurrent rule of
179:, profiting from the provisioning of supplies and the equipping of ships for the Crusaders.
163:
family is unclear. They were originally not members of the Genoese aristocracy, but rather "
30:
908:
203:
8:
918:
853:
Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258–1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations
428:, among those ratifying treaties on behalf of the Republic. In addition, his treaty with
413:
325:
138:
44:
279:
275:
228:
176:
804:
419:
At the same time, he successfully strove to eliminate many feudal taxes levied by the
885:
857:
833:
814:
549:
485:
449:
445:
429:
399:
143:
107:
49:
847:
420:
320:
168:
851:
827:
333:
172:
537:
513:
496:
861:
245:. Genoa had sided with the Papacy—especially with the election of the Genoese
902:
818:
517:
474:
444:
One of the first steps Boccanegra took was a treaty with Frederick II's son,
384:
195:
484:
The major accomplishment of his administration was the conclusion with the
199:
84:
774:
Simone Boccanegra. Primo Doge di Genova immortale eroe verdiano A.D. 1339
246:
242:
198:(the main embarkation port for the Crusade), while in 1249–50 he was at
466:
160:
296:
219:
At the time, Genoa was emerging from the bitter struggles between the
881:
462:
458:
363:
266:
182:
533:
473:
loss was made somewhat redressed when the pro-Ghibelline Lord of
224:
813:] (in French). Vol. 1. Rome: École Française de Rome.
271:
133:
103:
717:
454:
220:
186:
Louis IX embarking for the Seventh Crusade at Aigues-Mortes
202:, where he undertook to pay salaries to the followers of
707:
705:
703:
678:
676:
674:
672:
670:
668:
666:
294:
Matters came to a head during the trial of the outgoing
856:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
780:
753:
729:
383:. His position was further strengthened when Cardinal
700:
688:
663:
552:, to become the first doge of the Republic in 1339.
653:
651:
649:
647:
645:
643:
641:
639:
637:
635:
633:
631:
629:
627:
625:
623:
621:
619:
617:
615:
613:
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
601:
599:
597:
595:
593:
591:
589:
587:
585:
741:
583:
581:
579:
577:
575:
573:
571:
569:
567:
565:
392:
520:as its governor. He died there sometime in 1273.
900:
562:
332:The next day, the new regime took shape, at the
190:Guglielmo is said to have participated in the
806:La Romanie génoise (XIIe-Début du XVe siècle)
461:took a turn for the worse, with the loss of
274:suffered setbacks, with the outbreak of the
846:
723:
811:Genoese Romania (12th-early 15th century)
357:
154:
540:families, in between periods of rule by
366:rather than an ordinary magistracy. The
181:
825:
786:
711:
694:
682:
901:
832:. University of North Carolina Press.
802:
759:
747:
735:
868:
657:
397:", according to the pro-aristocratic
876:Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani
433:
406:
323:, and proclaimed Boccanegra as sole
882:Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana
771:
516:, undertaking the fortification of
13:
507:
439:
352:
14:
950:
934:Christians of the Seventh Crusade
929:People of the War of Saint Sabas
258:capitani del popolo e del Comune
209:
29:
878:, Volume 11: Boccadibue–Bonetti
869:Lopez, Robert Sabatino (1969).
829:Genoa and the Genoese, 958-1528
251:
236:
765:
285:
1:
555:
532:, mostly from the Ghibelline
448:, which once more opened the
336:, in the presence of the new
214:
192:Aragonese conquest of Majorca
149:
7:
914:13th-century Genoese people
826:Epstein, Steven A. (1996).
393:
10:
955:
796:
436:) helped revive commerce.
523:
232:Frederick II Hohenstaufen
123:
113:
99:
94:
90:
78:
66:
55:
41:
37:
28:
21:
924:13th-century politicians
489:Michael VIII Palaiologos
334:Cathedral of San Lorenzo
159:The exact origin of the
939:Heads of state of Genoa
871:"BOCCANEGRA, Guglielmo"
803:Balard, Michel (1978).
848:Geanakoplos, Deno John
358:Consolidation of power
187:
155:Origin and early years
185:
136:statesman, the first
880:(in Italian). Rome:
241:), supported by the
204:Alphonse of Poitiers
130:Guglielmo Boccanegra
119:(in exile in France)
73:Position established
23:Guglielmo Boccanegra
776:(in Italian). ERGA.
530:capitani del popolo
493:Treaty of Nymphaeum
414:Palazzo San Giorgio
326:capitano del popolo
302:Filippo della Torre
223:, supported by the
139:capitano del popolo
45:capitano del popolo
772:Bertone, Giorgio.
479:Philip of Montfort
280:Republic of Venice
276:War of Saint Sabas
229:Holy Roman Emperor
188:
177:Louis IX of France
839:978-0-8078-4992-7
762:, pp. 46–47.
738:, pp. 42–45.
726:, pp. 81–91.
550:Simone Boccanegra
486:Byzantine Emperor
450:Kingdom of Sicily
446:Manfred of Sicily
430:Manfred of Sicily
407:Financial reforms
400:Annales ianuenses
385:Ottobuono Fieschi
227:faction, and the
144:Republic of Genoa
127:
126:
108:Republic of Genoa
50:Republic of Genoa
16:Genoese statesman
946:
895:
891:978-8-81200032-6
865:
843:
822:
790:
784:
778:
777:
769:
763:
757:
751:
745:
739:
733:
727:
724:Geanakoplos 1959
721:
715:
709:
698:
692:
686:
680:
661:
655:
396:
314:
255:
254: 1243–1254
253:
240:
239: 1220–1250
238:
95:Personal details
81:
69:
60:
33:
19:
18:
954:
953:
949:
948:
947:
945:
944:
943:
899:
898:
892:
840:
799:
794:
793:
785:
781:
770:
766:
758:
754:
746:
742:
734:
730:
722:
718:
710:
701:
693:
689:
681:
664:
656:
563:
558:
526:
510:
508:Exile and death
442:
440:Foreign affairs
409:
360:
355:
353:Rule over Genoa
304:
288:
250:
235:
217:
212:
173:Seventh Crusade
157:
152:
118:
79:
67:
61:
56:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
952:
942:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
911:
897:
896:
890:
866:
844:
838:
823:
798:
795:
792:
791:
789:, p. 140.
779:
764:
752:
740:
728:
716:
714:, p. 138.
699:
697:, p. 136.
687:
685:, p. 137.
662:
560:
559:
557:
554:
525:
522:
514:King of France
509:
506:
497:Constantinople
441:
438:
408:
405:
394:velut tyrannus
381:Obizzo Fieschi
359:
356:
354:
351:
287:
284:
216:
213:
211:
208:
156:
153:
151:
148:
125:
124:
121:
120:
115:
111:
110:
101:
97:
96:
92:
91:
88:
87:
82:
76:
75:
70:
64:
63:
53:
52:
39:
38:
35:
34:
26:
25:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
951:
940:
937:
935:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
906:
904:
893:
887:
883:
879:
877:
872:
867:
863:
859:
855:
854:
849:
845:
841:
835:
831:
830:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
807:
801:
800:
788:
783:
775:
768:
761:
756:
750:, p. 46.
749:
744:
737:
732:
725:
720:
713:
708:
706:
704:
696:
691:
684:
679:
677:
675:
673:
671:
669:
667:
659:
654:
652:
650:
648:
646:
644:
642:
640:
638:
636:
634:
632:
630:
628:
626:
624:
622:
620:
618:
616:
614:
612:
610:
608:
606:
604:
602:
600:
598:
596:
594:
592:
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
578:
576:
574:
572:
570:
568:
566:
561:
553:
551:
545:
543:
539:
535:
531:
521:
519:
518:Aigues-Mortes
515:
505:
502:
498:
494:
490:
487:
482:
480:
476:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
451:
447:
437:
435:
431:
427:
422:
417:
415:
404:
402:
401:
395:
390:
386:
382:
376:
373:
369:
365:
350:
347:
343:
339:
335:
330:
328:
327:
322:
318:
312:
308:
303:
299:
298:
292:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
268:
261:
259:
248:
244:
233:
230:
226:
222:
210:Rise to power
207:
205:
201:
197:
196:Aigues-Mortes
193:
184:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
147:
145:
141:
140:
135:
131:
122:
116:
112:
109:
105:
102:
98:
93:
89:
86:
83:
77:
74:
71:
65:
59:
54:
51:
47:
46:
40:
36:
32:
27:
20:
874:
852:
828:
810:
805:
787:Epstein 1996
782:
773:
767:
755:
743:
731:
719:
712:Epstein 1996
695:Epstein 1996
690:
683:Epstein 1996
546:
541:
529:
527:
511:
483:
471:
443:
425:
418:
410:
398:
388:
377:
371:
367:
361:
345:
341:
337:
331:
324:
317:fiat populus
316:
295:
293:
289:
278:against the
265:
262:
257:
218:
189:
164:
158:
137:
129:
128:
85:Oberto Doria
80:Succeeded by
72:
57:
43:
909:1273 deaths
760:Balard 1978
748:Balard 1978
736:Balard 1978
391:autocrat ("
305: [
286:Coup d'Ă©tat
247:Innocent IV
243:Ghibellines
68:Preceded by
919:Boccanegra
903:Categories
862:1011763434
658:Lopez 1969
556:References
467:Santa Igia
215:Background
161:Boccanegra
819:300152785
501:recovered
421:Malaspina
150:Biography
62:1257–1262
58:In office
850:(1959).
542:podestĂ s
463:Cagliari
459:Sardinia
389:de facto
364:lordship
321:San Siro
267:Genovino
165:popolare
797:Sources
534:Spinola
491:of the
426:anziani
372:podestĂ
368:podestĂ
346:anziani
342:anziani
338:podestĂ
297:podestĂ
169:commune
142:of the
134:Genoese
48:of the
888:
860:
836:
817:
524:Legacy
272:Levant
225:Guelph
132:was a
809:[
538:Doria
457:over
434:below
432:(see
313:]
104:Genoa
886:ISBN
858:OCLC
834:ISBN
815:OCLC
536:and
475:Tyre
465:and
455:Pisa
221:Pope
200:Acre
117:1273
114:Died
100:Born
42:1st
403:).
175:of
905::
884:.
873:.
702:^
665:^
564:^
477:,
469:.
311:it
309:;
307:bg
300:,
282:.
252:r.
249:,
237:r.
106:,
894:.
864:.
842:.
821:.
660:.
234:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.svg)
