4717:, 1996: "Footbinding and infibulation correspond as follows. Both customs are nearly universal where practised; they are persistent and are practised even by those who oppose them. Both control sexual access to females and ensure female chastity and fidelity. Both are necessary for proper marriage and family honor. Both are believed to be sanctioned by tradition. Both are said to be ethnic markers, and distinct ethnic minorities may lack the practices. Both seem to have a past of contagious diffusion. Both are exaggerated over time and both increase with status. Both are supported and transmitted by women, are performed on girls about six to eight years old, and are generally not initiation rites. Both are believed to promote health and fertility. Both are defined as aesthetically pleasing compared with the natural alternative. Both are said to properly exaggerate the complementarity of the sexes, and both are claimed to make intercourse more pleasurable for the male."
63:
1369:
ethnicity and individual practitioners; during a 1998 survey in Niger, women responded with over 50 terms when asked what was done to them. Translation problems are compounded by the women's confusion over which type of FGM they experienced, or even whether they experienced it. Studies have suggested that survey responses are unreliable. A 2003 study in Ghana found that in 1995 four percent said they had not undergone FGM, but in 2000 said they had, while 11 percent switched in the other direction. In
Tanzania in 2005, 66 percent reported FGM, but a medical exam found that 73 percent had undergone it. In Sudan in 2006, a significant percentage of infibulated women and girls reported a less severe type.
4645:, 2005): "Women commonly undergo reinfibulation after a vaginal delivery. In addition to reinfibulation, many women in Sudan undergo a second type of re-suturing called El-Adel, which is performed to recreate the size of the vaginal orifice to be similar to the size created at the time of primary infibulation. Two small cuts are made around the vaginal orifice to expose new tissues to suture, and then sutures are placed to tighten the vaginal orifice and perineum. This procedure, also called re-circumcision, is primarily performed after vaginal delivery, but can also be performed before marriage, after cesarean section, after divorce, and sometimes even in elderly women as a preparation before death."
3062:
1626:
4665:
short-term period. Each of the most common complications occurred in more than one of every ten girls and women who undergo FGM/C. The participants in these studies had FGM/C types I through IV, thus immediate complications such as bleeding and swelling occur in setting with all forms of FGM/C. Even FGM/C type I and type IV 'nick', the forms of FGM/C with least anatomical extent, presented immediate complications. The results document that multiple immediate and quite serious complications can result from FGM/C. These results should be viewed in light of long-term complications, such as obstetric and gynecological problems, and protection of human rights."
2214:
1780:
1140:
4063:
4675:
daughters aged 0 to 14, as reported by their mothers. Prevalence data for girls reflect their current – not final – FGM/C status, since many of them may not have reached the customary age for cutting at the time of the survey. They are reported as being uncut but are still at risk of undergoing the procedure. Statistics for girls under age 15 therefore need to be interpreted with a high degree of caution ..." An additional complication in judging prevalence among girls is that, in countries running campaigns against FGM, women might not report that their daughters have been cut.
2867:
1884:
1953:
957:
1967:
2540:
hand, the surgeon stretches it outward, while with the right hand, he cuts it off at the point next to the pincers of the forceps. It is proper to let a length remain from that cut off, about the size of the membrane that's between the nostrils, so as to take away the excess material only; as I have said, the part to be removed is at that point just above the pincers of the forceps. Because the clitoris is a skinlike structure and stretches out excessively, do not cut off too much, as a urinary fistula may result from cutting such large growths too deeply.
4392:
United
Kingdom, have banned it regardless of consent. Sweden, for example, has banned operations "on the outer female sexual organs with a view to mutilating them or bringing about some other permanent change in them, regardless of whether or not consent has been given for the operation". Gynaecologist Birgitta Essén and anthropologist Sara Johnsdotter argue that the law seems to distinguish between Western and African genitals, and deems only African women (such as those seeking reinfibulation after childbirth) unfit to make their own decisions.
2838:), wrote to the Local Native Council of South Nyeri on 25 December 1931: "e of the Ngo ya Tuiritu heard that there are men who talk of female circumcision, and we get astonished because they (men) do not give birth and feel the pain and even some die and even others become infertile, and the main cause is circumcision. Because of that, the issue of circumcision should not be forced. People are caught like sheep; one should be allowed to cut her own way of either agreeing to be circumcised or not without being dictated on one's own body."
4373:
4886:
asterisk indicates a ban:Benin (2003), Burkina Faso (1996*), Central
African Republic (1966, amended 1996), Chad (2003), Côte d'Ivoire (1998), Djibouti (1995, amended 2009*), Egypt (2008*), Eritrea (2007*), Ethiopia (2004*), Ghana (1994, amended 2007), Guinea (1965, amended 2000*), Guinea-Bissau (2011*), Iraq (2011*), Kenya (2001, amended 2011*), Mauritania (2005), Niger (2003), Nigeria (2015*), Senegal (1999*), Somalia (2012*), Sudan, some states (2008–2009), Tanzania (1998), Togo (1998), Uganda (2010*), Yemen (2001*).
4124:
percent within the 0–15 age group and eliminate it from at least one country by 2012, goals that were not met and which they later described as unrealistic. In 2008 several UN bodies recognized FGM as a human-rights violation, and in 2010 the UN called upon healthcare providers to stop carrying out the procedures, including reinfibulation after childbirth and symbolic nicking. In 2012 the
General Assembly passed resolution 67/146, "Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations".
2042:, the prevalence within the 0–14 year old group fell in East Africa from 71.4 percent in 1995 to 8 percent in 2016; in North Africa from 57.7 percent in 1990 to 14.1 percent in 2015; and in West Africa from 73.6 percent in 1996 to 25.4 percent in 2017. If the current rate of decline continues, the number of girls cut will nevertheless continue to rise because of population growth, according to UNICEF in 2014; they estimate that the figure will increase from 3.6 million a year in 2013 to 4.1 million in 2050.
2158:
1308:
17204:
4179:, who had emigrated from Ethiopia, was sentenced to ten years for aggravated battery and cruelty to children after severing his two-year-old daughter's clitoris with a pair of scissors. A federal judge ruled in 2018 that the 1996 Act was unconstitutional, arguing that FGM is a "local criminal activity" that should be regulated by states. Twenty-four states had legislation banning FGM as of 2016, and in 2021 the STOP FGM Act of 2020 was signed into federal law. The
969:
4010:(1979), the first to offer global figures. She estimated that 110,529,000 women in 20 African countries had experienced FGM. The figures were speculative but consistent with later surveys. Describing FGM as a "training ground for male violence", Hosken accused female practitioners of "participating in the destruction of their own kind". The language caused a rift between Western and African feminists; African women boycotted a session featuring Hosken during the
4685:
million today to 4.1 million in 2050."In either scenario, the total number of girls and women cut will continue to increase due to population growth. If nothing is done, the number of girls and women affected will grow from 133 million today to 325 million in 2050. However, if the progress made so far is sustained, the number will grow from 133 million to 196 million in 2050, and almost 130 million girls will be spared this grave assault to their human rights."
18347:
17147:
14928:
4655:
genital parts so that they do not revert back to their original size. The girl is instructed to pull her genitalia every day, to stretch them further, and to put additional sticks in to hold the stretched parts from time to time. This pulling procedure is repeated daily for a period of about two weeks, and usually, no more than four sticks are used to hold the stretched parts, as further pulling and stretching would make the genital parts unacceptably long."
495:
2587:
4247:
2205:
excision and infibulation over clitoridectomy. Attitudes are changing slowly. In Sudan in 2010, 42 percent of women who had heard of FGM said the practice should continue. In several surveys since 2006, over 50 percent of women in Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Somalia, the Gambia, and Egypt supported FGM's continuance, while elsewhere in Africa, Iraq, and Yemen most said it should end, although in several countries only by a narrow margin.
17135:
2064:
the age of five in
Nigeria, Mali, Eritrea, Ghana and Mauritania. The 1997 Demographic and Health Survey in Yemen found that 76 percent of girls had been cut within two weeks of birth. The percentage is reversed in Somalia, Egypt, Chad, and the Central African Republic, where over 80 percent (of those cut) are cut between five and 14. Just as the type of FGM is often linked to ethnicity, so is the mean age. In Kenya, for example, the
13974:
4214:, who fled an FGM procedure in Mali. The practice is outlawed by several provisions of France's penal code that address bodily harm causing permanent mutilation or torture. The first civil suit was in 1982, and the first criminal prosecution in 1993. In 1999 a woman was given an eight-year sentence for having performed FGM on 48 girls. By 2014 over 100 parents and two practitioners had been prosecuted in over 40 criminal cases.
3397:
2672:. "Women are structurally inadequate for intercourse," he wrote; he said he would turn them into "horny little mice". In the 1960s and 1970s he performed these procedures without consent while repairing episiotomies and performing hysterectomies and other surgery; he said he had performed a variation of them on 4,000 women by 1975. Following complaints, he was required in 1989 to stop practicing medicine in the United States.
1578:
potency. Some who are unable to penetrate their wives manage to get them pregnant in spite of the infibulation, and the woman's vaginal passage is then cut open to allow birth to take place. ... Those men who do manage to penetrate their wives do so often, or perhaps always, with the help of the "little knife". This creates a tear which they gradually rip more and more until the opening is sufficient to admit the penis.
17157:
4805:"Sometime after this, Nephoris defrauded me, being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised, as is the custom among the Egyptians. She asked that I give her 1,300 drachmae ... to clothe her ... and to provide her with a marriage dowry ... if she didn't do each of these or if she did not circumcise Tathemis in the month of Mecheir, year 18 , she would repay me 2,400 drachmae on the spot."
1907:(MICS) conducted with financial and technical help from UNICEF. These surveys have been carried out in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and elsewhere roughly every five years since 1984 and 1995 respectively. The first to ask about FGM was the 1989–1990 DHS in northern Sudan. The first publication to estimate FGM prevalence based on DHS data (in seven countries) was written by Dara Carr of Macro International in 1997.
18371:
3979:
3072:
1416:
18359:
13962:
2789:
4531:), traditional birth attendants and, generally, older members of the community, usually women. This is true for over 80 percent of the girls who undergo the practice in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Tanzania, and Yemen. In most countries, medical personnel, including doctors, nurses, and certified midwives, are not widely involved in the practice."
4022:(BBSAWS), "Female Circumcision Mutilates and Endangers Women – Combat it!" Another BBSAWS workshop in 1984 invited the international community to write a joint statement for the United Nations. It recommended that the "goal of all African women" should be the eradication of FGM and that, to sever the link between FGM and religion, clitoridectomy should no longer be referred to as
2578:, who in 1609 wrote of a group near Mogadishu who had a "custome to sew up their Females, especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception, which makes these slaves sell dearer, both for their chastitie, and for better confidence which their Masters put in them". Thus, Mackie argues, a "practice associated with shameful female slavery came to stand for honor".
4509:, 1999): "Although discussions sometimes use the terms 'female circumcision' and 'clitoridectomy', 'female genital mutilation' (FGM) is the standard generic term for all these procedures in the medical literature ... The term 'female circumcision' has been rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests the fallacious analogy to male circumcision ..."
4632:, 2011): "In the case of infibulation, the urethral opening and part of the vaginal opening are covered by the scar. In a virgin infibulated woman the small opening left for the menstrual fluid and the urine is not wider than 2–3 mm; in sexually active women and after the delivery the vaginal opening is wider but the urethral orifice is often still covered by the scar."
2038:
asked women about the FGM status of all their living daughters. The highest concentrations among girls aged 0–14 were in Gambia (56 percent), Mauritania (54 percent), Indonesia (49 percent for 0–11) and Guinea (46 percent). The figures suggest that a girl was one third less likely in 2014 to undergo FGM than she was 30 years ago. According to a 2018 study published in
2849:("I will circumcise myself"), because to avoid naming their friends the girls said they had cut themselves. Historian Lynn Thomas described the episode as significant in the history of FGM because it made clear that its victims were also its perpetrators. FGM was eventually outlawed in Kenya in 2001, although the practice continued, reportedly driven by older women.
4846:: "The Lydians arrived at such a state of delicacy that they were even the first to 'castrate' their women." Knight argues that the "castration", which is not described, may have kept women youthful, in the sense of allowing the Lydian king to have intercourse with them without pregnancy. Knight concludes that it may have been a reference to sterilization, not FGM.
2803:
as the "sexual mutilation of women", and a person's stance toward the practice became a test of loyalty, either to the
Christian churches or to the Kikuyu Central Association. The stand-off turned FGM into a focal point of the Kenyan independence movement; the 1929–1931 period is known in the country's historiography as the female circumcision controversy. When
1657:. A 2014 systematic review of 56 studies suggested that over one in ten girls and women undergoing any form of FGM, including symbolic nicking of the clitoris (Type IV), experience immediate complications, although the risks increased with Type III. The review also suggested that there was under-reporting. Other short-term complications include fatal bleeding,
1426:
removed" category and involve complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans. The World Health
Organization (a UN agency) created a more detailed typology in 1997: Types I–II vary in how much tissue is removed; Type III is equivalent to the UNICEF category "sewn closed"; and Type IV describes miscellaneous procedures, including symbolic nicking.
1855:. Feelings of shame and betrayal can develop when women leave the culture that practices FGM and learn that their condition is not the norm, but within the practicing culture, they may view their FGM with pride because for them it signifies beauty, respect for tradition, chastity and hygiene. Studies on sexual function have also been small. A 2013
6880:"Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Sierra Leone: The practice of female genital mutilation (FGM); the government's position with respect to the practice; consequences of refusing to become an FGM practitioner in Bondo Society, specifically, if a daughter of a practitioner refuses to succeed her mother, 27 March 2009, SLE103015.E"
4304:, required correction. African feminists "take strong exception to the imperialist, racist and dehumanising infantilization of African women", she wrote in 2011. Commentators highlight the voyeurism in the treatment of women's bodies as exhibits. Examples include images of women's vulvas after FGM or girls undergoing the procedure. The 1996
4701:(2007): "Female circumcision belongs to the women's world, and ordinarily men know little about it or how it is performed—a fact that is widely confirmed in ethnographic studies." Bettina Shell-Duncan (2008): "he fact that the decision to perform FGC is often firmly in the control of women weakens the claim of gender discrimination."
2290:
northeastern Africa are pre-Islamic, but the practice became associated with Islam because of that religion's focus on female chastity and seclusion. According to a 2013 UNICEF report, in 18 African countries at least 10 percent of Muslim females had experienced FGM, and in 13 of those countries, the figure rose to 50–99 percent.
1608:, usually performed seven days after birth. Gishiri cutting involves cutting the vagina's front or back wall with a blade or penknife, performed in response to infertility, obstructed labour, and other conditions. In a study by Nigerian physician Mairo Usman Mandara, over 30 percent of women with gishiri cuts were found to have
1920:
Somalia had experienced Type III. There is also a high prevalence of infibulation among girls in Niger and
Senegal, and in 2013 it was estimated that in Nigeria three percent of the 0–14 age group had been infibulated. The type of procedure is often linked to ethnicity. In Eritrea, for example, a survey in 2002 found that all
2519:(c. 20 BCE – 50 CE) also made reference to it: "the Egyptians by the custom of their country circumcise the marriageable youth and maid in the fourteenth (year) of their age when the male begins to get seed, and the female to have a menstrual flow." It is mentioned briefly in a work attributed to the Greek physician
1573:). Reinfibulation can involve cutting the vagina again to restore the pinhole size of the first infibulation. This might be performed before marriage, and after childbirth, divorce and widowhood. Hanny Lightfoot-Klein interviewed hundreds of women and men in Sudan in the 1980s about sexual intercourse with Type III:
1406:
both female genital cosmetic surgeries and male circumcision in the discredit of prevention campaigns against FGM/C. However, participants had different views about whether or not female genital cosmetic surgeries should be banned and whether or not regular vulvar examination should be carried out in female children.
2254:
died, it was attributed to evil spirits. When informed of the causal relationship between FGM and ill health, Mackie wrote, the women broke down and wept. He argued that surveys taken before and after this sharing of information would show very different levels of support for FGM. The
American non-profit group
4823:, c. 25 BCE: "One of the customs most zealously observed among the Aegyptians is this, that they rear every child that is born, and circumcise the males, and excise the females, as is also customary among the Jews, who are also Aegyptians in origin, as I have already stated in my account of them."
4151:, the first Western country to do so. Several former colonial powers, including Belgium, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, introduced new laws or made clear that it was covered by existing legislation. As of 2013, legislation banning FGM had been passed in 33 countries outside Africa and the Middle East.
1729:, and a feeling of needing to urinate all the time. Urine may collect underneath the scar, leaving the area under the skin constantly wet, which can lead to infection and the formation of small stones. The opening is larger in women who are sexually active or have given birth by vaginal delivery, but the
1544:
to be applied. If a needle and thread are being used, close tight sutures will be placed to ensure that a flap of skin covers the vulva and extends from the mons veneris to the perineum, and which, after the wound heals, will form a bridge of scar tissue that will totally occlude the vaginal introitus.
4948:
WHO 2008: "Some practices, such as genital cosmetic surgery and hymen repair, which are legally accepted in many countries and not generally considered to constitute female genital mutilation, actually fall under the definition used here. It has been considered important, however, to maintain a broad
4165:
In the United States, an estimated 513,000 women and girls had experienced FGM or were at risk as of 2012. A Nigerian woman successfully contested deportation in March 1994, asking for "cultural asylum" on the grounds that her young daughters (who were
American citizens) might be cut if she took them
2802:
Beginning with the CSM in 1925, several missionary churches declared that FGM was prohibited for African Christians; the CSM announced that Africans practising it would be excommunicated, which resulted in hundreds leaving or being expelled. In 1929 the Kenya Missionary Council began referring to FGM
2780:
of the whole teaching of tribal law, religion and morality". No proper Kikuyu man or woman would marry or have sexual relations with someone who was not circumcised, he wrote. A woman's responsibilities toward the tribe began with her initiation. Her age and place within tribal history were traced to
2204:
Common reasons for FGM cited by women in surveys are social acceptance, religion, hygiene, preservation of virginity, marriageability and enhancement of male sexual pleasure. In a study in northern Sudan, published in 1983, only 17.4 percent of women opposed FGM (558 out of 3,210), and most preferred
1987:
The highest concentrations among the 15–49 age group are in Somalia (98 percent), Guinea (97 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), and Sierra Leone (90 percent). As of 2013, 27.2 million women had undergone FGM in Egypt, 23.8 million in Ethiopia, and 19.9 million in Nigeria. There is a
1983:
called an "intriguingly contiguous" zone in Africa—east to west from Somalia to Senegal, and north to south from Egypt to Tanzania. Nationally representative figures are available for 27 countries in Africa, as well as Indonesia, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen. Over 200 million women and girls are thought
1543:
Having ensured that sufficient tissue has been removed to allow the desired fusion of the skin, the circumciser pulls together the opposite sides of the labia majora, ensuring that the raw edges where the skin has been removed are well approximated. The wound is now ready to be stitched or for thorns
4654:
WHO 2005: "In some areas (e.g. parts of Congo and mainland Tanzania), FGM entails the pulling of the labia minora and/or clitoris over a period of about 2 to 3 weeks. The procedure is initiated by an old woman designated for this task, who puts sticks of a special type in place to hold the stretched
4618:
USAID 2008: "Infibulation is practiced largely in countries located in northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. ... Sudan alone accounts for about 3.5 million of the women. ... he estimate of the total number of women infibulated in comes to 8,245,449, or just
4608:
WHO 2014: "Narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal by cutting and appositioning the labia minora and/or the labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoris (infibulation)."Type IIIa, removal and apposition of the labia minora; Type IIIb, removal and apposition of the
4584:
WHO (2008): " common tendency to describe Type I as removal of the prepuce, whereas this has not been documented as a traditional form of female genital mutilation. However, in some countries, medicalized female genital mutilation can include removal of the prepuce only (Type Ia) (Thabet and Thabet,
4123:
about how communities reach decisions about FGM, and building on the work of Gerry Mackie on the demise of footbinding in China. In 2005 the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence published its first report on FGM. UNFPA and UNICEF launched a joint program in Africa in 2007 to reduce FGM by 40
3973:
I did not know what they had cut off from my body, and I did not try to find out. I just wept, and called out to my mother for help. But the worst shock of all was when I looked around and found her standing by my side. Yes, it was her, I could not be mistaken, in flesh and blood, right in the midst
2184:
initiation, argued in 2000 that it is a male-centred assumption that the clitoris is important to female sexuality. African female symbolism revolves instead around the concept of the womb. Infibulation draws on that idea of enclosure and fertility. "enital cutting completes the social definition of
2063:
between childhood and adulthood but is often performed on much younger children. Girls are most commonly cut shortly after birth to age 15. In half the countries for which national figures were available in 2000–2010, most girls had been cut by age five. Over 80 percent (of those cut) are cut before
1595:
is also categorized as Type IV. Common in southern and eastern Africa, the practice is supposed to enhance sexual pleasure for the man and add to the sense of a woman as a closed space. From the age of eight, girls are encouraged to stretch their inner labia using sticks and massage. Girls in Uganda
1539:
After the clitoris has been satisfactorily amputated ... the circumciser can proceed with the total removal of the labia minora and the paring of the inner walls of the labia majora. Since the entire skin on the inner walls of the labia majora has to be removed all the way down to the perineum,
1526:
or pharaonic circumcision), the "sewn closed" category, is the removal of the external genitalia and fusion of the wound. The inner and/or outer labia are cut away, with or without removal of the clitoral glans. Type III is found largely in northeast Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
1117:
There have been international efforts since the 1970s to persuade practitioners to abandon FGM, and it has been outlawed or restricted in most of the countries in which it occurs, although the laws are often poorly enforced. Since 2010, the United Nations has called upon healthcare providers to stop
1054:
Typically carried out by a traditional circumciser using a blade, FGM is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond. In half of the countries for which national statistics are available, most girls are cut before the age of five. Procedures differ according to the country or ethnic group.
4885:
For example, UNICEF 2013 lists Mauritania as having passed legislation against FGM, but (as of that year) it was banned only from being conducted in government facilities or by medical personnel.The following are countries in which FGM is common and in which restrictions are in place as of 2013. An
4684:
UNICEF 2014: "If there is no reduction in the practice between now and 2050, the number of girls cut each year will grow from 3.6 million in 2013 to 6.6 million in 2050. But if the rate of progress achieved over the last 30 years is maintained, the number of girls affected annually will go from 3.6
2253:
Because of poor access to information, and because practitioners downplay the causal connection, women may not associate the health consequences with the procedure. Lala Baldé, president of a women's association in Medina Cherif, a village in Senegal, told Mackie in 1998 that when girls fell ill or
2050:
Surveys have found FGM to be more common in rural areas, less common in most countries among girls from the wealthiest homes, and (except in Sudan and Somalia) less common in girls whose mothers had access to primary or secondary/higher education. In Somalia and Sudan the situation was reversed: in
1590:
is "ll other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes", including pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization. It includes nicking of the clitoris (symbolic circumcision), burning or scarring the genitals, and introducing substances into the vagina to tighten
1560:
The vagina is opened for sexual intercourse, for the first time either by a midwife with a knife or by the woman's husband with his penis. In some areas, including Somaliland, female relatives of the bride and groom might watch the opening of the vagina to check that the girl is a virgin. The woman
1405:
The majority of the participants thinks that the FGM/C classification proposed by the WHO and other UN agencies in 2007 should be revised. They further agree with the legal prohibition of both reinfibulation and ritual pricking and express worries about the dangers represented by the lawfulness of
4664:
Berg and Underland (Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services, 2014): "There was evidence of under-reporting of complications. However, the findings show that the FGM/C procedure unequivocally causes immediate, and typically several, health complications during the FGM/C procedure and the
4205:
According to the European Parliament, 500,000 women in Europe had undergone FGM as of March 2009. In France up to 30,000 women were thought to have experienced it as of 1995. According to Colette Gallard, a family-planning counsellor, when FGM was first encountered in France, the reaction was
2539:
The surgery is performed in this way: Have the girl sit on a chair while a muscled young man standing behind her places his arms below the girl's thighs. Have him separate and steady her legs and whole body. Standing in front and taking hold of the clitoris with a broad-mouthed forceps in his left
2366:
to object to FGM, but Christian communities in Africa do practise it. In 2013 UNICEF identified 19 African countries in which at least 10 percent of Christian females aged 15 to 49 had undergone FGM; in Niger, 55 percent of Christian women and girls had experienced it, compared with two percent of
1645:
depend on the type of FGM, whether the practitioner has had medical training, and whether they used antibiotics and sterilized or single-use surgical instruments. In the case of Type III, other factors include how small a hole was left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood, whether surgical
1425:
from United Nations bodies ask women whether they or their daughters have undergone the following: (1) cut, no flesh removed (symbolic nicking); (2) cut, some flesh removed; (3) sewn closed; or (4) type not determined/unsure/doesn't know. The most common procedures fall within the "cut, some flesh
4399:
argues that a key concern with FGM is that it is mostly conducted on children using physical force. The distinction between social pressure and physical force is morally and legally salient, comparable to the distinction between seduction and rape. She argues further that the literacy of women in
4190:
was amended to ban FGM, except where "the person is at least eighteen years of age and there is no resulting bodily harm". As of February 2019, there had been no prosecutions. Officials have expressed concern that thousands of Canadian girls are at risk of being taken overseas to undergo the
4174:
became the first to be officially granted asylum to escape FGM. In 1996 the Federal Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act made it illegal to perform FGM on minors for non-medical reasons, and in 2013 the Transport for Female Genital Mutilation Act prohibited transporting a minor out of the
3953:
One of the earliest campaigns against FGM began in Egypt in the 1920s, when the Egyptian Doctors' Society called for a ban. There was a parallel campaign in Sudan, run by religious leaders and British women. Infibulation was banned there in 1946, but the law was unpopular and barely enforced. The
1919:
Type I is the most common form in Egypt, and in the southern parts of Nigeria. Type III (infibulation) is concentrated in northeastern Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia, and Sudan. In surveys in 2002–2006, 30 percent of cut girls in Djibouti, 38 percent in Eritrea, and 63 percent in
1577:
The penetration of the bride's infibulation takes anywhere from 3 or 4 days to several months. Some men are unable to penetrate their wives at all (in my study over 15%), and the task is often accomplished by a midwife under conditions of great secrecy, since this reflects negatively on the man's
1368:
The WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA issued a joint statement in 1997 defining FGM as "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons". The procedures vary according to the
4674:
UNICEF 2013: "The percentage of girls and women of reproductive age (15 to 49) who have experienced any form of FGM/C is the first indicator used to show how widespread the practice is in a particular country ... A second indicator of national prevalence measures the extent of cutting among
4391:
do fall within the WHO's definition of FGM, which aims to avoid loopholes, but the WHO notes that these elective practices are generally not regarded as FGM. Some legislation banning FGM, such as in Canada and the United States, covers minors only, but several countries, including Sweden and the
2573:
was used to temporarily signal the virginity of girls, increasing their value on the slave market: "According to descriptions by early travellers, infibulated female slaves had a higher price on the market because infibulation was thought to ensure chastity and loyalty to the owner and prevented
2564:
and female genital mutilation. An investigation combining contemporary from data on slave shipments from 1400 to 1900 with data from 28 African countries has found that women belonging to ethnic groups historically victimized by the Red Sea slave trade were "significantly" more likely to suffer
2037:
Prevalence figures for the 15–19 age group and younger show a downward trend. For example, Burkina Faso fell from 89 percent (1980) to 58 percent (2010); Egypt from 97 percent (1985) to 70 percent (2015); and Kenya from 41 percent (1984) to 11 percent (2014). Beginning in 2010, household surveys
1791:
FGM may place women at higher risk of problems during pregnancy and childbirth, which are more common with the more extensive FGM procedures. Infibulated women may try to make childbirth easier by eating less during pregnancy to reduce the baby's size. In women with vesicovaginal or rectovaginal
1556:
thorns, and might be covered with a poultice of raw egg, herbs, and sugar. To help the tissue bond, the girl's legs are tied together, often from hip to ankle; the bindings are usually loosened after a week and removed after two to six weeks. If the remaining hole is too large in the view of the
4438:
individuals, which has led to bills being drafted in Republican states equating the two. Criticism of these ideas include the fact that the gender-affirming surgeries are approved by American medical authorities, are rare for minors, and are done after reviews by multiple medical professionals.
4233:(CEDAW) asked the government in July 2013 to "ensure the full implementation of its legislation on FGM". The first charges were brought in 2014 against a physician and another man; the physician had stitched an infibulated woman after opening her for childbirth. Both men were acquitted in 2015.
2140:
Dahabo Musa, a Somali woman, described infibulation in a 1988 poem as the "three feminine sorrows": the procedure itself, the wedding night when the woman is cut open, then childbirth when she is cut again. Despite the evident suffering, it is women who organize all forms of FGM. Anthropologist
2033:
but there are no representative data on the prevalence in these countries. As of 2023, UNICEF reported that "The highest levels of support for FGM can be found in Mali, Sierra Leone, Guinea, the Gambia, Somalia, and Egypt, where more than half of the female population thinks the practice should
1814:
is increased. The WHO estimated in 2006 that an additional 10–20 babies die per 1,000 deliveries as a result of FGM. The estimate was based on a study conducted on 28,393 women attending delivery wards at 28 obstetric centres in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan. In those
2289:
Surveys have shown a widespread belief, particularly in Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, and Egypt, that FGM is a religious requirement. Gruenbaum has argued that practitioners may not distinguish between religion, tradition, and chastity, making it difficult to interpret the data. FGM's origins in
4311:
The debate has highlighted a tension between anthropology and feminism, with the former's focus on tolerance and the latter's on equal rights for women. According to the anthropologist Christine Walley, a common position in anti-FGM literature has been to present African women as victims of
4053:
As of 2023, UNICEF reported that "in most countries in Africa and the Middle East with representative data on attitudes (23 out of 30), the majority of girls and women think the practice should end", and that "even among communities that practice FGM, there is substantial opposition to its
1535:
The element of speed and surprise is vital and the circumciser immediately grabs the clitoris by pinching it between her nails aiming to amputate it with a slash. The organ is then shown to the senior female relatives of the child who will decide whether the amount that has been removed is
4703:
Bettina Shell-Duncan (2015): "hen you talk to people on the ground, you also hear people talking about the idea that it's women's business. As in, it's for women to decide this. If we look at the data across Africa, the support for the practice is stronger among women than among men."
11216:
Banks, Emily; Meirik, Olav; Farley, Tim; Akande, Oluwole; Bathija, Heli; Ali, Mohamed; WHO study group on female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome (3 June 2006). "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries".
4939:: "A person is guilty of an offence if he excises, infibulates or otherwise mutilates the whole or any part of a girl's labia majora, labia minora or clitoris", unless "necessary for her physical or mental health". Although the legislation refers to girls, it applies to women too.
1130:
and the universality of human rights. According to the UNICEF, international FGM rates have risen significantly in recent years, from an estimated 200 million in 2016 to 230 million in 2024, with progress towards its abandonment stalling or reversing in many affected countries.
2192:
In communities where infibulation is common, there is a preference for women's genitals to be smooth, dry and without odour, and both women and men may find the natural vulva repulsive. Some men seem to enjoy the effort of penetrating an infibulation. The local preference for
2201:. The WHO includes this practice within Type IV FGM, because the added friction during intercourse can cause lacerations and increase the risk of infection. Because of the smooth appearance of an infibulated vulva, there is also a belief that infibulation increases hygiene.
1915:
Questions the women are asked during the surveys include: "Was the genital area just nicked/cut without removing any flesh? Was any flesh (or something) removed from the genital area? Was your genital area sewn?" Most women report "cut, some flesh removed" (Types I and II).
1350:
has assumed the role of health worker, he will also perform FGM. When traditional cutters are involved, non-sterile devices are likely to be used, including knives, razors, scissors, glass, sharpened rocks, and fingernails. According to a nurse in Uganda, quoted in 2007 in
9096:
2629:, spinal irritation, fits, idiocy, mania, and death. He, therefore "set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so", according to his obituary. Brown performed several clitoridectomies between 1859 and 1866. In the United States,
2091:(20 percent), giving the country a national prevalence of eight percent. The practice is sometimes an ethnic marker, but it may differ along national lines. For example, in the northeastern regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, which share a border with Somalia, the
9282:
8837:
2535:, grew too large or triggered sexual desire when rubbing against clothing. "On this account, it seemed proper to the Egyptians to remove it before it became greatly enlarged," Aëtius wrote, "especially at that time when the girls were about to be married":
1540:
this becomes a messy business. By now, the child is screaming, struggling, and bleeding profusely, which makes it difficult for the circumciser to hold with bare fingers and nails the slippery skin and parts that are to be cut or sutured together. ...
12223:
Jackson, Elizabeth F.; Akweongo, Patricia; Sakeah, Evelyn; Hodgson, Abraham; Asuru, Rofina; Phillips, James F. (September 2003). "Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: explanatory factors and analytical consequences".
1527:
Somalia, and Sudan (although not in South Sudan). According to one 2008 estimate, over eight million women in Africa are living with Type III FGM. According to UNFPA in 2010, 20 percent of women with FGM have been infibulated. In Somalia, according to
1355:, a cutter would use one knife on up to 30 girls at a time. In several countries, health professionals are involved; in Egypt, 77 percent of FGM procedures, and in Indonesia over 50 percent, were performed by medical professionals as of 2008 and 2016.
4764:(sayings attributed to Mohammed) recommend attenuating the practice for the woman's sake, praise it as noble but not commanded, or advise that female converts refrain from mutilation because even if pleasing to the husband it is painful to the wife."
2099:
women responding to a survey in 2012 said they had experienced FGM, against 12 percent of the Fulani in Chad, while in Nigeria the Fulani are the only large ethnic group in the country not to practise it. In Sierra Leone, the predominantly Christian
4340:
Nnaemeka argues that the crucial question, broader than FGM, is why the female body is subjected to so much "abuse and indignity", including in the West. Several authors have drawn a parallel between FGM and cosmetic procedures. Ronán Conroy of the
4320:
and Hanny Lightfoot-Klein. It prompted the French Association of Anthropologists to issue a statement in 1981, at the height of the early debates, that "a certain feminism resuscitates (today) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday's colonialism".
9449:
2249:
was a storage pit for grain that was continually opened and closed, like an infibulated woman.) But despite throwing the insult back, the Zabarma girls would ask their mothers, "What's the matter? Don't we have razor blades like the Arabs?"
1996:
both say the clitoris should not be cut. The prevalence rate for the 0–11 group in Indonesia is 49 percent (13.4 million). Smaller studies or anecdotal reports suggest that various types of FGM are also practised in various circumstances in
1815:
settings all types of FGM were found to pose an increased risk of death to the baby: 15 percent higher for Type I, 32 percent for Type II, and 55 percent for Type III. The reasons for this were unclear, but may be connected to genital and
4017:
In 1979, the WHO held a seminar, "Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children", in Khartoum, Sudan, and in 1981, also in Khartoum, 150 academics and activists signed a pledge to fight FGM after a workshop held by the
2515:(c. 64 BCE – c. 23 CE) wrote about FGM after visiting Egypt around 25 BCE: "This is one of the customs most zealously pursued by them : to raise every child that is born and to circumcise the males and excise the females ..."
14345:
4030:
3484:
1193:
2262:
in 1991, introduced community-empowerment programs in several countries that focus on local democracy, literacy, and education about healthcare, giving women the tools to make their own decisions. In 1997, using the Tostan program,
1102:, and ideas about purity, modesty, and beauty. It is usually initiated and carried out by women, who see it as a source of honour, and who fear that failing to have their daughters and granddaughters cut will expose the girls to
9093:
4747:
Maggie Michael, Associated Press, 2007: " supreme religious authorities stressed that Islam is against female circumcision. It's prohibited, prohibited, prohibited," Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa said on the privately-owned al-Mahwar
1875:, international FGM rates have risen significantly in recent years, rising from an estimated 200 million in 2016 to 230 million in 2024, with progress towards its abandonment stalling or reversing in many effected countries.
10978:
Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals".
1372:
In March 2017, an international FGM expert meeting titled "Management and prevention of female genital mutilation/cutting: sharing data and experiences, improving collaboration" was organized by three universities :
4049:
on the rights of women, which supported the elimination of FGM. By 2015 laws restricting FGM had been passed in at least 23 of the 27 African countries in which it is concentrated, although several fell short of a ban.
1397:, policymakers, and activists. They were invited to respond to an online descriptive and explorative survey on hot topics. It included two parts, the first one was intended for all participants, the second one only for
2504:, who examined hundreds of mummies in the early 20th century, Knight writes that the genital area may resemble Type III because during mummification the skin of the outer labia was pulled toward the anus to cover the
1685:. It is not known how many girls and women die as a result of the practice, because complications may not be recognized or reported. The practitioners' use of shared instruments is thought to aid the transmission of
8834:
4585:
2003), but this form appears to be relatively rare (Satti et al., 2006). Almost all known forms of female genital mutilation that remove tissue from the clitoris also cut all or part of the clitoral glans itself."
2145:
wrote in 1975 that educated Sudanese men who did not want their daughters to be infibulated (preferring clitoridectomy) would find the girls had been sewn up after the grandmothers arranged a visit to relatives.
3989:
In 1975, Rose Oldfield Hayes, an American social scientist, became the first female academic to publish a detailed account of FGM, aided by her ability to discuss it directly with women in Sudan. Her article in
4895:
Fifteen countries joined the program: Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Senegal and Sudan in 2008; Burkina Faso, Gambia, Uganda and Somalia in 2009; and Eritrea, Mali and Mauritania in
18213:
4782:
The countries were Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and
1603:
and angurya cutting, found in Nigeria and Niger. These were removed from the WHO's 2008 definition because of insufficient information about prevalence and consequences. Angurya cutting is excision of the
9390:
8899:
4041:, marking it as a human-rights violation, rather than a medical issue. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s governments in Africa and the Middle East passed legislation banning or restricting FGM. In 2003 the
1500:
1495:
12927:
9446:
4927:
In 2010 the American Academy of Pediatrics suggested that "pricking or incising the clitoral skin" was a harmless procedure that might satisfy parents, but it withdrew the statement after complaints.
4230:
3335:
2508:, possibly to prevent a sexual violation. It was similarly not possible to determine whether Types I or II had been performed, because soft tissues had deteriorated or been removed by the embalmers.
1887:
Map showing the % of women and girls aged 15–49 years (unless otherwise stated) who have undergone FGM/C according to the March 2020 Global Response report. Grey countries' data are not covered.
14350:
4186:
Canada recognized FGM as a form of persecution in July 1994, when it granted refugee status to Khadra Hassan Farah, who had fled Somalia to avoid her daughter being cut. In 1997 section 268 of its
1548:
The amputated parts might be placed in a pouch for the girl to wear. A single hole of 2–3 mm is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid. The vulva is closed with surgical thread, or
6847:
4439:
Formerly, FGM was widely referred to as "female circumcision" in the academic literature, but this "was rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests a fallacious analogy to
2154:. Like FGM, footbinding was carried out on young girls, nearly universal where practised, tied to ideas about honour, chastity, and appropriate marriage, and "supported and transmitted" by women.
3957:
In 1959, the UN asked the WHO to investigate FGM, but the latter responded that it was not a medical matter. Feminists took up the issue throughout the 1970s. The Egyptian physician and feminist
2597:
Some gynaecologists in 19th-century Europe and the United States removed the clitoris to treat insanity and masturbation. A British doctor, Robert Thomas, suggested clitoridectomy as a cure for
2168:
FGM practitioners see the procedures as marking not only ethnic boundaries but also gender differences. According to this view, male circumcision defeminizes men while FGM demasculinizes women.
9120:
1721:
formation (growth of nerve tissue) involving nerves that supplied the clitoris. An infibulated girl may be left with an opening as small as 2–3 mm, which can cause prolonged, drop-by-drop
12470:
5599:
Hot topic survey: Discussing the results of experts’ responses on controversial issues in FGM/C Abdulcadir, Jasmine et al. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada, Volume 42, Issue 2, e26
2075:
A country's national prevalence often reflects a high sub-national prevalence among certain ethnicities, rather than a widespread practice. In Iraq, for example, FGM is found mostly among the
4828:, 16.4.9: "And then to the Harbour of Antiphilus, and, above this, to the Creophagi , of whom the males have their sexual glands mutilated and the women are excised in the Jewish fashion."
2051:
Somalia, the mothers' access to secondary/higher education was accompanied by a rise in prevalence of FGM in their daughters, and in Sudan, access to any education was accompanied by a rise.
1047:
estimates that worldwide 230 million girls and women (144 million in Africa, 80 million in Asia, 6 million in Middle East, and 1-2 million in other parts of the world) had been subjected to
13651:
13633:
8859:
6811:
2414:
The practice's origins are unknown. Gerry Mackie has suggested that, because FGM's east–west, north–south distribution in Africa meets in Sudan, infibulation may have begun there with the
1891:
Aid agencies define the prevalence of FGM as the percentage of the 15–49 age group that has experienced it. These figures are based on nationally representative household surveys known as
1646:
thread was used instead of agave or acacia thorns, and whether the procedure was performed more than once (for example, to close an opening regarded as too wide or re-open one too small).
6660:
10917:
Zabus, Chantal (2013). "'Writing with an Accent': From Early Decolonization to Contemporary Gender Issues in the African Novel in French, English, and Arabic". In Bertacco, Simon (ed.).
7491:
8334:
15534:
14494:
8662:
2418:(c. 800 BCE – c. 350 CE), before the rise of Islam, to increase confidence in paternity. According to historian Mary Knight, Spell 1117 (c. 1991–1786 BCE) of the
14910:
14365:
4474:
4112:
2845:) announced a ban on FGM in 1956, thousands of girls cut each other's genitals with razor blades over the next three years as a symbol of defiance. The movement came to be known as
9302:
1283:
reportedly fastened clasps through the foreskins or labia of slaves to prevent sexual intercourse. The surgical infibulation of women came to be known as pharaonic circumcision in
10817:
Walley, Christine J. (2002). ""Searching for 'Voices': Feminism, Anthropology, and the Global Over Female Genital Operations"". In James, Stanlie M.; Robertson, Claire C. (eds.).
10140:
9358:
12204:
4217:
Around 137,000 women and girls living in England and Wales were born in countries where FGM is practised, as of 2011. Performing FGM on children or adults was outlawed under the
4206:
that Westerners ought not to intervene. It took the deaths of two girls in 1982, one of them three months old, for that attitude to change. In 1991 a French court ruled that the
1851:
there is little high-quality information available on the psychological effects of FGM. Several small studies have concluded that women with FGM develop anxiety, depression, and
14905:
10767:
Thomas, Lynn M. (2000). "Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.).
6569:
6392:
4738:, 1996: "FGM is pre-Islamic but was exaggerated by its intersection with the Islamic modesty code of family honor, female purity, virginity, chastity, fidelity, and seclusion."
3965:(1972); the book was banned in Egypt and El Saadawi lost her job as director-general of public health. She followed up with a chapter, "The Circumcision of Girls", in her book
2648:
Later in the 19th century, A. J. Bloch, a surgeon in New Orleans, removed the clitoris of a two-year-old girl who was reportedly masturbating. According to a 1985 paper in the
9693:
5825:
8071:
7274:
8959:
7811:
Corno, Lucia and La Ferrara, Eliana and Voena, Alessandra, Female Genital Cutting and the Slave Trade (December 2020). CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP15577, Available at SSRN:
1859:
of 15 studies involving 12,671 women from seven countries concluded that women with FGM were twice as likely to report no sexual desire and 52 percent more likely to report
14489:
14116:
10013:
4226:
2692:
10544:
Mandara, Mairo Usman (2000). "Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.).
14330:
13104:
Rodriguez, Sarah (July 2008). "Rethinking the history of female circumcision and clitoridectomy: American medicine and female sexuality in the late nineteenth century".
4582:
WHO (2018): Type 1 ... the partial or total removal of the clitoris ... and in very rare cases, only the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris)."
3954:
Egyptian government banned infibulation in state-run hospitals in 1959, but allowed partial clitoridectomy if parents requested it. (Egypt banned FGM entirely in 2007.)
3296:
902:
108:
Over 230 million women and girls worldwide: 144 million in Africa, 80 million in Asia, 6 million in Middle East, and 1-2 million in other parts of the world (as of 2024)
3834:
Lynn M. Thomas, "'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya" in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund, 2000, p. 130.
14340:
9565:
4308:
of a 16-year-old Kenyan girl experiencing FGM were published by 12 American newspapers, without her consent either to be photographed or to have the images published.
3472:
1476:. Type IIa is removal of the inner labia; Type IIb, removal of the clitoral glans and inner labia; and Type IIc, removal of the clitoral glans, inner and outer labia.
9011:
8813:
7193:
6133:
4876:
Some states in Sudan banned FGM in 2008–2009, but as of 2013, there was no national legislation. The prevalence of FGM among women aged 14–49 was 89 percent in 2014.
11828:
9259:
9037:
8521:
8453:
4284:
had introduced "a subtext of barbaric African and Muslim cultures and the West's relevance (even indispensability) in purging ". According to Ugandan law professor
18218:
13846:
10083:(2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.).
9579:
8102:
4108:
7366:
2523:(129 – c. 200 CE): "When sticks out to a great extent in their young women, Egyptians consider it appropriate to cut it out." Another Greek physician,
1741:
can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina). This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence,
15490:
14548:
13616:
13612:
13285:
Thomas, Lynn M. (November 1996). "'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya".
10373:
Jacobs, Micah; Grady, Richard; Bolnick, David A. (2012). "Current Circumcision Trends and Guidelines". In Bolnick, David A.; Koyle, Martin; Yosha, Assaf (eds.).
9387:
8896:
8848:
13445:
12151:
Iavazzo, Christos; Sardi, Thalia A.; Gkegkes, Ioannis D. (June 2013). "Female genital mutilation and infections: a systematic review of the clinical evidence".
3718:
Raqiya D. Abdalla, "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia," in Abusharaf 2007, p.
2668:, repositioning the vagina and urethra, and removing the clitoral hood, thereby making their genital area more appropriate, in his view, for intercourse in the
3410:: French Association of Anthropologists publishes statement that "a certain feminism resuscitates (today) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday's colonialism."
2919:
2812:
13851:
12963:
11366:"A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review"
9822:
9053:
5218:
9430:
5573:
Abdulcadir, J., Alexander, S., Dubuc, E. et al. Female genital mutilation/cutting: sharing data and experiences to accelerate eradication and improve care.
15566:
14515:
9589:
4345:
wrote in 2006 that cosmetic genital procedures were "driving the advance" of FGM by encouraging women to see natural variations as defects. Anthropologist
14964:
14012:
10522:
6854:
4357:, the French feminist, made a similar point in 1975, citing FGM and cosmetic surgery as sexist and patriarchal. Against this, the medical anthropologist
2565:
genital mutilation in the 21st-century, as well as "more in favour of continuing the practice". Women trafficked in the Red Sea slave trade were sold as
5930:
For the countries in which labia stretching is found (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), see
5650:
4288:, the early Western opposition to FGM stemmed from a Judeo-Christian judgment that African sexual and family practices, including not only FGM but also
15576:
13750:
11819:
1900:
1389:
and Research of the WHO. Additional support and funding was received from the Swiss Network against Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C), and the
11451:
9117:
5242:
Many African countries have experienced a steady decline in the practice over the past few decades, but overall progress has stalled or been reversed.
4773:
Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, 2008: "Nowhere in all of Scripture or in any of recorded church history is there even a hint that women were to be circumcised."
2493:: "Sometime after this, Nephoris defrauded me, being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised, as is the custom among the Egyptians."
13626:"Evaluation of the Long-term Impact of the TOSTAN Program on the Abandonment of FGM/C and Early Marriage: Results from a qualitative study in Senega"
12462:
11733:
Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook".
3940:
2637:
and amputated her clitoris, "for the relief of the nervous or hysterical condition as recommended by Baker Brown". When Brown published his views in
13514:
Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen".
16692:
13886:
4527:
UNICEF 2005: "The large majority of girls and women are cut by a traditional practitioner, a category which includes local specialists (cutters or
12272:
11063:
9984:
3554:
Seham Abd el Salam, "A Comprehensive Approach for Communication about Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt," in George C. Denniston, et al. (eds.),
1106:. Adverse health effects depend on the type of procedure; they can include recurrent infections, difficulty urinating and passing menstrual flow,
14146:
12566:
Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt".
9073:
8856:
7828:
4200:
3974:
of these strangers, talking to them and smiling at them, as though they had not participated in slaughtering her daughter just a few moments ago.
2189:
wrote in 2007. "The female body is then covered, closed, and its productive blood bound within; the male body is unveiled, opened, and exposed."
13978:
10794:
wa Kihurani, Nyambura; Warigia wa Johanna, Raheli; Murigo wa Meshak, Alice (2007). "Letter Opposing Female Circumcision". In Lihamba, Amandina;
8650:
6652:
16447:
14151:
9533:
7507:
6544:
6416:"Reproductive health profile and circumcision of females in the Hali semi-urban region, Saudi Arabia: A community-based cross-sectional survey"
4160:
1457:(the visible tip of the clitoris) and clitoral hood. The circumciser pulls the clitoral glans with her thumb and index finger and cuts it off.
12790:
12517:"Self-reported and observed female genital cutting in rural Tanzania: associated demographic factors, HIV and sexually transmitted infections"
8326:
16153:
15571:
12486:
Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989). "The Sexual Experience and Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in The Sudan".
9480:
4207:
1122:
after childbirth and symbolic "nicking" of the clitoral hood. The opposition to the practice is not without its critics, particularly among
18397:
14158:
13602:
9213:
8935:
4147:, Europe, and North America, all of which outlawed it entirely or restricted it to consenting adults. Sweden outlawed FGM in 1982 with the
2280:
1095:
938:
718:
11696:
Dave, Amish J.; Sethi, Aisha; Morrone, Aldo (January 2011). "Female genital mutilation: what every American dermatologist needs to know".
9167:
17193:
14541:
14479:
11584:
9830:
9299:
9231:
8626:
4218:
13754:
12979:
Rasheed, Salah M.; Abd-Ellah, Ahmed H.; Yousef, Fouad M. (July 2011). "Female genital mutilation in Upper Egypt in the new millennium".
10892:
10131:
2485:
probably refers instead to a menstruating woman.) The proposed circumcision of an Egyptian girl, Tathemis, is also mentioned on a Greek
2297:
in Cairo ruled that FGM had "no basis in core Islamic law or any of its partial provisions". There is no mention of the practice in the
2267:
in Senegal became the first village to abandon FGM. By August 2019, 8,800 communities in eight countries had pledged to abandon FGM and
1211:
In countries where FGM is common, the practice's many variants are reflected in dozens of terms, often alluding to purification. In the
18269:
13966:
13776:
13762:
12197:
9355:
6208:
5678:
3387:
13677:
5756:
1767:(where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood). The swelling of the abdomen and lack of menstruation can resemble pregnancy.
18417:
15549:
14136:
14101:
4066:
3999:
3051:: Guinean gynaecologist Aja Tounkara Diallo Fatimata begins 28-year practice of performing fake clitoridectomies to satisfy families.
2681:
2652:, clitoridectomy was performed in the United States into the 1960s to treat hysteria, erotomania and lesbianism. From the mid-1950s,
1988:
high concentration in Indonesia, where according to UNICEF Type I (clitoridectomy) and Type IV (symbolic nicking) are practised; the
999:
514:
12728:
9686:
8992:
6897:
6736:
2128:
1043:
varies worldwide, but is majorly present in some countries of Africa, Asia and Middle East, and within their diasporas. As of 2024,
18328:
16100:
15561:
14126:
13868:
8047:
7270:
4144:
661:
8956:
8124:
8063:
4599:(WHO, 1998): "he clitoris is held between the thumb and index finger, pulled out and amputated with one stroke of a sharp object."
2284:
1819:
and the presence of scar tissue. According to the study, FGM was associated with an increased risk to the mother of damage to the
80:"Partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons" (
18422:
18375:
18251:
14957:
14106:
14096:
14005:
10095:(2000). "Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.).
4229:, which added a prohibition on arranging FGM outside the country for British citizens or permanent residents. The United Nations
4138:
1937:
1641:
FGM harms women's physical and emotional health throughout their lives. It has no known health benefits. The short-term and late
1040:
2841:
Elsewhere, support for the practice from women was strong. In 1956 in Meru, eastern Kenya, when the council of male elders (the
2760:
for both girls and boys. It involved excision (Type II) for girls and removal of the foreskin for boys. Unexcised Kikuyu women (
2455:
18289:
16669:
14534:
14121:
10005:
9957:
8718:
6779:
2450:
2447:
2444:
9931:
9909:
16986:
16457:
16270:
14900:
11429:
10886:
10807:
10757:
10649:
10614:
10578:
10487:
10452:
10429:
10390:
10342:
10274:
10172:
10120:
10058:
5247:
3933:
2908:
2458:
2452:
2321:
reported that Muhammad said circumcision was a "law for men and a preservation of honor for women", however some regard this
1792:
fistulae, it is difficult to obtain clear urine samples as part of prenatal care, making the diagnosis of conditions such as
1159:
13710:, UNAIDS, UNDP, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WHO, FIGO, ICN, IOM, MWIA, WCPT, WMA, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2010.
10655:
10620:
10584:
10493:
10458:
10280:
10178:
10064:
9562:
8039:
1346:) in the girls' homes, with or without anaesthesia. The cutter is usually an older woman, but in communities where the male
18407:
17084:
17054:
14131:
13563:
13227:
Shell-Duncan, Bettina (June 2008). "From Health to Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting and the Politics of Intervention".
9890:
8870:
8810:
5571:
4342:
527:
12075:"Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis"
9256:
9003:
8450:
7190:
4400:
practising countries is generally poorer than in developed nations, which reduces their ability to make informed choices.
18223:
17101:
17059:
16809:
16644:
16216:
11875:
9522:
9499:
8518:
7095:
4469:
4423:
3732:
1114:, an inability to get pregnant, complications during childbirth, and fatal bleeding. There are no known health benefits.
13732:
12028:(September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions".
8738:
8094:
7363:
2197:
causes women to introduce substances into the vagina to reduce lubrication, including leaves, tree bark, toothpaste and
18402:
18363:
18333:
15809:
15544:
15539:
15399:
15208:
14950:
14510:
14484:
14141:
14111:
13998:
11416:
8957:"Effects of Ancient Custom Present New Challenge to U.S. Doctors: Genital Cutting Cases Seen More as Immigration Rises"
4936:
4316:
participating in their own oppression, a position promoted by feminists in the 1970s and 1980s, including Fran Hosken,
4222:
3998:, who worked at the time for the Somalia Ministry of Health, discussed the health consequences of FGM in 1977 with the
2560:
Whatever the practice's origins, infibulation became linked to slavery. Research has indicated that linkes between the
2340:
1904:
561:
541:
8845:
6169:
2225:
Against the argument that women willingly choose FGM for their daughters, UNICEF calls the practice a "self-enforcing
1441:(the external and visible part of the clitoris, which is a sensitive part of the female genitals), and/or the prepuce/
18228:
17376:
17074:
16093:
15661:
15609:
13746:
13715:
13409:
13059:
Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)".
9034:
7425:
4427:
15962:
13613:"Concluding observations on the seventh periodic report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland"
9819:
7976:
3994:
called it "female genital mutilation", rather than female circumcision, and brought it to wider academic attention.
2294:
1154:
Until the 1980s, FGM was widely known in English as "female circumcision", implying an equivalence in severity with
17561:
16536:
16110:
15514:
15446:
13814:
13806:
4265:
and failure to defend the idea of universal human rights. According to critics of the eradicationist position, the
4034:
3926:
1630:
1531:, the child squats on a stool or mat while adults pull her legs open; a local anaesthetic is applied if available:
890:
523:
62:
13615:, United Nations Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 26 July 2013 (
9050:
8361:
6786:. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see
1378:
18412:
17930:
17753:
17527:
17186:
15586:
15509:
14932:
14621:
14616:
13743:
Joint Evaluation. UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Program on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change, 2008–2012
9798:
9713:
9651:
9427:
4104:
4011:
3179:
2975:
2393:
But if a man wants to know how to live, he should recite it every day, after his flesh has been rubbed with the
14942:
12809:
Murray, Jocelyn (1976). "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932".
10857:
9460:, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.
8467:
17216:
16976:
16654:
16615:
16551:
16412:
15890:
15591:
13667:
9757:
9635:
8495:
6904:
4949:
definition of female genital mutilation in order to avoid loopholes that might allow the practice to continue."
4409:
4276:
Africans who object to the tone of FGM opposition risk appearing to defend the practice. The feminist theorist
4180:
3591:, "Revisiting Feminist Discourses on Inbulation: The Hosken Report," in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000, p. 165.
1989:
1892:
1852:
1386:
537:
89:
11925:"Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study"
10533:
9619:
5809:
5778:
5425:
5370:
4365:
and male circumcision are. Despite the 2007 ban in Egypt, Egyptian women wanting FGM for their daughters seek
18311:
18279:
18177:
17049:
17039:
16981:
16556:
15529:
15519:
13592:
5642:
5574:
3118:
2622:
1828:
1324:
992:
740:
657:
8933:"Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in the United States: Updated Estimates of Women and Girls at Risk, 2012"
7726:
5010:
4726:
The eight countries are Djibouti, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Somalia, and the Gambia.
2774:
and later Kenya's first prime minister, wrote in 1938 that, for the Kikuyu, the institution of FGM was the "
1811:
1771:, a Sudanese physician, reported in 1979 that a girl in Sudan with this condition was killed by her family.
18256:
18172:
17510:
17089:
17014:
16869:
16220:
16170:
16163:
15730:
15554:
15524:
14757:
14611:
14409:
11313:
Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis; Odgaard-Jensen, Jan; Fretheim, Atle; Vist, Gunn E. (21 November 2014).
10196:
The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America
4697:(1996): "Virtually every ethnography and report states that FGM is defended and transmitted by the women."
3655:
Nawal El Saadawi, "The Struggle to End Female Genital Mutilation," in Jennifer Browdy de Hernandez, et al,
2566:
2548:
powder and wine or cold water, and wrapped in linen bandages dipped in vinegar, until the seventh day when
752:
12375:"Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis"
9540:(legal guidance), Crown Prosecution Service: "The Act refers to 'girls', though it also applies to women."
5354:
5338:
2664:
to make the vaginal opening smaller. From 1966 until 1989, he performed "love surgery" by cutting women's
1796:
harder. Cervical evaluation during labour may be impeded and labour prolonged or obstructed. Third-degree
17785:
17728:
17292:
17079:
17024:
17019:
16916:
16901:
16891:
16514:
16115:
15581:
15361:
15091:
14070:
3061:
1958:
Percentage of 15–49 group who have undergone FGM in 29 countries for which figures were available in 2016
1390:
1382:
787:
272:
13705:
4447:
infants and children, who are born with anomalies that physicians choose to "fix", is analogous to FGM.
1972:
Percentage of 0–14 group who have undergone FGM in 21 countries for which figures were available in 2016
18351:
18316:
18306:
17346:
17228:
17179:
17160:
16639:
16531:
14974:
14183:
12319:
10910:
Bodies and Voices: The Force-field of Representation and Discourse in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies
10908:
Zabus, Chantal (2008). "The Excised Body in African Texts and Contexts". In Borch, Merete Falck (ed.).
10080:
9982:
6130:
4379:: a key moral and legal issue with FGM is that it is mostly conducted on children using physical force.
4273:" practitioners and undermine their agency—in particular when parents are referred to as "mutilators".
3450:
2807:, an American missionary who opposed FGM in the girls' school she helped to run, was murdered in 1930,
2771:
622:
582:
11315:"Effects of female genital cutting on physical health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
11025:
10728:
Strayer, Robert; Murray, Jocelyn (1978). "The CMS and Female Circumcision". In Strayer, Robert (ed.).
9070:
8647:
8593:
Shahira Ahmed, "Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies", in Abusharaf 2007, 176–180.
7648:
6131:"New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth"
3253:
3026:: Egypt bans infibulation in state-run hospitals; allows partial clitoridectomy if parents request it.
18109:
17979:
17937:
16829:
16462:
15969:
14233:
10844:
9438:
4825:
3418:
3011:
2618:
2608:
1836:
1625:
1197:
577:
81:
13687:
12238:
9530:
8993:"In Re: Oluloro: Risk of female genital mutilation as 'extreme hardship' in immigration proceedings"
6471:
Rouzi, Abdulrahim A; Berg, Rigmor C; Alamoudi, Rana; Alzaban, Faten; Sehlo, Mohammad (1 June 2019).
3043:: Central African Republic, Ghana and Guinea, after gaining independence, pass laws restricting FGM.
1759:, and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus. Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in
18321:
17845:
17661:
17628:
17520:
17096:
17034:
17029:
16931:
16727:
16664:
16225:
16028:
15984:
15957:
15804:
15715:
14735:
14715:
14401:
13641:
13594:
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change
13461:
Yasin, Berivan A.; Al-Tawil, Namir G.; Shabila, Nazar P.; Al-Hadithi, Tariq S. (8 September 2013).
12751:
10840:
10567:"African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus"
4431:
4417:
3865:
Birgitte Bagnol, Esmeralda Mariano, "Politics of naming sexual practices," in Sylvia Tamale (ed.),
3588:
2745:
2741:
1993:
985:
809:
794:
449:
254:
13723:
11886:
El Dareer, A. (June 1983). "Attitudes of Sudanese people to the practice of female circumcision".
11424:. Oslo: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services (Kunnskapssenteret). pp. 837–859.
18274:
18128:
17920:
17613:
16936:
16896:
16649:
16605:
16598:
15940:
15338:
15305:
14842:
14745:
14571:
13796:
13625:
11829:"Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery"
9279:
8880:
4388:
2788:
2781:
that day, and the group of girls with whom she was cut was named according to current events, an
2478:
2403:
2371:
of Ethiopia. Judaism requires male circumcision but does not allow FGM. FGM is also practised by
2348:
1816:
1779:
1642:
713:
13857:
9992:"Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices
9183:
8932:
4062:
18187:
18055:
18045:
17910:
17633:
17566:
17541:
17477:
17351:
17044:
16744:
16659:
16509:
16437:
16372:
16350:
16340:
16315:
16305:
15868:
15737:
15693:
15636:
15474:
15392:
15096:
14557:
14360:
12619:
Kouba, Leonard J.; Muasher, Judith (March 1985). "Female Circumcision in Africa: An Overview".
12373:
Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin; Ezejimofor, Martinsixtus C.; Uthman, Olalekan A.; Komba, Paul (2018).
12233:
10935:
Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011).
10749:
9228:
9137:
7303:
4842:
in the fifth century BCE, that may allude to FGM outside Egypt. Xanthus wrote, in a history of
4361:
argued in 1999 that FGM may be conducive to a subject's social well-being in the same way that
4187:
4038:
2827:
2359:
1099:
961:
653:
612:
13463:"Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city"
11573:
9677:
8623:
8505:
8371:
8304:
8272:
8264:
8260:
8236:
8220:
8144:
8010:
7902:
7874:
7866:
7613:
7542:
7105:
7053:
7017:
6914:
5943:
5935:
5839:
5835:
5819:
5598:
5435:
4544:
describes a practice known as nicking or pricking, which currently is categorized as Type IV.
4430:
in the United States during the late 2010s and early 2020s have argued that FGM is similar to
3879:
3719:
3556:
Male and Female Circumcision: Medical, Legal, and Ethical Considerations in Pediatric Practice
2213:
1705:
Late complications vary depending on the type of FGM. They include the formation of scars and
1393:. The 98 participants came from four continents and 23 countries. Among them were physicians,
1139:
18167:
17969:
17773:
17448:
17114:
16834:
16794:
16784:
16739:
16588:
16541:
16499:
16158:
16120:
15831:
15794:
15366:
14983:
14778:
14080:
11813:
10836:
10700:
Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy in the United States: A History of a Medical Treatment
9767:
9723:
9707:
9703:
9661:
9645:
9629:
9060:. U.S. Department of Justice. Executive Office for Immigration Review, decided 13 June 1996.
8477:
8212:
8168:
7986:
7930:
7910:
7734:
7605:
7061:
7037:
5959:
5788:
5380:
5364:
5348:
5257:
4116:
3220:
of Somalia's Ministry of Health speaks against FGM to Somali Democratic Women's Organization.
2229:" to which families feel they must conform to avoid uncut daughters facing social exclusion.
1734:
1678:
1609:
1170:
missionary. References to the practice as mutilation increased throughout the 1970s. In 1975
933:
557:
509:
13269:
10741:
10476:"'Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse"
6205:
5675:
2639:
On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females
2569:
in the Islamic Middle East up until as late as in the mid 20th-century, and the practice of
1883:
18182:
18133:
17453:
17443:
17371:
17366:
17341:
17326:
17321:
16956:
16911:
16881:
16864:
16854:
16702:
16622:
16610:
16546:
16519:
16401:
16320:
16300:
16250:
16105:
15821:
15769:
15458:
15441:
15431:
15152:
14864:
14750:
14444:
14346:
Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children
14075:
5753:
4353:, in which the maternal function of the breast becomes secondary to men's sexual pleasure.
4269:
of the opposition to FGM, and the failure to appreciate FGM's cultural context, serves to "
4258:
4031:
Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children
3639:
2665:
2501:
2426:
2233:
reported that, in Sudan in the 1970s, cut girls from an Arab ethnic group would mock uncut
2022:
1738:
1511:
1374:
1194:
Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children
1180:
757:
677:
31:
10571:
Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses
10480:
Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses
10445:
Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses
2835:
8:
17686:
17643:
17608:
17515:
17495:
16774:
16764:
16734:
16722:
16717:
16627:
16583:
16578:
16573:
16295:
16230:
16210:
16143:
16088:
16018:
15853:
15826:
15799:
15683:
15626:
15501:
15453:
15436:
15416:
15203:
15086:
15004:
14895:
14800:
14795:
14783:
14700:
14393:
14213:
13908:
13785:
13698:"Fresh progress toward the elimination of female genital mutilation and cutting in Egypt"
12697:
9682:
6893:
6733:
4839:
4350:
4313:
3325:
October: Cairo Family Planning Association holds seminar, "Bodily Mutilation of Females".
3129:
2866:
2669:
2642:
2561:
2142:
2101:
1824:
1332:
1171:
1127:
821:
804:
639:
17:
6831:, 70–73. FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw, and Kanuri people.
6414:
Milaat, Waleed Abdullah; Ibrahim, Nahla Khamis; Albar, Hussain Mohammed (1 March 2018).
4033:, founded in 1984 in Dakar, Senegal, called for an end to the practice, as did the UN's
3354:: British writer Scilla McLean writes report on FGM for Minority Rights Group in France.
2531:, citing the physician Philomenes. The procedure was performed in case the clitoris, or
431:
236:
18284:
18013:
17867:
17638:
17623:
16961:
16951:
16941:
16926:
16921:
16906:
16859:
16839:
16814:
16779:
16769:
16749:
16563:
16489:
16442:
16417:
16391:
16255:
16083:
15920:
15841:
15484:
15278:
15220:
15175:
15147:
14665:
13824:
WHO Guidelines on the Management of Health Complications from Female Genital Mutilation
13724:"67/146. Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations"
13707:
Global strategy to stop health-care providers from performing female genital mutilation
13497:
13462:
13437:
13353:
13298:
13273:
13244:
13207:
13137:
13092:
13047:
13012:
12955:
12909:
12874:
12856:
12839:
12826:
12774:
12720:
12681:
12644:
12636:
12607:
12591:
12554:
12503:
12449:
12429:
12416:
Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation".
12399:
12374:
12356:
12331:
12311:
12184:
12096:
12061:
12045:
12008:
11975:
11957:
11924:
11867:
11796:
11771:
11684:
11634:
11601:
11555:
11522:
11504:
11471:
11398:
11365:
11347:
11314:
11296:
11263:
11250:
11199:
11166:
11012:
10848:
10673:
Ethnic Patriotism and the East African Revival: A History of Dissent, c. 1935–1972
9475:
9374:
Jana Meredyth Talton, "Asylum for Genital-Mutilation Fugitives: Building a Precedent",
6505:
6472:
6448:
6415:
2749:
2552:, rose petals, date pits, or a "genital powder made from baked clay" might be applied.
2326:
2302:
2264:
2010:
1167:
1084:
863:
777:
747:
644:
634:
13659:
13425:
13332:
13315:
12291:
11230:
4867:
calls the Egyptian Doctors' Society opposition the "first known campaign" against FGM.
4266:
2834:("Shield of Young Girls"), the membership of which included Raheli Warigia (mother of
2744:(present-day Kenya) began campaigning against FGM in the early 20th century, when Dr.
2575:
2524:
1952:
18104:
18023:
17947:
17925:
17438:
17356:
17207:
17150:
17007:
16886:
16849:
16844:
16824:
16819:
16789:
16754:
16707:
16697:
16568:
16494:
16484:
16477:
16467:
16367:
16360:
16335:
16325:
16310:
16175:
16148:
15935:
15915:
15900:
15883:
15774:
15764:
15700:
15666:
15651:
15385:
15300:
15215:
15124:
14812:
14705:
14606:
14304:
13931:
13927:
13828:
13539:
13531:
13527:
13502:
13484:
13429:
13396:
13388:
13345:
13337:
13302:
13240:
13215:
13199:
13129:
13121:
13084:
13076:
13004:
12996:
12959:
12947:
12914:
12896:
12861:
12782:
12673:
12648:
12599:
12583:
12546:
12538:
12533:
12516:
12441:
12433:
12404:
12361:
12343:
12303:
12295:
12259:
12251:
12247:
12176:
12168:
12139:
12131:
12053:
12013:
11995:
11962:
11944:
11911:
11903:
11859:
11851:
11847:
11801:
11758:
11750:
11746:
11721:
11713:
11676:
11668:
11664:
11639:
11621:
11560:
11542:
11509:
11491:
11443:
11435:
11425:
11403:
11385:
11352:
11334:
11301:
11283:
11242:
11234:
11204:
11186:
11153:
11145:
11110:
11102:
11055:
11047:
11042:
11004:
10996:
10966:
10958:
10882:
10878:
10803:
10802:. New York: The Feminist Press at the City University of New York. pp. 118–120.
10753:
10742:
10740:(2011). "Researching and theorising sexualities in Africa". In Tamale, Sylvia (ed.).
10645:
10610:
10574:
10483:
10448:
10425:
10419:
10386:
10338:
10331:
10270:
10168:
10116:
10109:
10104:
10054:
9205:
9159:
7499:
7472:
6510:
6492:
6453:
6435:
5226:
4301:
4175:
country for the purpose of FGM. The first FGM conviction in the US was in 2006, when
4167:
2614:
2590:
2226:
1966:
1896:
1848:
1805:
1662:
1650:
1328:
1155:
1091:
912:
875:
816:
767:
735:
553:
549:
14208:
13779:, Innocenti Working Paper No. XXX, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2008.
13441:
13357:
13096:
13072:
13051:
13016:
12685:
12611:
12558:
12188:
11871:
11688:
11016:
9507:
9094:"Judge rules that federal law banning female genital mutilation is unconstitutional"
8715:
7543:"From Heresy to Harm: Self-Castrators in the Civic Discourse of Late Tsarist Russia"
6776:
6216:
4354:
4210:
offered protection to FGM victims; the decision followed an asylum application from
3792:
3504:
3141:
2822:
There was some opposition from Kenyan women themselves. At the mission in Tumutumu,
1445:(the fold of skin surrounding the clitoral glans)". Type Ia involves removal of the
17666:
17433:
17428:
16971:
16966:
16876:
16804:
16799:
16759:
16712:
16687:
16632:
16526:
16422:
16355:
16240:
16205:
16125:
16045:
16013:
15974:
15947:
15910:
15846:
15816:
15752:
15747:
15725:
15705:
15646:
15631:
15479:
14695:
14452:
14238:
14228:
14223:
13946:
13903:
13523:
13492:
13474:
13421:
13378:
13327:
13294:
13265:
13236:
13194:
13189:
13177:
13162:
13141:
13113:
13068:
13037:
12988:
12939:
12904:
12886:
12851:
12818:
12766:
12712:
12665:
12628:
12575:
12528:
12495:
12453:
12425:
12394:
12386:
12351:
12315:
12287:
12243:
12160:
12121:
12086:
12065:
12037:
12003:
11987:
11952:
11936:
11895:
11843:
11791:
11783:
11742:
11705:
11660:
11629:
11613:
11550:
11534:
11499:
11483:
11393:
11377:
11342:
11326:
11291:
11275:
11254:
11226:
11194:
11178:
11135:
11092:
11037:
10988:
10948:
10874:
10870:
10707:
10378:
9906:
9195:
9149:
7462:
6500:
6484:
6443:
6427:
4479:
4457:
4335:
4262:
3995:
3982:
3958:
3217:
3086:
3075:
2904:
2871:
2752:
Mission (CSM) in Kikuyu. An important ethnic marker, the practice was known by the
2367:
their Muslim counterparts. The only Jewish group known to have practised it is the
2318:
1592:
1528:
1320:
1212:
1163:
1103:
956:
843:
672:
629:
572:
46:
16033:
13817:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, December 2013.
13718:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, February 2016.
13636:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, December 2013.
13178:"Victorian clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and his harmless operative procedure"
11182:
7426:
https://www.mwnhelpline.co.uk//go_files/issue/968436-MWNU%20FGM%20leaflet_WEB..pdf
4372:
2907:, Church of Scotland missionary in Kenya, calls FGM "sexual mutilation of women."
18162:
18018:
17882:
17840:
17701:
17676:
17600:
17490:
17472:
17418:
17302:
17139:
16593:
16452:
16384:
16260:
16200:
16180:
16138:
16078:
16052:
16040:
15979:
15925:
15873:
15836:
15757:
15720:
15656:
15353:
14972:
14879:
14869:
14817:
14740:
14725:
14690:
14685:
14648:
14284:
14274:
14050:
13941:
12091:
12074:
12025:
11381:
10992:
10637:
10604:
10600:
10566:
10562:
10475:
10440:
10402:
The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church
10317:
10258:
10254:
10160:
10046:
9988:
9913:
9902:
9894:
9826:
9802:
9791:
9569:
9537:
9526:
9503:
9484:
9453:
9434:
9394:
9362:
9306:
9286:
9263:
9235:
9181:
9124:
9100:
9077:
9057:
9041:
8963:
8939:
8903:
8874:
8863:
8852:
8841:
8817:
8742:
8722:
8654:
8630:
8525:
8457:
7370:
7197:
6783:
6740:
6212:
6137:
5760:
5682:
4698:
4502:
4396:
4376:
4358:
4346:
4277:
4250:
4046:
3518:
The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church
2816:
2785:
that allowed the Kikuyu to track people and events going back hundreds of years.
2626:
2593:"set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so".
2474:
2230:
2060:
1925:
1714:
1654:
1600:
1274:
1147:
907:
848:
597:
486:
17171:
13822:
13697:
13383:
13366:
12943:
12126:
12109:
11940:
11330:
11279:
11264:"Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted"
10382:
9887:
8867:
8736:"Commemorating International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation"
6879:
6488:
3622:
3033:
UN asks the WHO to investigate FGM; WHO responds that it is not a medical issue.
2625:, believed that masturbation, or "unnatural irritation" of the clitoris, caused
2397:
of an uncircumcised girl and the flakes of skin of an uncircumcised bald man.
18427:
18205:
18032:
18008:
17952:
17830:
17825:
17815:
17803:
17681:
17465:
17336:
17282:
17107:
16946:
16396:
16245:
16057:
16008:
15858:
15742:
15343:
15108:
15042:
15032:
15014:
14874:
14857:
14832:
14773:
14658:
14596:
14581:
14299:
14269:
14203:
14055:
14035:
13777:"Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory"
13552:
13167:
13150:
13042:
13025:
12992:
12669:
11538:
10852:
10721:
From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era
10296:
10092:
9406:
9375:
8519:"Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'"
6175:. End FGM European Network, U.S. End FGM/C Network and Equality Now. March 2020
5968:
5129:
4796:, because there is no information about what constituted the circumcised state.
3733:"Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'"
3436:
3366:
3203:
3065:
2782:
2661:
2630:
2505:
2490:
2268:
2259:
2169:
2161:
2076:
1921:
1768:
1454:
1450:
1438:
1394:
1342:
The procedures are generally performed by a traditional circumciser (cutter or
1336:
1316:
1143:
1123:
1060:
880:
870:
826:
730:
567:
18214:
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
13809:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, July 2014.
13654:, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, July 2014.
12770:
12499:
12390:
12164:
12041:
11991:
11709:
11487:
9519:
9496:
7467:
7450:
6431:
5127:
5125:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5117:
5115:
5113:
5111:
5109:
2095:
practise FGM at around the same rate as they do in Somalia. But in Guinea all
18391:
18243:
18157:
18118:
18094:
18003:
17887:
17820:
17691:
17595:
17556:
17413:
17248:
16330:
16290:
16285:
16195:
15991:
15863:
15671:
15295:
15268:
15027:
14915:
14807:
14638:
14586:
14474:
14417:
14309:
14253:
14198:
13920:
13535:
13488:
13479:
13392:
13341:
13203:
13125:
13080:
13000:
12951:
12900:
12587:
12542:
12437:
12347:
12299:
12255:
12172:
12135:
12108:
Horowitz, Carol R.; Jackson, J. Carey; Teklemariam, Mamae (19 January 1995).
11999:
11948:
11907:
11855:
11754:
11717:
11672:
11625:
11617:
11546:
11495:
11439:
11389:
11338:
11287:
11238:
11190:
11149:
11106:
11051:
11000:
10962:
10793:
10737:
9423:
8735:
8284:
7503:
7476:
6496:
6439:
5230:
4915:
4285:
4280:, herself strongly opposed to FGM, argued in 2005 that renaming the practice
4042:
4019:
3468:
3400:
2953:
2874:
criticized FGM in 1970, one of the first African feminists to do so publicly.
2767:
2753:
2732:
2714:
2653:
2419:
2313:(sayings attributed to Muhammad) as noble but not required. Islamic scholars
2198:
2181:
2105:
2092:
1856:
1793:
1446:
1442:
1220:
1056:
895:
706:
607:
602:
587:
383:
224:
13990:
12891:
12822:
12332:"Female genital mutilation/Female circumcision. Who is at risk in the U.S.?"
11787:
11523:"Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession"
8125:"Scottish Missionaries and the Circumcision Controversy in Kenya, 1900–1960"
7936:
5578:
4548:
corresponds to Type I (clitoridectomy) and Type II (excision) combined. And
4253:
criticized the renaming of female circumcision to female genital mutilation.
2641:(1866), doctors in London accused him of quackery and expelled him from the
1649:
Common short-term complications include swelling, excessive bleeding, pain,
1449:
only. This is rarely performed alone. The more common procedure is Type Ib (
100:
Africa, Southeast Asia, Middle East, and within communities from these areas
18072:
18067:
17808:
17708:
17653:
17381:
17260:
17255:
16504:
16406:
16345:
16280:
16275:
16235:
16185:
15952:
15930:
15789:
15784:
15710:
15676:
15290:
15230:
15119:
15076:
15071:
15022:
14999:
14847:
14837:
14675:
14653:
14601:
14591:
14335:
14314:
14294:
14248:
14243:
14188:
14060:
14040:
13832:
13772:
13543:
13506:
13433:
13349:
13306:
13219:
13133:
13117:
13088:
13008:
12918:
12865:
12786:
12747:
12693:
12677:
12656:
Mandara, Mairo Usman (March 2004). "Female genital mutilation in Nigeria".
12603:
12550:
12445:
12408:
12307:
12263:
12180:
12057:
11966:
11899:
11863:
11805:
11725:
11643:
11447:
11407:
11356:
11305:
11246:
11208:
11157:
11140:
11123:
11097:
11080:
11059:
11008:
10970:
10953:
10936:
10518:
10224:
10212:
9442:
9209:
9200:
9154:
8615:
8611:
7492:"'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India"
6545:"'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India"
6514:
6457:
5106:
4905:
The Centers for Disease Control's previous estimate was 168,000 as of 1990.
4838:
Knight 2001 writes that there is one extant reference from antiquity, from
4757:
4735:
4714:
4694:
4596:
4464:
4440:
4413:
4211:
4115:, held every 6 February. UNICEF began in 2003 to promote an evidence-based
3969:(1980), which described her own clitoridectomy when she was six years old:
3904:
3900:
3529:
3362:
3191:
2933:
2808:
2804:
2792:
2776:
2570:
2545:
2422:
2234:
2217:
Keur Simbara, Senegal, abandoned FGM in 1998 after a three-year program by
2186:
2177:
2147:
2084:
2069:
2014:
1980:
1784:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1682:
1523:
1473:
1469:
1307:
1280:
1252:
1107:
1076:
1068:
1064:
858:
838:
831:
799:
667:
649:
419:
413:
194:
164:
38:
13880:
Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey Into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa
13400:
12365:
12143:
12017:
11915:
11762:
11680:
11564:
11513:
11418:
Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C)
11114:
9163:
3336:
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
2104:
people are the only ethnicity not known to practice FGM or participate in
1863:(painful sexual intercourse). One-third reported reduced sexual feelings.
18062:
17998:
17835:
17778:
17718:
17713:
17551:
17500:
17361:
15779:
15688:
15333:
15258:
15136:
15081:
14852:
14633:
14628:
14576:
14526:
14289:
14279:
14218:
14045:
13915:
11165:
Askew, Ian; Chaiban, Ted; Kalasa, Benoit; Sen, Purna (1 September 2016).
10798:; Mulokozi, Mugaybuso M.; Shitemi, Naomi L.; Yahya-Othman, Saida (eds.).
10795:
10691:
American Women in Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and Practice
10352:
9820:"From Midwives to Doctors: Searching for 'Safer' Circumcisions in Egypt?"
7721:
7699:
4819:
4792:
Knight adds that Egyptologists are uncomfortable with the translation to
4435:
4384:
4362:
4297:
4183:
opposes all forms of the practice, including pricking the clitoral skin.
4176:
4120:
4086: Partial or subnational FGM criminalisation, or unclear legal status
4003:
3383:
3309:
3236:
3157:
2944:: Religious leaders and British women lead campaign against FGM in Sudan.
2598:
2470:
2406:
2368:
2336:
2173:
2157:
2151:
2096:
2065:
1860:
1764:
1746:
1742:
1690:
1686:
1666:
1231:("having your bath"). A common Arabic term for purification has the root
1185:
772:
617:
592:
545:
533:
50:
42:
17203:
14436:
13847:
FGM: Survivors narrate experiences dealing with absence of the clitoris.
13277:
13248:
5524:
4518:
For example, "a young woman must 'have her bath' before she has a baby."
1596:
are told they may have difficulty giving birth without stretched labia.
1162:
referred to it as the sexual mutilation of women, following the lead of
17460:
17400:
17331:
16432:
16190:
15323:
15285:
15273:
15263:
15198:
15164:
13787:
Changing a harmful social convention: Female genital cutting/mutilation
13764:
Joint Program on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change
12830:
12778:
12724:
12595:
12507:
12049:
10229:
Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan
9883:
9683:"Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography"
9356:"France reduces genital cutting with prevention, prosecutions – lawyer"
8844:, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia. New Zealand:
6894:"Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography"
6653:"FGM rates in east Africa drop from 71% to 8% in 20 years, study shows"
6274:
3814:
3455:
Sisters in Affliction: Circumcision and Infibulation of Women in Africa
2657:
2603:
2527:(mid-5th to mid-6th century CE), offered more detail in book 16 of his
2344:
2332:
2314:
1832:
1801:
1797:
1347:
973:
885:
519:
353:
212:
13211:
13151:"Female genital mutilation: A tragedy for women's reproductive health"
12640:
12100:
8846:"Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961"
6793:
5450:, 42–44 and table 5, 181 (for cutters), 46 (for home and anaesthesia).
3668:
1269:, although none of the procedures are required within Islam. The term
17850:
17723:
17583:
17573:
17408:
17386:
17313:
16427:
16023:
14827:
14822:
14193:
9796:"Female Genital Surgeries: The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable"
9795:
9458:
Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports
8973:
6473:"Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"
4369:(cosmetic surgery) to remove what they see as excess genital tissue.
4317:
3286:, "Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children".
3248:
3231:
2656:, a gynaecologist in Dayton, Ohio, performed non-standard repairs of
1722:
1634:
1398:
917:
782:
725:
494:
359:
68:
12716:
12330:
Jones, Wanda K.; Smith, J.; Kieke, B.; Wilcox, L. (September 1997).
11079:
American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Bioethics (July 1998).
8946:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March–April 2016, 131.
7812:
4540:
UNICEF 2013: "These categories do not fully match the WHO typology.
4080: General criminal provision that might be used to prosecute FGM
2586:
1196:
began referring to it as female genital mutilation in 1990, and the
1071:
and closure of the vulva (type 3). In this last procedure, known as
968:
18233:
18050:
17964:
17942:
17862:
17763:
17671:
17578:
17505:
17423:
17243:
16472:
16265:
16133:
15878:
15408:
15224:
14710:
14670:
13553:"Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total"
12632:
12579:
11312:
10322:
The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective
10247:
Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism
10006:"Should Surgeons Perform Irreversible Genital Surgery on Children?"
9071:"Man gets 10-year sentence for circumcision of 2-year-old daughter"
7180:, 52. Also see figure 6.1, 54, and figures 8.1A – 8.1D, 90–91.
6112:
5974:
5548:
5514:
5512:
4444:
4293:
4270:
3978:
3283:
3071:
2922:
to take an oath against FGM; most leave to form their own churches.
2823:
2549:
2018:
1998:
1820:
1710:
1674:
1312:
1266:
701:
389:
314:
206:
158:
14495:
Children Act 1989 (Amendment) (Female Genital Mutilation) Act 2019
12515:
Klouman, Elise; Manongi, Rachel; Klepp, Knut-Inge (January 2005).
8716:"48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women"
7191:"Social Norm Change Theorists meet again in Keur Simbara, Senegal"
6262:
6048:
6046:
6044:
5219:"Dramatic rise in women and girls being cut, new FGM data reveals"
4246:
2415:
2358:
Christian sect in Europe practices FGM as part of redemption from
18152:
18123:
18099:
18081:
17877:
17857:
15641:
15235:
14680:
13973:
12873:
Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012).
10778:
Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya
10238:
Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community
9411:
Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery
9316:
8835:"Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework"
8620:
Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide
6170:"Female genital mutilation/cutting: a call for a global response"
5754:"Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting"
4475:
International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation
4289:
4113:
International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation
4074: Specific criminal provision or national law prohibiting FGM
3909:
Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide
3602:
Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community
2486:
2372:
2355:
2285:
Khitan (circumcision) § Comparisons with female circumcision
2194:
1730:
1726:
1718:
1670:
1658:
1292:
853:
425:
395:
371:
248:
242:
218:
188:
146:
11923:
Elmusharaf, Susan; Elhadi, Nagla; Almroth, Lars (15 July 2006).
10934:
9182:
American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (1 May 2010).
8648:"A brutal custom: Join forces to banish the mutilation of women"
8430:
8428:
8021:
8019:
6920:
6187:
6031:
6029:
6027:
6018:
5509:
5133:
3396:
2500:
has shown no evidence of FGM. Citing the Australian pathologist
2208:
17990:
17872:
17696:
17618:
17277:
17272:
17267:
15250:
15187:
15052:
15037:
14730:
14720:
14355:
14065:
13961:
13643:
Eliminating Female genital mutilation: An Interagency Statement
12273:"Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications"
11732:
11122:
American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (July 2010).
10866:
10862:
10769:
Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change
10546:
Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change
10530:
Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change
10097:
Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change
8327:"Kenyan girls taken to remote regions to undergo FGM in secret"
7942:
7922:
7829:"Female genital mutilation linked to Red Sea slave trade route"
7716:
7694:
7381:
7379:
6041:
5536:
5015:
4914:
The judge made his ruling during a case against members of the
4814:
4403:
3272:
2634:
2574:
undesired pregnancies". Mackie cites the Portuguese missionary
2512:
2322:
2309:
2255:
2218:
2088:
2002:
1928:, most of whom fell into the "cut, no flesh removed" category.
1872:
1706:
1553:
1257:
1080:
1044:
443:
365:
347:
308:
200:
152:
85:
13689:
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: What Might the Future Hold?
13460:
13026:"Obstetric management of women with female genital mutilation"
11651:
Cutner, Lawrence P. (July 1985). "Female genital mutilation".
9563:"Doctor found not guilty of FGM on patient at London hospital"
9508:"Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005"
8877:, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.
6787:
5475:
5473:
5471:
17752:
17287:
17238:
15315:
14991:
11124:"Ritual genital cutting of female minors [withdrawn]"
8883:, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada.
8425:
8016:
7839:
7215:
7067:
6222:
6024:
5980:
5737:
5735:
5413:
4843:
2520:
2516:
2497:
2362:
and to remain chaste. Christian missionaries in Africa were
2298:
2080:
2026:
1924:
girls had been infibulated, compared with two percent of the
1605:
1549:
1288:
1284:
1265:
means "path or way" in Arabic and refers to the tradition of
1036:
467:
455:
437:
407:
401:
377:
302:
296:
278:
266:
260:
182:
176:
13726:, United Nations General Assembly, adopted 20 December 2012.
13256:
Silverman, Eric K. (2004). "Anthropology and Circumcision".
12372:
12222:
11024:
Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008).
9932:"US bill equates trans healthcare with 'genital mutilation'"
9864:
9118:"U.S. toughens ban on 'abhorrent' female genital mutilation"
8174:
7376:
6956:
6853:. 28TooMany, Registered Charity: No. 1150379. Archived from
6646:
6058:
5530:
5391:
5389:
4231:
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
4227:
Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005
3487:
founded in Dakar, Senegal, calls for an end to the practice.
2693:
Campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya
2185:
a child's sex by eliminating external traces of androgyny,"
2180:, who in 1992 underwent clitoridectomy as an adult during a
2083:(58 percent prevalence within age group 15–49, as of 2011),
1415:
17957:
15377:
14790:
13801:, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, October 2010.
12698:"Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account"
11602:"Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?"
10555:
From Midwives to Medicine: The Birth of American Gynecology
10357:
The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females
9333:
9331:
8285:
wa Kihurani, Warigia wa Johanna & Murigo wa Meshak 2007
7636:
6992:
5468:
4171:
4008:
The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females
3314:
The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females
2030:
2006:
1190:
The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females
1111:
461:
290:
284:
230:
170:
13985:
13672:, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, February 2016.
13410:"Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history"
12107:
10977:
9773:
9388:"Current situation of female genital mutilation in France"
8897:"Current situation of female genital mutilation in Sweden"
7776:
7227:
6980:
5992:
5845:
5732:
5702:
5629:
4566:
4037:
in Vienna in 1993. The conference listed FGM as a form of
3144:
calls FGM "the best kept secret in the world" in her book
2607:
described a clitoridectomy performed in 1822 in Berlin by
17768:
11026:"Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation"
10301:
Woman, Why Do You Weep: Circumcision and its Consequences
9958:"'Gender Affirmation': The New Female Genital Mutilation"
9809:, 31(1), 1999, pp. 79–106 (hereafter Obermeyer 1999), 94.
9595:
9397:, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union.
9229:"Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option"
8906:, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union.
8401:
8064:"Ohio Woman Still Scarred By 'Love' Doctor's Sex Surgery"
7737:
argues that Strabo conflated the Jews with the Egyptians.
7626:
7624:
7622:
7147:
7123:
6075:
6073:
5567:
5565:
5563:
5386:
5083:
5081:
5079:
3659:, University of Wisconsin Press, 2010, pp. 193, 195.
3441:
Woman, Why Do You Weep? Circumcision and its Consequences
3299:(BBSAWS) forms in Khartoum, aiming to fight FGM in Sudan.
2351:
Muslim community who practice it as a religious custom.
2331:(weak). FGM is regarded as an obligatory practice by the
1842:
1694:
1208:(FGM/C), preferred by those who work with practitioners.
1200:(WHO) followed suit in 1991. Other English terms include
18219:
Declaration on the elimination of violence against women
14331:
Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies
9328:
9300:"When will Canada take action for girls who endure FGM?"
7948:
7522:
7251:
6944:
6470:
5401:
4109:
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women
4020:
Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies
3297:
Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies
2611:
on a 15-year-old girl who was masturbating excessively.
11922:
11215:
10821:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 54–86.
10139:. Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID.
10133:
De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam
8535:
7313:
6932:
6118:
6085:
5799:
5797:
5554:
3843:
The International Crime of Female Genital Mutilation,"
3132:
calls it "female genital mutilation" in paper on Sudan.
1697:, although no epidemiological studies have shown this.
13869:"The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation"
13597:, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, July 2013.
13106:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
12978:
12872:
10937:"Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting"
10573:. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46.
8547:
8186:
7880:
7788:
7764:
7752:
7740:
7676:
7619:
7451:"The Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in India"
6828:
6717:
6715:
6700:
6351:
6349:
6280:
6268:
6070:
5560:
5076:
3684:, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, p. 146.
3194:
calls FGM "ritual mutilation of the female genitalia."
3002:
magazine editor Rabee' Gheith publish articles on FGM.
17909:
13662:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 31 January 2018.
12932:
Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde
12875:"An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria"
12329:
11164:
10333:
Testosterone Dreams: Rejuvenation, Aphrodisia, Doping
10130:
Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008).
8979:
7430:
7407:
5297:
5295:
5185:
4855:
Knight adds that the attribution to Galen is suspect.
4443:." It has been argued that the genital alteration of
1468:(excision) is the complete or partial removal of the
27:
Ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the vulva
15491:
Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)
13624:
Diop, Nafissatou J.; Moreau, Amadou; Benga, Hélène.
11415:
Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis (27 March 2014).
10919:
Language and Translation in Postcolonial Literatures
10217:
Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan
9607:
9088:
9086:
8909:
8855:, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. Europe:
8725:, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993.
8559:
8483:
8413:
6834:
5794:
5747:
4257:
Anthropologists have accused FGM eradicationists of
3604:, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pp. 92, 103.
3534:
Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan
1472:, with or without removal of the clitoral glans and
1075:, a small hole is left for the passage of urine and
13790:, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2005.
13767:, Annual report 2012, New York: UNFPA–UNICEF, 2012.
13669:
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern
13320:
International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics
13316:"Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?"
13314:Toubia, Nadia F.; Sharief, E. H. (September 2003).
12981:
International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics
12658:
International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics
12514:
12150:
10730:
The Making of Missionary Communities in East Africa
10532:. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Archived from
10528:. In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.).
10111:
The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present
9930:Cariboni, Diana; Bauer, Sydney (22 December 2022).
9745:
8389:
7822:
7820:
7559:
6968:
6814:(2012), UNICEF statistical profile, July 2014, 2/4.
6712:
6526:
6524:
6346:
6102:
6100:
6014:
5542:
4324:
2241:("Hey, unclean!"). The Zabarma girls would respond
13854:, The Kinsey Institute (bibliography 1960s–1980s).
11776:Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences
10523:"Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End"
10372:
10330:
10269:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
10108:
10053:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
9251:
9249:
6413:
6246:
5485:
5292:
4918:community in Michigan accused of carrying out FGM.
2798:was murdered in Kikuyu in 1930 after opposing FGM.
1901:United States Agency for International Development
1612:(holes that allow urine to seep into the vagina).
1599:A definition of FGM from the WHO in 1995 included
1251:. Communities may refer to FGM as "pharaonic" for
1035:) is the cutting or removal of some or all of the
17201:
13513:
13024:Rashid, Mumtaz; Rashid, Mohammed H (April 2007).
10830:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
10324:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
10087:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
9322:
9083:
8764:
8307:(131 for the girls as "central actors"); also in
7858:
7856:
7854:
6799:
6618:
6594:
6361:
6256:
6228:
6193:
5609:
5518:
5280:
4760:, 1996: "The Koran is silent on FGM, but several
2544:The genital area was then cleaned with a sponge,
2363:
2045:
1118:performing all forms of the procedure, including
18389:
13887:"Female circumcision and infibulation in Africa"
12270:
12198:"Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland"
11827:Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004).
11826:
11695:
10789:. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown.
10609:. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9858:
9854:
9735:
9428:"Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales"
9365:, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 27 September 2012.
8868:"18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation"
8675:
8673:
8671:
8040:"Charges Against Doctor Bring Ire and Questions"
7817:
7657:, 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman).
6521:
6097:
6064:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5322:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5162:
5160:
5158:
4241:
3498:
3485:Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices
3275:calls on women's groups to mobilize against FGM.
2978:, bans infibulation; the law is barely enforced.
1733:opening may still be obstructed by scar tissue.
13058:
12840:"Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice"
12485:
12271:Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010).
11167:"A repeat call for complete abandonment of FGM"
10732:. New York: State University of New York Press.
10702:. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
10267:Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives
10193:
10085:Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives
10051:Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives
9999:Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review
9246:
8006:
7449:Nanda, Anjani; Ramani, Vandanee (31 May 2022).
6153:
6035:
6010:
5986:
5902:
5900:
5863:
5594:
5592:
5590:
5588:
5586:
5066:
5064:
4422:FGM has been compared to other procedures that
4201:Female genital mutilation in the United Kingdom
4149:Act Prohibiting the Genital Mutilation of Women
3967:The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World
3825:, 5(4), Summer 1980 (pp. 807–809), p. 809.
3579:El Salam 1999, pp. 318–319; UNICEF 2013, p. 10.
2686:
2581:
1536:satisfactory or whether more is to be cut off.
13367:"Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue"
12879:Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research
12752:"Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?"
11818:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (
11364:Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013).
9004:"An Ancient Ritual and a Mother's Asylum Plea"
8892:
8890:
7851:
7009:
7007:
6570:"Q&A on what Female Genital Mutilation is"
6393:"Q&A on what Female Genital Mutilation is"
5177:
5175:
4161:Female genital mutilation in the United States
4143:Immigration spread the practice to Australia,
3985:raised the health consequences of FGM in 1977.
3894:
3575:
3573:
3382:July: African women boycott session featuring
2675:
2135: — Stephanie Welsh, Newhouse News Service
17187:
15393:
14958:
14542:
14020:
14006:
13551:Yoder, P. Stanley; Khan, Shane (March 2008).
13313:
11836:Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica
11470:Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995).
11414:
10727:
10159:Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011).
10158:
9929:
8745:, Population Reference Bureau, February 2009.
8668:
8581:
8440:
8434:
8216:
8207:, 132; for the "sexual mutilation of women",
7101:
6219:, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, UNICEF.
5998:
5939:
5766:
5763:, United Nations Population Fund, April 2010.
5458:
5456:
5319:
5263:
5155:
5149:
4261:, and have been criticized in turn for their
4208:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
3934:
3594:
2819:that the killer had tried to circumcise her.
2617:, an English gynaecologist, president of the
2354:There is no mention of FGM in the Bible. The
2209:Social obligation, poor access to information
1984:to be living with FGM in those 30 countries.
1755:are common because of the obstruction to the
993:
13679:Female Genital Mutilation: A Teachers' Guide
13226:
13023:
12925:
12618:
12521:Tropical Medicine & International Health
12418:Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology
12415:
11469:
11023:
10828:The Language of Human Rights in West Germany
10819:Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood
10366:Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience
10337:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
10240:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
10205:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion
9487:, legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives.
9463:
8451:"Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt's radical feminist"
8095:"Doctor Loses Practice Over Genital Surgery"
7807:
7805:
7803:
7654:
6962:
6157:
6106:
6052:
5897:
5665:
5583:
5479:
5419:
5197:
5061:
5051:
5049:
5047:
5045:
5043:
5041:
5039:
5037:
5035:
5033:
5005:
5003:
5001:
4999:
4997:
4643:Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology
4404:Analogy to other genital-altering procedures
3682:The Language of Human Rights in West Germany
2936:murdered in Kenya during protests about FGM.
2735:dance-songs against church opposition to FGM
2295:Al-Azhar Supreme Council of Islamic Research
2281:Religious views on female genital mutilation
2164:chose to undergo clitoridectomy as an adult.
1174:, an American anthropologist, used the term
939:Sex offender registries in the United States
14516:Activists against female genital mutilation
14480:Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985
13891:Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography
13827:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016.
13604:Classification of female genital mutilation
11363:
10780:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
10359:. Lexington: Women's International Network.
10249:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
9831:The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy
9477:Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985
9462:For an early article on FGM in the UK, see
9350:
9348:
9346:
9257:"Canada Gives Somali Mother Refugee Status"
8928:
8926:
8924:
8887:
8062:Donaldson James, Susan (13 December 2012).
7490:Cantera, Angel L. Martínez (6 March 2018).
7448:
7004:
6149:
5172:
4219:Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985
4127:
4006:, an Austrian-American feminist, published
3891:Wildenthal 2012, p.. 250, n.. 71.
3850:
3582:
3570:
3539:
3536:, Princeton University Press, 2007, p. 241.
2633:followed Brown's work and in 1862 slit the
2124:1996 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography
18270:International Center for Research on Women
17194:
17180:
16154:African-American women's suffrage movement
15400:
15386:
14965:
14951:
14556:
14549:
14535:
14013:
13999:
13757:, New York: UNFPA, UNICEF, September 2013.
13737:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 1998.
13682:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005.
13646:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2008.
13607:, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014.
12463:"Why Some Women Choose to Get Circumcised"
10825:
10706:
10557:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
10368:. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
10263:Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?"
10129:
9779:
8473:
7401:
6882:. Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada.
6543:Cantera, Angel L Martínez (6 March 2018).
6295:, 47. For the years and country profiles:
5453:
5395:
4236:
3941:
3927:
3774:, Henry Holt & Co, 2012 , p. 324.
3705:
3703:
3561:
3548:
3510:
3388:Mid-Decade Conference on Women, Copenhagen
2998:: Egyptian journalist Amina al Sa'eed and
2865:
1557:girl's family, the procedure is repeated.
1453:), the complete or partial removal of the
1385:, in collaboration with the Department of
1000:
986:
30:"FGM" redirects here. For other uses, see
13696:
13550:
13496:
13478:
13382:
13331:
13255:
13193:
13166:
13103:
13041:
12908:
12890:
12855:
12532:
12398:
12355:
12237:
12125:
12090:
12024:
12007:
11956:
11885:
11795:
11770:Elduma, Adel Hussein (15 February 2018).
11633:
11554:
11503:
11397:
11346:
11295:
11198:
11139:
11096:
11041:
10952:
10697:
10316:
10295:
10253:
10231:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
10044:
9763:
9601:
9199:
9184:"Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors"
9153:
9051:"In re Fauziya KASINGA, file A73 476 695"
8541:
8446:
8037:
8025:
7886:
7800:
7466:
7442:
7364:"Egypt Officials Ban Female Circumcision"
7346:
7299:
7221:
7153:
7129:
7089:
7085:
7073:
7033:
7029:
6950:
6926:
6650:
6504:
6447:
6140:, World Health Organization, 2 June 2006.
6091:
5867:
5851:
5784:
5741:
5579:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-017-0361-y
5407:
5376:
5201:
5030:
4994:
4972:
4970:
4968:
4966:
4964:
4641:Elizabeth Kelly, Paula J. Adams Hillard (
4191:procedure, so-called "vacation cutting".
4067:Female genital mutilation laws by country
3777:
3761:Wildenthal 2012, p. 250, n. 68.
3649:
3632:
3616:
3014:campaigns against FGM in their magazine,
2895:: Egyptian Doctors' Society call for ban.
2682:Female genital mutilation laws by country
2375:groups, particularly in Guinea and Mali.
1235:, used for male and female circumcision (
16101:Discrimination against transgender women
13714:
11571:
11527:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
10834:
10800:Women Writing Africa: The Eastern Region
10670:
10599:
10561:
10552:
10508:
10441:"Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves?'"
10408:
10328:
10219:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
10115:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
9870:
9719:
9657:
9625:
9585:
9343:
8921:
8288:
8180:
8160:
8152:
8129:International Review of Scottish Studies
7982:
7954:
7862:
7528:
7413:
7330:
7328:
6697:, 28; for wealth, 40; for education, 41.
6355:
5703:Horowitz, Jackson & Teklemariam 1995
5087:
4371:
4245:
4061:
3977:
3885:
3872:
3725:
3687:
3520:, Cuvillier Verlag, 2009, p. 93, n. 631.
3395:
3070:
3060:
2787:
2721:And you will have to cook him his food.
2585:
2212:
2156:
1882:
1778:
1774:
1624:
1480:in French can refer to any form of FGM.
1306:
1215:, spoken mostly in Mali, it is known as
1188:called it mutilation in her influential
1138:
13632:
13270:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143706
13175:
13148:
12655:
11973:
10718:
10675:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
10543:
10399:
10307:
10079:
9337:
8857:"Eliminating female genital mutilation"
8501:
8324:
8208:
8192:
7966:
7926:
7906:
7489:
6910:
6542:
6079:
5963:
5955:
5831:
5815:
5720:
5431:
5253:
4552:corresponds to Type III, infibulation."
4139:Prevalence of female genital mutilation
4107:included FGM in resolution 48/104, the
3859:
3828:
3807:
3786:
3772:Outrageous Acts and Everyday Rebellions
3764:
3712:
3700:
3674:
3523:
3369:call it "female genital mutilation" in
3316:, the first to estimate global figures.
2852:
1938:Prevalence of female genital mutilation
1783:Materials used to teach communities in
1633:at the Walalah Biylooley refugee camp,
14:
18390:
13771:
13734:Female Genital Mutilation: An Overview
13407:
13364:
13284:
12808:
12746:
12692:
12565:
12460:
12210:from the original on 11 September 2017
12195:
11769:
11735:Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey
11653:Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey
11650:
11599:
11472:"Female genital mutilation in Britain"
10895:from the original on 30 September 2021
10858:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10816:
10784:
10775:
10766:
10736:
10688:
10682:Women in Islam: The Western Experience
10635:
10517:
10482:. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger.
10473:
10447:. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger.
10417:
10351:
10265:. In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.).
10203:Berlin, Adele (2011). "Circumcision".
10202:
10091:
10049:. In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.).
10047:"Introduction: The Custom in Question"
9955:
9751:
9699:
9673:
9641:
9298:Portenier, Giselle (6 February 2019).
9092:Schmidt, Samantha (21 November 2018).
8866:, European Commission. United States:
8565:
8553:
8449:, 22; Khaleeli, Homa (15 April 2010).
8395:
8312:
8308:
8300:
8268:
8244:
8204:
8140:
8038:Wilkerson, Isabel (11 December 1988).
7998:
7898:
7845:
7826:
7794:
7782:
7770:
7758:
7746:
7704:
7682:
7670:
7666:
7642:
7630:
7609:
7565:
7540:
7483:
7385:
7319:
7307:
7257:
7233:
7013:
6998:
6974:
6938:
6706:
6651:Ratcliffe, Rebecca (7 November 2018).
6340:
5931:
5803:
5772:
5698:
5491:
5301:
4961:
4329:
4000:Somali Women's Democratic Organization
3798:
3755:
3662:
3607:
2756:, the country's main ethnic group, as
2650:Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey
2555:
2172:, an anthropologist and member of the
1843:Psychological effects, sexual function
1808:are more common in infibulated women.
1422:
17989:
17175:
16448:Post-structuralist discourse analysis
15716:Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary
15381:
14946:
14901:Prosecution of gender-targeted crimes
14530:
13994:
13867:Haworth, Abigail (18 November 2012).
13761:
13722:
13569:from the original on 22 November 2017
12926:O'Rourke, Paul F. (1 February 2007).
12153:Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics
12073:Hayes, Rose Oldfield (17 June 1975).
12072:
11976:"Female genital mutilation in France"
11888:International Journal of Epidemiology
11520:
11261:
10916:
10907:
10679:
10587:from the original on 23 December 2016
10496:from the original on 23 December 2016
10461:from the original on 23 December 2016
10438:
10244:
10235:
10223:
10211:
10161:"Politics of Naming Sexual Practices"
10146:from the original on 21 February 2017
10103:
9956:Kearns, Madeleine (25 October 2022).
9739:
9613:
9255:Farnsworth, Clyde H. (21 July 1994).
9170:from the original on 18 February 2013
9014:from the original on 3 September 2020
8915:
8806:
8703:
8577:
8489:
8419:
8407:
8367:
8256:
8232:
8164:
8101:. Associated Press. 26 January 1989.
7970:
7870:
7827:Barber, Harriet (11 September 2023).
7730:
7601:
7534:
7436:
7397:
7325:
7057:
7049:
6986:
5555:Elmusharaf, Elhadi & Almroth 2006
5360:
5344:
5286:
5216:
5212:
5210:
3869:, Pambazuka Press, 2011, p. 281.
3742:
3334:December: UN General Assembly adopts
2909:National Council of Churches of Kenya
2116:
18358:
18252:Office of Research on Women's Health
13784:Miller, Michael; Moneti, Francesca.
13730:
13700:, UNICEF press release, 2 July 2007.
13030:The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist
12844:Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology
12837:
11772:"Female Genital Mutilation in Sudan"
10771:. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
10638:"'Osunality' (or African eroticism)"
10548:. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
10363:
10207:. New York: Oxford University Press.
10099:. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
9689:from the original on 7 October 2015.
9531:"Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003"
9520:"Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003"
9216:from the original on 20 October 2014
9080:. Associated Press, 1 November 2006.
9001:
8955:Turkewitz, Julie (6 February 2015).
8240:
8002:
7277:from the original on 26 August 2019.
6900:from the original on 7 October 2015.
6829:Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012
6281:Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012
6269:Rasheed, Abd-Ellah & Yousef 2011
5653:from the original on 29 January 2021
4343:Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
2707:That they may fight with the church,
1878:
1437:is "partial or total removal of the
1261:" circumcision for everything else;
1087:and opened further for childbirth.
1067:(2-a); and removal of the inner and
18398:Genital modification and mutilation
18370:
18290:Society for Women's Health Research
18224:International Day of the Girl Child
14973:Tests and procedures involving the
13408:Wakabi, Wairagala (31 March 2007).
13371:The New England Journal of Medicine
13365:Toubia, Nadia (15 September 1994).
12473:from the original on 28 August 2017
11457:from the original on 28 August 2021
11370:Health Care for Women International
11066:from the original on 28 August 2021
10748:. Pambazuka Press/Fahamu. pp.
9413:, New York: Basic Books, 2000, 189.
9035:"June 9–15; Asylum From Mutilation"
8811:"Banning Female Genital Mutilation"
8800:
8517:Topping, Alexandra (23 June 2014).
8325:Topping, Alexandra (24 July 2014).
8105:from the original on 31 August 2020
8050:from the original on 16 August 2009
6663:from the original on 15 August 2020
6296:
6217:"Questionnaires and Indicator List"
6199:
5962:, 100; for fistulae, 102; also see
4470:Genital modification and mutilation
4012:UN's Mid-Decade Conference on Women
3837:
2990:, issues booklet on dangers of FGM.
2830:worked, a group calling themselves
1119:
24:
18334:Birth control in the United States
14485:Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003
13840:
13813:
13805:
13795:Moneti, Francesca; Parker, David.
13650:
13299:10.1111/j.1468-0424.1996.tb00062.x
12796:from the original on 8 August 2017
12430:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57
11587:from the original on 1 August 2020
10658:from the original on 1 August 2020
10421:Greek Papyri in the British Museum
10377:. London: Springer. pp. 3–8.
10283:from the original on 10 March 2021
10181:from the original on 1 August 2020
10067:from the original on 10 March 2021
10045:Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (2007).
10016:from the original on 6 August 2020
9497:Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003
8074:from the original on 6 August 2020
6328:
6304:
6300:
6215:, Demographic and Health Surveys;
5207:
4937:Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003
4306:Pulitzer-prize-winning photographs
4223:Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003
3752:, Beacon Press, 1978, p. 156.
3697:, Robson Books, 1980, p. 214.
3206:begins her survey of FGM in Sudan.
3162:Women's International Network News
1905:Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys
1561:is opened further for childbirth (
1414:
1401:. The results were the following:
1219:("washing your hands") and in the
1126:, who have raised questions about
25:
18439:
18229:Commission on the Status of Women
17239:External female genitalia (vulva)
13954:
13950:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
13692:, New York: UNICEF, 22 July 2014.
13149:Rushwan, Hamid (September 2013).
12734:from the original on 20 July 2019
12203:. Edna Adan University Hospital.
11974:Gallard, Colette (17 June 1995).
10693:. Macon: Mercer University Press.
10623:from the original on 25 July 2020
10004:Gregorio, I. W. (26 April 2017).
9033:Dugger, Celia W. (16 June 1996).
8991:Rudloff, Patricia Dysart (1995).
8337:from the original on 31 July 2020
7813:https://ssrn.com/abstract=3753982
7189:Gueye, Malick (4 February 2014).
6015:Iavazzo, Sardi & Gkegkes 2013
5543:Klouman, Manongi & Klepp 2005
5011:"Female genital mutilation (FGM)"
4057:
2719:You will be given women's clothes
2481:. (Paul F. O'Rourke argues that '
2054:
1629:FGM awareness session run by the
1358:
1243:). It is also known in Arabic as
1206:female genital mutilation/cutting
1025:female genital mutilation/cutting
18418:Violence against women in Africa
18369:
18357:
18346:
18345:
17562:Assisted reproductive technology
17202:
17155:
17146:
17145:
17133:
16693:Democratic Republic of the Congo
16111:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
14927:
14926:
13972:
13960:
13528:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x
13448:from the original on 14 May 2013
13241:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00028.x
12534:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01350.x
12248:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2003.00200.x
11848:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x
11747:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022
11665:10.1097/00006254-198507000-00004
11600:Conroy, Ronán M (15 July 2006).
11043:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035
10879:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4296
10310:Christianity and African Culture
9975:
9949:
9923:
9876:
9848:
9836:
9812:
9785:
9729:
9667:
9555:
9543:
9513:
9490:
9469:
9447:"Country Report: United Kingdom"
9416:
9400:
9381:
9368:
9292:
9273:
9130:
9110:
9064:
9027:
8985:
8949:
8827:
8788:
8776:
8748:
8728:
8709:
8697:
8685:
8640:
8605:
8596:
8587:
8571:
8511:
8377:
8349:
8318:
8294:
8278:
8250:
8226:
8198:
8134:
8117:
8087:
8031:
7992:
7960:
7916:
7892:
7710:
7703:, c. 25 BCE, cited in
7688:
7660:
7595:
7583:
7571:
7419:
7391:
7362:Michael, Maggie (29 June 2007).
7356:
7340:
7308:Mackie and LeJeune (UNICEF) 2008
7293:
7281:
7263:
7239:
7203:
7183:
7171:
7159:
7135:
7111:
7079:
7043:
7023:
6886:
6872:
6840:
6817:
6805:
6770:
6758:
6746:
6727:
6687:
6675:
6640:
6628:
6612:
6600:
6584:
6562:
6536:
6464:
6407:
6385:
6373:
6341:Mackie and LeJeune (UNICEF) 2008
5217:Kimeu, Caroline (8 March 2024).
5099:For the circumcisers and blade:
4942:
4930:
4921:
4908:
4899:
4889:
4879:
4870:
4858:
4849:
4832:
4808:
4799:
4786:
4776:
4767:
4751:
4741:
4729:
4720:
4708:
4688:
4678:
4668:
4325:Comparison with other procedures
4154:
4035:World Conference on Human Rights
3657:African Women Writing Resistance
1965:
1951:
1631:African Union Mission to Somalia
1615:
1569:), and closed again afterwards (
1287:and as Sudanese circumcision in
967:
955:
493:
61:
17528:Breastfeeding and mental health
13878:Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989).
13794:
13783:
13686:
13666:
13590:
13182:Medical Anthropology Newsletter
13073:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009
12114:New England Journal of Medicine
12030:Culture, Health & Sexuality
10723:. New York: Simon and Schuster.
10644:. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka.
10553:McGregor, Deborah Kuhn (1998).
10236:Boyle, Elizabeth Heger (2002).
10194:Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999).
10167:. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka.
10001:, 40(1), 2005 (71–140), 74–75.
9323:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
8807:UN resolution, 20 December 2012
8758:
8754:
8704:UNFPA–UNICEF Annual Report 2012
8691:
8679:
8634:
8383:
8355:
7589:
7577:
7350:
7334:
7287:
7209:
7177:
7165:
7141:
6824:
6800:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
6764:
6752:
6721:
6694:
6681:
6634:
6622:
6619:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
6606:
6595:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
6590:
6530:
6379:
6367:
6334:
6322:
6316:
6310:
6292:
6286:
6257:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
6252:
6240:
6234:
6229:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
6194:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
6162:
6143:
6124:
6004:
5949:
5924:
5912:
5891:
5885:
5873:
5857:
5708:
5688:
5635:
5619:
5613:
5610:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
5603:
5519:Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013
5503:
5497:
5462:
5447:
5441:
5332:
5313:
5307:
5191:
5145:
5139:
5100:
5070:
5055:
4988:
4864:
4658:
4648:
4635:
4622:
4612:
4602:
4589:
4576:
4555:
4534:
4521:
4512:
4105:United Nations General Assembly
3423:Against the Mutilation of Women
3282:February: WHO holds seminar in
3180:United Nations Decade for Women
3109:describes her own circumcision.
1866:
18423:Violence against women in Asia
13893:, 4 (bibliography up to 1997).
13741:
13611:
13195:10.1525/maq.1981.12.4.02a00120
12759:Medical Anthropology Quarterly
10787:The Modern Practice of Physick
10513:. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
10509:Kunhiyop, Samuel Waje (2008).
10404:. Göttingen: Cuvillier Verlag.
10375:Surgical Guide to Circumcision
10329:Hoberman, John Milton (2005).
10032:
9807:Medical Anthropology Quarterly
9549:
9116:Batha, Emma (7 January 2021).
9002:Egan, Timothy (4 March 1994).
8782:
8770:
6065:Dave, Sethi & Morrone 2011
5093:
4982:
4496:
4410:Intersex medical interventions
4181:American Academy of Pediatrics
3911:, Zed Books, 2000, p. 10.
2705:Little knives in their sheaths
2046:Rural areas, wealth, education
1910:
1893:Demographic and Health Surveys
1853:post-traumatic stress disorder
1743:pain during sexual intercourse
1717:that may become infected, and
1134:
13:
1:
18178:Social determinants of health
13936:Do They Hear You When You Cry
13918:and Miller, Cathleen (1998).
13798:The Dynamics of Social Change
13731:Izett, Susan; Toubia, Nahid.
13623:
13426:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X
13333:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7
13258:Annual Review of Anthropology
12811:Journal of Religion in Africa
12461:Khazan, Olga (8 April 2015).
12292:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4
11574:"Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S."
11262:Berer, Marge (30 June 2007).
11231:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68805-3
11183:10.1136/medethics-2016-103553
10744:African Sexualities: A Reader
10642:African Sexualities: A Reader
10569:. In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.).
10478:. In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.).
10443:. In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.).
10165:African Sexualities: A Reader
9981:Nancy Ehrenreich, Mark Barr,
9685:. The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996.
8622:, New York: Zed Books, 2000,
7592:, cover page and p. 175.
7245:
6896:. The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996.
5103:, 2, 44–46; for the ages: 50.
4485:
4305:
4242:Tolerance versus human rights
3867:African Sexualities: A Reader
3783:Wildenthal 2012, p. 145.
3251:writes about FGM in her book
2956:writes about FGM in his book
2473:of Sit-hedjhotep, now in the
2150:has compared the practice to
1990:Indonesian Ministry of Health
1931:
1620:
1379:Université libre de Bruxelles
1072:
18173:Gender disparities in health
17511:Mother-to-child transmission
17055:Suffragists and suffragettes
15407:
14758:Violence against prostitutes
14410:Possessing the Secret of Joy
13938:. New York: Delacorte Press.
13821:
13676:
13658:
13640:
13601:
12705:American Sociological Review
12092:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030
11572:J. F. C. (8 February 1873).
11382:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417
10993:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686
10698:Rodriguez, Sarah B. (2014).
9859:Essén & Johnsdotter 2004
9855:Johnsdotter & Essén 2010
9842:
9736:Johnsdotter & Essén 2010
9378:, January/February 1992, 17.
8794:
7117:
5918:
5906:
5879:
5726:
5714:
5694:
5671:
5625:
5274:
5166:
4976:
4955:
4562:
4383:Cosmetic procedures such as
4336:Labiaplasty § Criticism
4014:in Copenhagen in July 1980.
3160:begins writing about FGM in
2986:: Egyptian medical journal,
2687:Colonial opposition in Kenya
2582:Europe and the United States
2489:, from 163 BCE, in the
2409:, c. 1991–1786 BCE
2383:
1979:FGM is mostly found in what
1835:, perhaps because of a long
1700:
1681:(flesh-eating disease), and
1363:
1055:They include removal of the
753:Criminal transmission of HIV
7:
18408:Female genital modification
17786:Pelvic inflammatory disease
17729:Hormone replacement therapy
17293:Reproductive system disease
15362:Gynecologic ultrasonography
15092:Uterine artery embolization
14071:Pelvic inflammatory disease
13924:. New York: William Morrow.
13704:
13660:"Female genital mutilation"
13384:10.1056/NEJM199409153311106
13176:Sheehan, E. (August 1981).
12944:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166
12488:The Journal of Sex Research
12280:Reproductive Health Matters
12127:10.1056/nejm199501193320313
11980:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)
11941:10.1136/bmj.38873.649074.55
11929:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)
11790:(inactive 31 August 2024).
11331:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316
11280:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A
11081:"Female genital mutilation"
10981:Obstetrics & Gynecology
10671:Peterson, Derek R. (2012).
10383:10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8_1
10245:Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005).
9680:; for the photographs, see
9148:(1): 153–156. 1 July 1998.
9138:"Female Genital Mutilation"
7455:Journal of Student Research
6489:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024684
6154:Reisel & Creighton 2015
6036:Reisel & Creighton 2015
6011:Reisel & Creighton 2015
5987:Reisel & Creighton 2015
5643:"Female genital mutilation"
5181:
4450:
4221:. This was replaced by the
4132:
3961:criticized FGM in her book
3804:el Salam 1999, p. 320.
3623:"Female genital mutilation"
3234:criticizes FGM in her book
2770:, general secretary of the
2740:Protestant missionaries in
2676:Opposition and legal status
2469:The spell was found on the
2429:to an uncircumcised girl ('
2274:
1501:Type IIIb (sexually active)
1483:
1391:Geneva University Hospitals
1178:in the title of a paper in
273:United Republic of Tanzania
116:Days after birth to puberty
10:
18444:
18280:Black Women's Health Study
17347:Complications of pregnancy
14975:female reproductive system
14184:Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla
13885:Westley, David M. (1999).
13516:Studies in Family Planning
13168:10.1016/j.afju.2013.03.002
13155:African Journal of Urology
13043:10.1576/toag.9.2.095.27310
12993:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.02.003
12670:10.1016/j.ijgo.2003.06.001
12226:Studies in Family Planning
12196:Ismail, Edna Adan (2016).
11539:10.1177/014107689709000712
10424:. London: British Museum.
10413:. New York: Vintage Books.
9888:"Hands Off Clitoridectomy"
9529:, legislation.gov.uk, and
9289:. Criminal Code of Canada.
8734:Charlotte Feldman-Jacobs,
7580:, p. 73, figure 6.13.
4619:over eight million women."
4424:modify the human genitalia
4407:
4333:
4198:
4158:
4136:
4111:, and from 2003 sponsored
4092: FGM not criminalised
3451:Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla
3417:March: English researcher
3128:American social scientist
3119:International Women's Year
2772:Kikuyu Central Association
2690:
2679:
2621:and co-founder in 1845 of
2436:
2378:
2278:
2111:
2068:cut around age 10 and the
1935:
1582:
1460:
1302:
1090:The practice is rooted in
1048:
962:Human sexuality portal
583:Deviant sexual intercourse
36:
29:
18403:Female genital mutilation
18341:
18298:
18257:Women's Health Initiative
18242:
18204:
18195:
18144:
18110:Major depressive disorder
17978:
17938:Intimate partner violence
17900:
17799:Female genital mutilation
17794:
17743:
17652:
17594:
17540:
17486:
17399:
17312:
17301:
17227:
17214:
17127:
17067:
17006:
16999:
16678:
16383:
16130:Female genital mutilation
16069:
16002:
15899:
15619:
15608:
15535:Majority-Muslim countries
15500:
15467:
15424:
15415:
15352:
15329:Female genital mutilation
15314:
15249:
15184:
15161:
15133:
15105:
15060:
15051:
15013:
14990:
14981:
14924:
14888:
14766:
14644:Female genital mutilation
14564:
14511:Female genital mutilation
14503:
14467:
14428:
14385:
14378:
14323:
14262:
14234:Lilian Passmore Sanderson
14174:
14167:
14089:
14028:
14022:Female genital mutilation
13979:Female genital mutilation
13967:Female genital mutilation
12771:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135
12500:10.1080/00224498909551521
12391:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000549
12165:10.1007/s00404-012-2708-5
12042:10.1080/13691050500262953
11992:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1592
11710:10.1016/j.det.2010.09.002
11577:Medical Times and Gazette
11521:Black, John (July 1997).
11488:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590
11171:Journal of Medical Ethics
11078:
10835:Wensinck, A. J. (2012) .
10826:Wildenthal, Lora (2012).
10689:Robert, Dana Lee (1996).
10680:Roald, Ann-Sofie (2003).
9907:"Double Moral Standards?"
9439:City University of London
8773:, "Executive Summary", 4.
8582:Bagnol & Mariano 2011
8456:26 September 2015 at the
8435:Bagnol & Mariano 2011
8217:Strayer & Murray 1978
7468:10.47611/jsrhs.v11i2.3285
7369:20 September 2017 at the
7273:. Tostan. February 2017.
7246:Diop et al. (UNICEF) 2008
7102:Bagnol & Mariano 2011
6739:28 September 2018 at the
6432:10.5144/0256-4947.2018.81
6299:, UNICEF, December 2013;
5999:Berg & Underland 2014
5940:Bagnol & Mariano 2011
5577:14 (Suppl 1), 96 (2017).
5150:Toubia & Sharief 2003
4282:female genital mutilation
4194:
3567:Boddy 2007, pp. 202, 299.
3558:, Springer, 1999, p. 318.
3419:Lilian Passmore Sanderson
2960:("What is Renaissance?").
2920:require Kikuyu Christians
2660:after childbirth, adding
2619:Medical Society of London
2609:Karl Ferdinand von Graefe
2529:Sixteen Books on Medicine
2301:. It is praised in a few
1899:and funded mainly by the
1429:
1198:World Health Organization
1176:female genital mutilation
1039:for non-medical reasons.
1013:Female genital mutilation
926:Sex offender registration
763:Female genital mutilation
343:
339:
332:
328:
142:
138:
131:
127:
120:
112:
104:
96:
76:
60:
17846:Gynaecological disorders
17662:Culture and menstruation
17629:Contraceptive prevalence
17521:Compulsory sterilization
17102:Women's studies journals
17060:Women's rights activists
15611:Movements and ideologies
14736:Islamic religious police
14716:Murder of pregnant women
13480:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809
11618:10.1136/bmj.333.7559.106
10719:Shorter, Edward (2008).
10511:African Christian Ethics
10409:Kenyatta, Jomo (1962) .
9920:, October/November 1996.
9536:8 September 2013 at the
9464:Black & Debelle 1995
9076:2 September 2017 at the
8997:Saint Mary's Law Journal
8938:21 December 2017 at the
8851:23 November 2011 at the
8741:13 February 2010 at the
8215:, n. 631. Also see
7271:"Female Genital Cutting"
6420:Annals of Saudi Medicine
6307:, UNICEF, December 2013.
6158:Sibiani & Rouzi 2008
6107:Rashid & Rashid 2007
6053:Kelly & Hillard 2005
5681:8 September 2017 at the
5480:Kelly & Hillard 2005
5420:Kouba & Muasher 1985
4490:
4432:gender-affirming surgery
4418:Gender-affirming surgery
4166:to Nigeria, and in 1996
4128:Non-practising countries
3589:Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf
3545:Boddy 2007, pp. 269–270.
2635:neck of a woman's uterus
2059:FGM is not invariably a
1994:Indonesian Ulema Council
1817:urinary tract infections
1410:
1295:, it is known simply as
1160:Kenya Missionary Council
450:Central African Republic
255:Central African Republic
67:Anti-FGM road sign near
37:Not to be confused with
18129:Urinary tract infection
17921:Abuse during childbirth
16645:International relations
15339:Clitoral hood reduction
15306:Vaginal transplantation
14746:Kano State Hisbah Corps
14572:Abuse during childbirth
14402:Woman, Why Do You Weep?
13628:, UNICEF, January 2008.
13591:Cappa, Claudia, et al.
13229:American Anthropologist
12892:10.4103/2141-9248.96942
12838:Nour, Nawal M. (2008).
12823:10.1163/157006676X00075
11788:10.3889/oamjms.2018.099
11030:Fertility and Sterility
10785:Thomas, Robert (1813).
10400:Karanja, James (2009).
10308:Fiedler, Klaus (1996).
10038:Books and book chapters
9568:6 February 2018 at the
9552:, 6, paras 36, 37.
9393:7 February 2016 at the
9305:2 December 2020 at the
9234:18 January 2018 at the
8962:31 January 2018 at the
8721:2 February 2006 at the
6211:16 October 2014 at the
6150:Berg & Denison 2013
4569:, refers to Type 1a as
4546:Cut, some flesh removed
4389:clitoral hood reduction
4267:biological reductionism
4237:Criticism of opposition
3856:Boyle 2002, p. 47.
3600:Elizabeth Heger Boyle,
3259:Speak out Black Sisters
3254:La Parole aux Négresses
3107:The Naked Face of Women
2567:concubines (sex slaves)
2477:, and dates to Egypt's
2343:is prevalent among the
1827:, as well as a need to
1653:, and healing problems/
1423:Standard questionnaires
1279:, Latin for clasp; the
1184:, and four years later
18413:Violence against women
18046:Cardiovascular disease
17634:Contraceptive security
17567:In vitro fertilization
17478:Postpartum confinement
17352:Hyperemesis gravidarum
17075:Conservative feminisms
16373:Women in the workforce
16341:Violence against women
16316:Sexual objectification
16276:Opposition to feminism
15475:Bicycling and feminism
14558:Violence against women
14361:Tahirih Justice Center
14239:Marion Scott Stevenson
14159:Religious views on FGM
13977:Quotations related to
13882:. New York: Routledge.
13852:"Circumcision, female"
13584:United Nations reports
12621:African Studies Review
11141:10.1542/peds.2010-1568
11098:10.1542/peds.102.1.153
10954:10.4414/smw.2011.13137
10921:. New York: Routledge.
10712:The Hidden Face of Eve
10636:Nzegwu, Nkiru (2011).
10606:Sex and Social Justice
10474:Korieh, Chima (2005).
10418:Kenyon, F. G. (1893).
10198:. New York: Routledge.
9483:1 January 2017 at the
9433:15 August 2015 at the
9422:Alison Macfarlane and
9361:1 January 2017 at the
9262:13 August 2017 at the
9201:10.1542/peds.2010-0187
9155:10.1542/peds.102.1.153
9123:8 January 2021 at the
9099:20 August 2020 at the
8816:1 January 2017 at the
8524:1 January 2017 at the
7402:Asmani & Abdi 2008
7373:, Associated Press, 2.
6019:Abdulcadir et al. 2011
5759:4 January 2015 at the
5676:Box 1.1 "Types of FGM"
5630:Abdulcadir et al. 2016
5396:Asmani & Abdi 2008
5134:Abdulcadir et al. 2011
4567:Abdulcadir et al. 2016
4507:Sex and Social Justice
4380:
4254:
4103:In December 1993, the
4100:
4039:violence against women
3986:
3976:
3878:Abdalla 2007, p.
3403:
3078:
3068:
3012:Sudanese Women's Union
2976:Anglo-Egyptian control
2918:Scottish missionaries
2905:Marion Scott Stevenson
2828:Marion Scott Stevenson
2799:
2724:
2711:Elders (of the church)
2594:
2542:
2399:
2222:
2165:
2132:
1888:
1837:second stage of labour
1788:
1638:
1610:vesicovaginal fistulae
1580:
1546:
1506:
1419:
1408:
1383:Université de Montréal
1339:
1223:in eastern Nigeria as
1202:female genital cutting
1164:Marion Scott Stevenson
1151:
1098:, attempts to control
1063:(1-b); removal of the
1021:female genital cutting
691:varies by jurisdiction
18168:Healthcare inequality
17970:Gender discrimination
17774:Human papilloma virus
17449:Vesicovaginal fistula
17115:Women in peacekeeping
16655:Revisionist mythology
16094:Children's literature
15367:Hysterosalpingography
14984:Gynecological surgery
14779:Campus sexual assault
14097:Prevalence by country
14081:Vesicovaginal fistula
12494:(3): (375–392), 380.
12336:Public Health Reports
12325:on 21 September 2013.
12110:"Female Circumcision"
11274:(7608): 1335.2–1335.
10776:Thomas, Lynn (2003).
10439:Kirby, Vicky (2005).
10364:Hyam, Ronald (1990).
9912:8 August 2014 at the
9893:8 August 2014 at the
9801:9 August 2020 at the
9510:, legislation.gov.uk.
9452:19 March 2017 at the
8944:Public Health Reports
8902:19 March 2017 at the
8873:3 August 2014 at the
8862:8 August 2014 at the
8661:, 15 September 2004;
8629:1 August 2020 at the
8542:Yoder & Khan 2008
7196:11 March 2017 at the
6848:"FMG in Sierra Leone"
6303:, UNICEF, July 2013;
5742:Yoder & Khan 2008
4542:Cut, no flesh removed
4461:(a short film on FGM)
4408:Further information:
4375:
4249:
4199:Further information:
4159:Further information:
4137:Further information:
4117:social norms approach
4065:
3981:
3971:
3847:magazine, March 1980.
3399:
3074:
3064:
2791:
2777:conditio sine qua non
2702:
2691:Further information:
2680:Further information:
2589:
2537:
2511:The Greek geographer
2391:
2279:Further information:
2216:
2160:
2126:
1936:Further information:
1886:
1804:damage and emergency
1782:
1775:Pregnancy, childbirth
1739:rectovaginal fistulae
1679:necrotizing fasciitis
1628:
1575:
1533:
1491:
1418:
1403:
1310:
1142:
1110:, the development of
934:Sex offender registry
18275:Nurses' Health Study
18183:Reproductive justice
18134:Urinary incontinence
17754:Sexually transmitted
17609:Intrauterine devices
17454:Rectovaginal fistula
17444:Obstetrical fistulae
17372:Gestational diabetes
17367:Obstetrical bleeding
17342:Adolescent pregnancy
17327:Gravidity and parity
17322:Unintended pregnancy
16557:Pathways perspective
16402:Gender mainstreaming
16321:Substantive equality
16301:Reproductive justice
16251:Matriarchal religion
16106:Diversity (politics)
15153:Endometrial ablation
14865:Cybersex trafficking
14767:Sexual assault, rape
14751:Polisi Syariat Islam
14076:Rectovaginal fistula
13969:at Wikimedia Commons
13912:. London: Zed Books.
13118:10.1093/jhmas/jrm044
12079:American Ethnologist
11900:10.1093/ije/12.2.138
11698:Dermatologic Clinics
10941:Swiss Medical Weekly
10714:. London: Zed Books.
10684:. London: Routledge.
10303:. London: Zed Books.
9833:, 25 September 2014.
9825:30 July 2017 at the
9525:14 July 2017 at the
9502:14 July 2017 at the
9056:4 March 2017 at the
9040:21 June 2020 at the
8840:5 March 2016 at the
8007:Barker-Benfield 1999
7943:Elchalal et al. 1997
7923:Elchalal et al. 1997
7347:UNICEF press release
6782:5 April 2015 at the
6331:, UNICEF, July 2014.
5864:Lightfoot-Klein 1989
4630:Swiss Medical Weekly
4628:Jasmine Abdulcadir (
4259:cultural colonialism
3992:American Ethnologist
3709:Thomas 2000, p. 130.
2882:1920s–1980s timeline
2853:Growth of opposition
2666:pubococcygeus muscle
2502:Grafton Elliot Smith
2416:Meroite civilization
2023:United Arab Emirates
1895:(DHS), developed by
1847:According to a 2015
1825:excessive blood loss
1727:pain while urinating
1512:Swiss Medical Weekly
1375:University of Geneva
1181:American Ethnologist
1150:plateau, Kenya, 2004
903:UK Section 63 (2008)
758:Cybersex trafficking
32:FGM (disambiguation)
18188:Women's empowerment
18056:Alzheimer's disease
17687:Cloth menstrual pad
17644:Fertility awareness
17614:Oral contraceptives
17496:Perinatal mortality
17140:Feminism portal
17020:Ecofeminist authors
16870:Trinidad and Tobago
16810:Republic of Ireland
16670:Composition studies
16351:Women's empowerment
16306:Sex workers' rights
16231:Feminist capitalism
16211:Internalized sexism
16144:Feminism in culture
16024:Kurdish (Jineology)
15204:Cervical conization
15087:Pelvic exenteration
15005:Salpingoophorectomy
14896:Istanbul Convention
14784:Mass sexual assault
14701:Forced prostitution
14490:2005 (Scotland) Act
14394:Woman at Point Zero
14214:Rose Oldfield Hayes
13909:Woman at Point Zero
13755:"Executive Summary"
13420:(9567): 1069–1070.
11986:(6994): 1592–1593.
11482:(6994): 1590–1592.
11225:(9525): 1835–1841.
11091:(1 Pt 1): 153–156.
10912:. New York: Rodopi.
10539:on 29 October 2013.
9987:17 May 2017 at the
9445:, 21 July 2014, 3.
9105:The Washington Post
8824:, 19 December 2012.
8653:31 May 2015 at the
7727:Book VII, chapter 2
7541:Engelstein, Laura.
6860:on 22 December 2021
6647:Kandala et al. 2018
5531:Jackson et al. 2003
4826:Book XVI, chapter 4
4330:Cosmetic procedures
4314:false consciousness
4119:, using ideas from
3731:Alexandra Topping,
3669:Oldfield Hayes 1975
3271:: UN conference in
3130:Rose Oldfield Hayes
3091:Al-Mar'a wa Al-Jins
2815:, told the British
2742:British East Africa
2670:missionary position
2643:Obstetrical Society
2623:St. Mary's Hospital
2562:Red Sea slave trade
2556:Red Sea slave trade
2517:Philo of Alexandria
2496:The examination of
2143:Rose Oldfield Hayes
2129:Kenyan FGM ceremony
2025:, India, and among
1897:Macro International
1387:Reproductive Health
1172:Rose Oldfield Hayes
1128:cultural relativism
1033:female circumcision
640:Reproductive rights
515:Reproductive rights
18285:Cartwright Inquiry
18196:Politics, research
18014:Endometrial cancer
17868:Sexual intercourse
17639:Planned parenthood
17624:Male contraceptive
16515:Literary criticism
16392:Complementarianism
16116:Effects on society
16084:Complementarianism
15891:Women's liberation
15221:Cervical screening
15176:Uterine myomectomy
15148:Endometrial biopsy
14666:Female infanticide
14366:Zero Tolerance Day
13932:Miller-Muro, Layli
13928:Kassindja, Fauziya
13560:DHS Working Papers
13287:Gender and History
10873:. pp. 20–22.
10411:Facing Mount Kenya
10105:Allen, Peter Lewis
10081:Abdalla, Raqiya D.
9818:Sara Abdel Rahim,
9576:, 4 February 2015.
9311:The Globe and Mail
9285:2 May 2019 at the
9268:The New York Times
9240:The New York Times
9180:Withdrawn policy:
9046:The New York Times
9008:The New York Times
8968:The New York Times
8822:The New York Times
8659:The New York Times
8099:The New York Times
8044:The New York Times
7510:on 8 December 2023
6827:, 35–36; Nigeria:
6136:2 May 2019 at the
4381:
4351:breast enhancement
4255:
4101:
4002:. Two years later
3987:
3613:Boyle 2002, p. 41.
3404:
3247:Senegalese writer
3089:criticizes FGM in
3079:
3069:
2800:
2750:Church of Scotland
2709:The time has come.
2595:
2265:Malicounda Bambara
2223:
2166:
2117:Support from women
1889:
1812:Neonatal mortality
1789:
1639:
1496:Type IIIb (virgin)
1420:
1340:
1168:Church of Scotland
1152:
748:Child prostitution
714:Anti-miscegenation
645:Right to sexuality
635:Red-light district
578:Pedophile advocacy
538:Conversion therapy
528:Capital punishment
18385:
18384:
18265:
18264:
18090:
18089:
18041:
18040:
18024:Papanicolaou test
17980:Non-communicable
17948:Sexual harassment
17926:Domestic violence
17896:
17895:
17739:
17738:
17536:
17535:
17439:Retained placenta
17357:Ectopic pregnancy
17169:
17168:
17123:
17122:
16532:Political ecology
16438:Écriture féminine
16336:Triple oppression
16326:Toxic masculinity
16311:Sexual harassment
16171:Feminist stripper
16149:Feminist movement
16065:
16064:
16003:Ethnic and racial
15604:
15603:
15375:
15374:
15301:Vaginal wet mount
15245:
15244:
15216:Cervical cerclage
15125:Vacuum aspiration
14940:
14939:
14706:Human trafficking
14607:Domestic violence
14524:
14523:
14475:Matter of Kasinga
14463:
14462:
14374:
14373:
14305:Layli Miller-Muro
14107:FGM in the Gambia
13965:Media related to
13904:El Saadawi, Nawal
13775:; LeJeune, John.
13467:BMC Public Health
12696:(December 1996).
12379:BMJ Global Health
11881:on 14 April 2013.
11612:(7559): 106–107.
11431:978-82-8121-856-7
10888:978-90-04-07819-2
10845:van Donzel, E. J.
10809:978-1-55861-534-2
10759:978-0-85749-016-2
10708:El Saadawi, Nawal
10651:978-0-85749-016-2
10616:978-0-19-535501-7
10580:978-0-89789-864-5
10489:978-0-89789-864-5
10454:978-0-89789-864-5
10431:978-0-7141-0486-7
10392:978-1-4471-2857-1
10344:978-0-520-22151-2
10276:978-0-8122-0102-4
10174:978-0-85749-016-2
10122:978-0-226-01460-9
10060:978-0-8122-0102-4
8980:Jones et al. 1997
8785:, Volume 1, viii.
6963:Shell-Duncan 2008
6788:Yasin et al. 2013
6693:For rural areas,
6255:, 47, table 5.2;
6119:Banks et al. 2006
5946:(272 for Uganda).
5198:Shell-Duncan 2008
5186:Askew et al. 2016
4441:male circumcision
4302:levirate marriage
3951:
3950:
3817:The Hosken Report
3680:Lora Wildenthal,
3627:New International
2836:Gakaara wa Wanjaũ
2813:governor of Kenya
2764:) were outcasts.
2615:Isaac Baker Brown
2601:in 1813. In 1825
2591:Isaac Baker Brown
2466:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2227:social convention
2199:Vicks menthol rub
2087:(54 percent) and
2040:BMJ Global Health
1879:Household surveys
1871:According to the
1849:systematic review
1806:caesarean section
1713:and obstruction,
1663:urinary infection
1395:social scientists
1337:urethral openings
1325:corpora cavernosa
1156:male circumcision
1096:religious beliefs
1092:gender inequality
1049:one or more types
1019:) (also known as
1010:
1009:
876:Sexual harassment
768:Forcible touching
736:Child pornography
686:Specific offences
658:Decriminalization
550:Same-sex marriage
542:Decriminalization
481:
480:
477:
476:
324:
323:
16:(Redirected from
18435:
18373:
18372:
18361:
18360:
18349:
18348:
18202:
18201:
17987:
17986:
17907:
17906:
17901:Non-reproductive
17750:
17749:
17667:Feminine hygiene
17434:Cesarian section
17429:Obstructed labor
17310:
17309:
17225:
17224:
17206:
17196:
17189:
17182:
17173:
17172:
17159:
17158:
17149:
17148:
17138:
17137:
17136:
17004:
17003:
16987:History of women
16463:Political theory
16363:
16356:Women-only space
16241:Likeability trap
16206:Invisible labour
16126:Female education
15617:
15616:
15612:
15572:African-American
15502:Women's suffrage
15493:
15480:Feminist history
15422:
15421:
15402:
15395:
15388:
15379:
15378:
15192:
15169:
15141:
15113:
15065:
15058:
15057:
14967:
14960:
14953:
14944:
14943:
14930:
14929:
14696:Forced pregnancy
14551:
14544:
14537:
14528:
14527:
14453:My Body My Rules
14383:
14382:
14229:Nawal El Saadawi
14224:Edna Adan Ismail
14172:
14171:
14015:
14008:
14001:
13992:
13991:
13976:
13964:
13947:Infidel: My Life
13942:Ali, Ayaan Hirsi
13898:Personal stories
13835:
13818:
13810:
13802:
13791:
13780:
13768:
13758:
13738:
13727:
13719:
13711:
13701:
13693:
13683:
13673:
13663:
13655:
13647:
13637:
13629:
13620:
13608:
13598:
13578:
13576:
13574:
13568:
13557:
13547:
13510:
13500:
13482:
13457:
13455:
13453:
13404:
13386:
13361:
13335:
13310:
13281:
13252:
13223:
13197:
13172:
13170:
13145:
13100:
13055:
13045:
13020:
12975:
12973:
12971:
12962:. Archived from
12928:"The 'm't-Woman"
12922:
12912:
12894:
12869:
12859:
12834:
12805:
12803:
12801:
12795:
12756:
12743:
12741:
12739:
12733:
12702:
12689:
12652:
12615:
12562:
12536:
12511:
12482:
12480:
12478:
12457:
12412:
12402:
12369:
12359:
12326:
12324:
12318:. Archived from
12277:
12267:
12241:
12219:
12217:
12215:
12209:
12202:
12192:
12159:(6): 1137–1149.
12147:
12129:
12104:
12094:
12069:
12026:Gruenbaum, Ellen
12021:
12011:
11970:
11960:
11919:
11882:
11880:
11874:. Archived from
11833:
11823:
11817:
11809:
11799:
11766:
11729:
11692:
11647:
11637:
11596:
11594:
11592:
11568:
11558:
11517:
11507:
11466:
11464:
11462:
11456:
11423:
11411:
11401:
11360:
11350:
11309:
11299:
11258:
11212:
11202:
11161:
11143:
11118:
11100:
11075:
11073:
11071:
11045:
11020:
10974:
10956:
10928:Journal articles
10922:
10913:
10904:
10902:
10900:
10871:Brill Publishers
10849:Heinrichs, W. P.
10831:
10822:
10813:
10790:
10781:
10772:
10763:
10747:
10733:
10724:
10715:
10703:
10694:
10685:
10676:
10667:
10665:
10663:
10632:
10630:
10628:
10601:Nussbaum, Martha
10596:
10594:
10592:
10563:Nnaemeka, Obioma
10558:
10549:
10540:
10538:
10527:
10514:
10505:
10503:
10501:
10470:
10468:
10466:
10435:
10414:
10405:
10396:
10369:
10360:
10348:
10336:
10325:
10318:Gruenbaum, Ellen
10313:
10312:. Leiden: Brill.
10304:
10292:
10290:
10288:
10255:El Guindi, Fadwa
10250:
10241:
10232:
10220:
10208:
10199:
10190:
10188:
10186:
10155:
10153:
10151:
10145:
10138:
10126:
10114:
10100:
10088:
10076:
10074:
10072:
10027:
10025:
10023:
10021:
9996:
9993:
9979:
9973:
9972:
9970:
9968:
9953:
9947:
9946:
9944:
9942:
9927:
9921:
9880:
9874:
9868:
9862:
9852:
9846:
9840:
9834:
9816:
9810:
9792:Obermeyer, Carla
9789:
9783:
9777:
9771:
9761:
9755:
9749:
9743:
9733:
9727:
9717:
9711:
9697:
9691:
9690:
9671:
9665:
9655:
9649:
9639:
9633:
9623:
9617:
9611:
9605:
9599:
9593:
9583:
9577:
9561:Sandra Laville,
9559:
9553:
9550:CEDAW, July 2013
9547:
9541:
9517:
9511:
9494:
9488:
9473:
9467:
9420:
9414:
9404:
9398:
9385:
9379:
9372:
9366:
9352:
9341:
9335:
9326:
9320:
9314:
9296:
9290:
9277:
9271:
9253:
9244:
9225:
9223:
9221:
9203:
9194:(5): 1088–1093.
9179:
9177:
9175:
9157:
9134:
9128:
9114:
9108:
9090:
9081:
9068:
9062:
9031:
9025:
9023:
9021:
9019:
8989:
8983:
8977:
8971:
8953:
8947:
8930:
8919:
8913:
8907:
8894:
8885:
8831:
8825:
8804:
8798:
8792:
8786:
8780:
8774:
8768:
8762:
8752:
8746:
8732:
8726:
8713:
8707:
8701:
8695:
8689:
8683:
8677:
8666:
8644:
8638:
8609:
8603:
8602:Ahmed 2007, 180.
8600:
8594:
8591:
8585:
8575:
8569:
8563:
8557:
8551:
8545:
8539:
8533:
8515:
8509:
8499:
8493:
8487:
8481:
8471:
8465:
8444:
8438:
8432:
8423:
8417:
8411:
8405:
8399:
8393:
8387:
8381:
8375:
8365:
8359:
8353:
8347:
8346:
8344:
8342:
8322:
8316:
8298:
8292:
8282:
8276:
8254:
8248:
8230:
8224:
8202:
8196:
8190:
8184:
8178:
8172:
8163:, 127. Also see
8138:
8132:
8123:Kenneth Mufuka,
8121:
8115:
8114:
8112:
8110:
8091:
8085:
8083:
8081:
8079:
8059:
8057:
8055:
8035:
8029:
8023:
8014:
7996:
7990:
7980:
7974:
7964:
7958:
7952:
7946:
7940:
7934:
7920:
7914:
7896:
7890:
7884:
7878:
7860:
7849:
7843:
7837:
7836:
7824:
7815:
7809:
7798:
7792:
7786:
7780:
7774:
7768:
7762:
7756:
7750:
7744:
7738:
7714:
7708:
7692:
7686:
7680:
7674:
7664:
7658:
7652:
7646:
7640:
7634:
7628:
7617:
7599:
7593:
7587:
7581:
7575:
7569:
7563:
7557:
7556:
7554:
7552:
7547:
7538:
7532:
7526:
7520:
7519:
7517:
7515:
7506:. Archived from
7487:
7481:
7480:
7470:
7446:
7440:
7434:
7428:
7423:
7417:
7411:
7405:
7395:
7389:
7383:
7374:
7360:
7354:
7344:
7338:
7332:
7323:
7317:
7311:
7297:
7291:
7285:
7279:
7278:
7267:
7261:
7255:
7249:
7243:
7237:
7231:
7225:
7219:
7213:
7207:
7201:
7187:
7181:
7175:
7169:
7163:
7157:
7151:
7145:
7139:
7133:
7127:
7121:
7115:
7109:
7099:
7093:
7083:
7077:
7071:
7065:
7047:
7041:
7027:
7021:
7011:
7002:
6996:
6990:
6984:
6978:
6972:
6966:
6960:
6954:
6948:
6942:
6936:
6930:
6924:
6918:
6908:
6902:
6901:
6890:
6884:
6883:
6876:
6870:
6869:
6867:
6865:
6859:
6852:
6844:
6838:
6832:
6821:
6815:
6809:
6803:
6797:
6791:
6774:
6768:
6762:
6756:
6750:
6744:
6731:
6725:
6719:
6710:
6704:
6698:
6691:
6685:
6679:
6673:
6672:
6670:
6668:
6644:
6638:
6632:
6626:
6616:
6610:
6604:
6598:
6588:
6582:
6581:
6579:
6577:
6566:
6560:
6559:
6557:
6555:
6540:
6534:
6528:
6519:
6518:
6508:
6468:
6462:
6461:
6451:
6411:
6405:
6404:
6402:
6400:
6389:
6383:
6377:
6371:
6365:
6359:
6358:, February 2016.
6356:UNICEF Indonesia
6353:
6344:
6338:
6332:
6326:
6320:
6314:
6308:
6290:
6284:
6278:
6272:
6266:
6260:
6250:
6244:
6238:
6232:
6226:
6220:
6203:
6197:
6191:
6185:
6184:
6182:
6180:
6174:
6166:
6160:
6147:
6141:
6128:
6122:
6116:
6110:
6104:
6095:
6089:
6083:
6077:
6068:
6062:
6056:
6050:
6039:
6033:
6022:
6008:
6002:
5996:
5990:
5984:
5978:
5975:Berg et al. 2014
5972:
5966:
5953:
5947:
5938:; for the rest,
5928:
5922:
5916:
5910:
5904:
5895:
5889:
5883:
5877:
5871:
5866:, 380; also see
5861:
5855:
5849:
5843:
5829:
5823:
5813:
5807:
5801:
5792:
5782:
5776:
5770:
5764:
5751:
5745:
5739:
5730:
5724:
5718:
5712:
5706:
5692:
5686:
5669:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5658:
5639:
5633:
5623:
5617:
5607:
5601:
5596:
5581:
5569:
5558:
5552:
5546:
5540:
5534:
5528:
5522:
5516:
5507:
5501:
5495:
5489:
5483:
5477:
5466:
5460:
5451:
5445:
5439:
5429:
5423:
5417:
5411:
5405:
5399:
5393:
5384:
5374:
5368:
5358:
5352:
5342:
5336:
5330:
5317:
5311:
5305:
5299:
5290:
5284:
5278:
5272:
5261:
5251:
5245:
5244:
5239:
5237:
5214:
5205:
5195:
5189:
5179:
5170:
5164:
5153:
5143:
5137:
5131:
5104:
5097:
5091:
5085:
5074:
5068:
5059:
5053:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5023:
5007:
4992:
4986:
4980:
4974:
4950:
4946:
4940:
4934:
4928:
4925:
4919:
4912:
4906:
4903:
4897:
4893:
4887:
4883:
4877:
4874:
4868:
4862:
4856:
4853:
4847:
4840:Xanthus of Lydia
4836:
4830:
4812:
4806:
4803:
4797:
4790:
4784:
4780:
4774:
4771:
4765:
4755:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4733:
4727:
4724:
4718:
4712:
4706:
4692:
4686:
4682:
4676:
4672:
4666:
4662:
4656:
4652:
4646:
4639:
4633:
4626:
4620:
4616:
4610:
4606:
4600:
4595:Susan Izett and
4593:
4587:
4580:
4574:
4559:
4553:
4538:
4532:
4525:
4519:
4516:
4510:
4500:
4480:No FGM Australia
4395:The philosopher
4349:compared FGM to
4263:moral relativism
4097:
4091:
4085:
4079:
4073:
3996:Edna Adan Ismail
3983:Edna Adan Ismail
3959:Nawal El Saadawi
3943:
3936:
3929:
3912:
3898:
3892:
3889:
3883:
3876:
3870:
3863:
3857:
3854:
3848:
3841:
3835:
3832:
3826:
3811:
3805:
3802:
3796:
3790:
3784:
3781:
3775:
3770:Gloria Steinem,
3768:
3762:
3759:
3753:
3746:
3740:
3729:
3723:
3716:
3710:
3707:
3698:
3691:
3685:
3678:
3672:
3666:
3660:
3653:
3647:
3646:, 14 March 2011.
3638:Jenna Krajeski,
3636:
3630:
3620:
3614:
3611:
3605:
3598:
3592:
3586:
3580:
3577:
3568:
3565:
3559:
3552:
3546:
3543:
3537:
3527:
3521:
3514:
3508:
3502:
3218:Edna Adan Ismail
3087:Nawal El Saadawi
3076:Edna Adan Ismail
2958:Ma Heia al Nahda
2872:Nawal El Saadawi
2869:
2857:
2856:
2736:
2441:
2440:
2437:
2420:Ancient Egyptian
2410:
2319:Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal
2136:
1969:
1955:
1715:epidermoid cysts
1593:Labia stretching
1529:Edna Adan Ismail
1515:
1329:vestibular bulbs
1213:Bambara language
1158:. From 1929 the
1104:social exclusion
1100:female sexuality
1002:
995:
988:
972:
971:
960:
959:
817:Public indecency
694:
673:Bodily integrity
630:Prostitution law
573:Marriageable age
497:
483:
482:
330:
329:
129:
128:
65:
58:
57:
47:Labia stretching
21:
18443:
18442:
18438:
18437:
18436:
18434:
18433:
18432:
18388:
18387:
18386:
18381:
18337:
18322:Family planning
18300:
18294:
18261:
18238:
18197:
18191:
18163:Gender equality
18146:
18140:
18086:
18037:
18019:Cervical cancer
17981:
17974:
17912:
17902:
17892:
17883:Sex differences
17841:Forced marriage
17790:
17755:
17745:
17735:
17677:Menstrual cycle
17648:
17601:Family planning
17599:
17590:
17543:
17532:
17491:Maternal deaths
17482:
17473:Postpartum care
17419:Multiple births
17395:
17304:
17297:
17230:
17221:
17218:
17210:
17200:
17170:
17165:
17156:
17134:
17132:
17119:
17063:
16995:
16994:
16993:
16902:Northern Cyprus
16674:
16665:Science fiction
16458:Oedipus complex
16418:Women's studies
16379:
16378:
16377:
16361:
16271:Oedipus complex
16261:Men in feminism
16226:Language reform
16201:Ideal womanhood
16181:Gender equality
16176:Formal equality
16139:Feminationalism
16079:Cognitive labor
16061:
16029:Native American
15998:
15997:
15996:
15895:
15805:Post-structural
15610:
15600:
15496:
15489:
15485:Women's history
15463:
15411:
15406:
15376:
15371:
15354:Medical imaging
15348:
15310:
15241:
15185:
15180:
15162:
15157:
15134:
15129:
15106:
15101:
15097:Transplantation
15061:
15047:
15015:Fallopian tubes
15009:
14986:
14977:
14971:
14941:
14936:
14920:
14884:
14880:Sexual violence
14870:Sex trafficking
14762:
14741:Guidance Patrol
14691:Forced marriage
14686:Forced abortion
14649:Gishiri cutting
14560:
14555:
14525:
14520:
14499:
14459:
14424:
14370:
14319:
14285:Ellen Gruenbaum
14275:Ayaan Hirsi Ali
14258:
14176:
14163:
14102:Laws by country
14085:
14051:Gishiri cutting
14024:
14019:
13957:
13843:
13841:Further reading
13838:
13581:
13572:
13570:
13566:
13555:
13451:
13449:
13377:(11): 712–716.
12969:
12967:
12799:
12797:
12793:
12754:
12737:
12735:
12731:
12717:10.2307/2096305
12711:(6): 999–1017.
12700:
12476:
12474:
12322:
12275:
12239:10.1.1.233.6248
12213:
12211:
12207:
12200:
11878:
11831:
11811:
11810:
11741:(10): 643–651.
11590:
11588:
11460:
11458:
11454:
11432:
11421:
11376:(10): 837–859.
11325:(11): e006316.
11121:
11069:
11067:
10925:
10898:
10896:
10889:
10861:. Vol. 5.
10841:Bosworth, C. E.
10810:
10796:Moyo, Fulata L.
10760:
10661:
10659:
10652:
10626:
10624:
10617:
10590:
10588:
10581:
10536:
10525:
10499:
10497:
10490:
10464:
10462:
10455:
10432:
10393:
10345:
10297:El Dareer, Asma
10286:
10284:
10277:
10184:
10182:
10175:
10149:
10147:
10143:
10136:
10123:
10093:Ahmadu, Fuambai
10070:
10068:
10061:
10035:
10030:
10019:
10017:
10003:
9994:
9991:
9989:Wayback Machine
9980:
9976:
9966:
9964:
9962:National Review
9954:
9950:
9940:
9938:
9928:
9924:
9914:Wayback Machine
9903:Martha Nussbaum
9901:, Summer 1996;
9895:Wayback Machine
9881:
9877:
9869:
9865:
9853:
9849:
9841:
9837:
9827:Wayback Machine
9817:
9813:
9803:Wayback Machine
9790:
9786:
9780:Wildenthal 2012
9778:
9774:
9762:
9758:
9750:
9746:
9734:
9730:
9718:
9714:
9698:
9694:
9681:
9672:
9668:
9656:
9652:
9640:
9636:
9624:
9620:
9612:
9608:
9600:
9596:
9584:
9580:
9570:Wayback Machine
9560:
9556:
9548:
9544:
9538:Wayback Machine
9527:Wayback Machine
9518:
9514:
9504:Wayback Machine
9495:
9491:
9485:Wayback Machine
9474:
9470:
9454:Wayback Machine
9435:Wayback Machine
9421:
9417:
9405:
9401:
9395:Wayback Machine
9386:
9382:
9373:
9369:
9363:Wayback Machine
9353:
9344:
9336:
9329:
9321:
9317:
9307:Wayback Machine
9297:
9293:
9287:Wayback Machine
9278:
9274:
9264:Wayback Machine
9254:
9247:
9236:Wayback Machine
9219:
9217:
9173:
9171:
9136:
9135:
9131:
9125:Wayback Machine
9115:
9111:
9101:Wayback Machine
9091:
9084:
9078:Wayback Machine
9069:
9065:
9058:Wayback Machine
9042:Wayback Machine
9032:
9028:
9017:
9015:
8990:
8986:
8978:
8974:
8964:Wayback Machine
8954:
8950:
8940:Wayback Machine
8931:
8922:
8914:
8910:
8904:Wayback Machine
8895:
8888:
8875:Wayback Machine
8864:Wayback Machine
8853:Wayback Machine
8842:Wayback Machine
8832:
8828:
8818:Wayback Machine
8809:; Emma Bonino,
8805:
8801:
8793:
8789:
8781:
8777:
8769:
8765:
8753:
8749:
8743:Wayback Machine
8733:
8729:
8723:Wayback Machine
8714:
8710:
8702:
8698:
8690:
8686:
8678:
8669:
8663:Maputo Protocol
8655:Wayback Machine
8645:
8641:
8631:Wayback Machine
8610:
8606:
8601:
8597:
8592:
8588:
8576:
8572:
8564:
8560:
8552:
8548:
8540:
8536:
8526:Wayback Machine
8516:
8512:
8500:
8496:
8488:
8484:
8474:El Saadawi 2007
8472:
8468:
8458:Wayback Machine
8445:
8441:
8433:
8426:
8418:
8414:
8406:
8402:
8394:
8390:
8382:
8378:
8366:
8362:
8354:
8350:
8340:
8338:
8323:
8319:
8299:
8295:
8283:
8279:
8255:
8251:
8231:
8227:
8203:
8199:
8191:
8187:
8179:
8175:
8139:
8135:
8131:, 28, 2003, 55.
8122:
8118:
8108:
8106:
8093:
8092:
8088:
8077:
8075:
8061:
8053:
8051:
8036:
8032:
8024:
8017:
7997:
7993:
7981:
7977:
7965:
7961:
7953:
7949:
7941:
7937:
7921:
7917:
7897:
7893:
7885:
7881:
7861:
7852:
7844:
7840:
7825:
7818:
7810:
7801:
7793:
7789:
7781:
7777:
7769:
7765:
7757:
7753:
7745:
7741:
7715:
7711:
7693:
7689:
7681:
7677:
7665:
7661:
7653:
7649:
7641:
7637:
7629:
7620:
7600:
7596:
7588:
7584:
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7371:Wayback Machine
7361:
7357:
7349:, 2 July 2007;
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5752:
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5709:
5697:, 25. Also see
5693:
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4709:
4699:Fadwa El Guindi
4693:
4689:
4683:
4679:
4673:
4669:
4663:
4659:
4653:
4649:
4640:
4636:
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4607:
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4594:
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4577:
4560:
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4526:
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4517:
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4503:Martha Nussbaum
4501:
4497:
4493:
4488:
4453:
4420:
4406:
4397:Martha Nussbaum
4377:Martha Nussbaum
4367:amalyet tajmeel
4359:Carla Obermeyer
4347:Fadwa El Guindi
4338:
4332:
4327:
4278:Obioma Nnaemeka
4251:Obioma Nnaemeka
4244:
4239:
4203:
4197:
4168:Fauziya Kasinga
4163:
4157:
4141:
4135:
4130:
4099:
4095:
4093:
4089:
4087:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4075:
4071:
4060:
4054:continuation".
4047:Maputo Protocol
3947:
3918:
3917:
3916:
3915:
3899:
3895:
3890:
3886:
3877:
3873:
3864:
3860:
3855:
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3842:
3838:
3833:
3829:
3813:Elizabeth Fee,
3812:
3808:
3803:
3799:
3791:
3787:
3782:
3778:
3769:
3765:
3760:
3756:
3747:
3743:
3739:, 23 June 2014.
3730:
3726:
3717:
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3692:
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3528:
3524:
3516:James Karanja,
3515:
3511:
3503:
3499:
3494:
3348:
3343:
3146:Ainsi soit-elle
3059:
3054:
2974:: Sudan, under
2968:
2963:
2889:
2883:
2875:
2855:
2817:Colonial Office
2738:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2701:
2695:
2689:
2684:
2678:
2584:
2576:João dos Santos
2558:
2525:Aëtius of Amida
2475:Egyptian Museum
2467:
2451:
2412:
2401:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2364:among the first
2347:members of the
2287:
2277:
2231:Ellen Gruenbaum
2211:
2138:
2134:
2125:
2119:
2114:
2061:rite of passage
2057:
2048:
2029:communities in
1977:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1961:
1960:
1959:
1956:
1947:
1946:
1940:
1934:
1913:
1881:
1869:
1845:
1777:
1753:Painful periods
1703:
1655:wound infection
1651:urine retention
1623:
1618:
1601:gishiri cutting
1585:
1517:
1508:
1505:
1490:
1489:External images
1486:
1463:
1432:
1413:
1366:
1361:
1311:Anatomy of the
1305:
1299:("to sew up").
1137:
1124:anthropologists
1077:menstrual fluid
1059:(type 1-a) and
1006:
966:
954:
849:Sex trafficking
688:
687:
654:Workers' rights
613:Objectification
598:Public morality
524:Criminalization
487:Sex and the law
473:
335:
320:
134:
72:
54:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
18441:
18431:
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18342:
18339:
18338:
18336:
18331:
18326:
18325:
18324:
18314:
18309:
18304:
18302:
18299:Women's health
18296:
18295:
18293:
18292:
18287:
18282:
18277:
18272:
18266:
18263:
18262:
18260:
18259:
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18246:
18240:
18239:
18237:
18236:
18231:
18226:
18221:
18216:
18210:
18208:
18206:United Nations
18199:
18198:& advocacy
18193:
18192:
18190:
18185:
18180:
18175:
18170:
18165:
18160:
18155:
18150:
18148:
18145:Sociocultural
18142:
18141:
18139:
18138:
18137:
18136:
18131:
18126:
18116:
18115:
18114:
18113:
18112:
18102:
18091:
18088:
18087:
18085:
18084:
18079:
18078:
18077:
18076:
18075:
18060:
18059:
18058:
18048:
18042:
18039:
18038:
18036:
18035:
18033:Ovarian cancer
18030:
18029:
18028:
18027:
18026:
18016:
18009:Uterine cancer
18006:
18001:
17995:
17993:
17984:
17976:
17975:
17973:
17972:
17967:
17962:
17961:
17960:
17953:Sexual assault
17950:
17945:
17940:
17935:
17934:
17933:
17923:
17917:
17915:
17904:
17898:
17897:
17894:
17893:
17891:
17890:
17885:
17880:
17875:
17870:
17865:
17860:
17855:
17854:
17853:
17843:
17838:
17833:
17831:Child marriage
17828:
17826:Breast ironing
17823:
17818:
17816:Breast binding
17813:
17812:
17811:
17806:
17804:Clitoridectomy
17795:
17792:
17791:
17789:
17788:
17783:
17782:
17781:
17771:
17766:
17760:
17758:
17747:
17741:
17740:
17737:
17736:
17734:
17733:
17732:
17731:
17721:
17716:
17711:
17706:
17705:
17704:
17699:
17694:
17689:
17682:Menstrual aids
17679:
17674:
17669:
17664:
17658:
17656:
17650:
17649:
17647:
17646:
17641:
17636:
17631:
17626:
17621:
17616:
17611:
17605:
17603:
17592:
17591:
17589:
17588:
17587:
17586:
17581:
17571:
17570:
17569:
17564:
17559:
17548:
17546:
17538:
17537:
17534:
17533:
17531:
17530:
17525:
17524:
17523:
17513:
17508:
17503:
17498:
17493:
17487:
17484:
17483:
17481:
17480:
17475:
17470:
17469:
17468:
17466:Husband stitch
17458:
17457:
17456:
17451:
17441:
17436:
17431:
17426:
17421:
17416:
17411:
17405:
17403:
17397:
17396:
17394:
17393:
17392:
17391:
17390:
17389:
17384:
17374:
17369:
17364:
17359:
17354:
17344:
17339:
17337:Antenatal care
17334:
17329:
17324:
17318:
17316:
17307:
17299:
17298:
17296:
17295:
17290:
17285:
17283:Fallopian tube
17280:
17275:
17270:
17265:
17264:
17263:
17258:
17253:
17252:
17251:
17235:
17233:
17229:Reproductive
17222:
17215:
17212:
17211:
17208:Women's health
17199:
17198:
17191:
17184:
17176:
17167:
17166:
17164:
17163:
17153:
17143:
17128:
17125:
17124:
17121:
17120:
17118:
17117:
17112:
17108:SCUM Manifesto
17104:
17099:
17094:
17093:
17092:
17087:
17077:
17071:
17069:
17065:
17064:
17062:
17057:
17052:
17047:
17042:
17037:
17032:
17027:
17022:
17017:
17012:
17010:
17001:
16997:
16996:
16992:
16991:
16990:
16989:
16979:
16977:United Kingdom
16974:
16969:
16964:
16959:
16954:
16949:
16944:
16939:
16934:
16929:
16924:
16919:
16914:
16909:
16904:
16899:
16894:
16889:
16884:
16879:
16874:
16873:
16872:
16867:
16862:
16857:
16852:
16847:
16842:
16837:
16827:
16822:
16817:
16812:
16807:
16802:
16797:
16792:
16787:
16782:
16777:
16772:
16767:
16762:
16757:
16752:
16747:
16742:
16737:
16732:
16731:
16730:
16725:
16720:
16715:
16710:
16705:
16700:
16695:
16684:
16683:
16682:
16680:
16676:
16675:
16673:
16672:
16667:
16662:
16657:
16652:
16650:Existentialism
16647:
16642:
16637:
16636:
16635:
16625:
16620:
16619:
16618:
16613:
16608:
16606:Existentialism
16603:
16602:
16601:
16599:Justice ethics
16591:
16586:
16581:
16571:
16566:
16561:
16560:
16559:
16549:
16544:
16539:
16534:
16529:
16524:
16523:
16522:
16517:
16512:
16502:
16497:
16492:
16487:
16482:
16481:
16480:
16475:
16465:
16460:
16455:
16450:
16445:
16440:
16435:
16430:
16425:
16420:
16415:
16409:
16404:
16399:
16397:Gender studies
16394:
16389:
16387:
16381:
16380:
16376:
16375:
16370:
16368:Women's rights
16365:
16362:Women's health
16358:
16353:
16348:
16343:
16338:
16333:
16328:
16323:
16318:
16313:
16308:
16303:
16298:
16293:
16288:
16283:
16278:
16273:
16268:
16263:
16258:
16253:
16248:
16246:Male privilege
16243:
16238:
16233:
16228:
16223:
16215:International
16213:
16208:
16203:
16198:
16193:
16188:
16183:
16178:
16173:
16168:
16167:
16166:
16161:
16156:
16146:
16141:
16136:
16131:
16128:
16123:
16118:
16113:
16108:
16103:
16098:
16097:
16096:
16086:
16081:
16075:
16074:
16073:
16071:
16067:
16066:
16063:
16062:
16060:
16055:
16050:
16049:
16048:
16038:
16037:
16036:
16031:
16026:
16016:
16011:
16006:
16004:
16000:
15999:
15995:
15994:
15989:
15988:
15987:
15977:
15972:
15967:
15966:
15965:
15960:
15955:
15945:
15944:
15943:
15938:
15933:
15928:
15918:
15913:
15907:
15906:
15905:
15903:
15897:
15896:
15894:
15893:
15888:
15887:
15886:
15876:
15871:
15866:
15861:
15856:
15851:
15850:
15849:
15839:
15834:
15829:
15824:
15819:
15814:
15813:
15812:
15802:
15797:
15792:
15787:
15782:
15777:
15772:
15767:
15762:
15761:
15760:
15750:
15745:
15740:
15735:
15734:
15733:
15723:
15718:
15713:
15708:
15703:
15698:
15697:
15696:
15686:
15681:
15680:
15679:
15669:
15664:
15659:
15654:
15649:
15644:
15639:
15634:
15629:
15623:
15621:
15614:
15606:
15605:
15602:
15601:
15599:
15598:
15597:
15596:
15595:
15594:
15589:
15584:
15574:
15569:
15559:
15558:
15557:
15550:United Kingdom
15547:
15542:
15537:
15532:
15527:
15522:
15517:
15512:
15506:
15504:
15498:
15497:
15495:
15494:
15487:
15482:
15477:
15471:
15469:
15465:
15464:
15462:
15461:
15456:
15451:
15450:
15449:
15439:
15434:
15428:
15426:
15419:
15413:
15412:
15405:
15404:
15397:
15390:
15382:
15373:
15372:
15370:
15369:
15364:
15358:
15356:
15350:
15349:
15347:
15346:
15344:Vestibulectomy
15341:
15336:
15331:
15326:
15320:
15318:
15312:
15311:
15309:
15308:
15303:
15298:
15293:
15288:
15283:
15282:
15281:
15279:husband stitch
15271:
15266:
15261:
15255:
15253:
15247:
15246:
15243:
15242:
15240:
15239:
15233:
15228:
15218:
15213:
15212:
15211:
15201:
15195:
15193:
15182:
15181:
15179:
15178:
15172:
15170:
15159:
15158:
15156:
15155:
15150:
15144:
15142:
15131:
15130:
15128:
15127:
15122:
15116:
15114:
15109:Uterine cavity
15103:
15102:
15100:
15099:
15094:
15089:
15084:
15079:
15074:
15068:
15066:
15055:
15049:
15048:
15046:
15045:
15043:Tubal reversal
15040:
15035:
15033:Tubal ligation
15030:
15025:
15019:
15017:
15011:
15010:
15008:
15007:
15002:
14996:
14994:
14988:
14987:
14982:
14979:
14978:
14970:
14969:
14962:
14955:
14947:
14938:
14937:
14925:
14922:
14921:
14919:
14918:
14913:
14908:
14903:
14898:
14892:
14890:
14889:Related topics
14886:
14885:
14883:
14882:
14877:
14875:Sexual slavery
14872:
14867:
14862:
14861:
14860:
14855:
14850:
14845:
14840:
14835:
14830:
14825:
14820:
14815:
14805:
14804:
14803:
14798:
14788:
14787:
14786:
14781:
14774:Sexual assault
14770:
14768:
14764:
14763:
14761:
14760:
14755:
14754:
14753:
14748:
14743:
14738:
14728:
14723:
14718:
14713:
14708:
14703:
14698:
14693:
14688:
14683:
14678:
14673:
14668:
14663:
14662:
14661:
14659:Husband stitch
14656:
14651:
14641:
14636:
14631:
14626:
14625:
14624:
14619:
14614:
14604:
14599:
14597:Child marriage
14594:
14589:
14584:
14582:Breast ironing
14579:
14574:
14568:
14566:
14562:
14561:
14554:
14553:
14546:
14539:
14531:
14522:
14521:
14519:
14518:
14513:
14507:
14505:
14501:
14500:
14498:
14497:
14492:
14487:
14482:
14477:
14471:
14469:
14465:
14464:
14461:
14460:
14458:
14457:
14449:
14441:
14432:
14430:
14426:
14425:
14423:
14422:
14414:
14406:
14398:
14389:
14387:
14380:
14376:
14375:
14372:
14371:
14369:
14368:
14363:
14358:
14353:
14348:
14343:
14338:
14333:
14327:
14325:
14321:
14320:
14318:
14317:
14312:
14307:
14302:
14300:Molly Melching
14297:
14292:
14287:
14282:
14277:
14272:
14270:Fuambai Ahmadu
14266:
14264:
14260:
14259:
14257:
14256:
14251:
14246:
14241:
14236:
14231:
14226:
14221:
14216:
14211:
14209:Benoîte Groult
14206:
14204:Asma El Dareer
14201:
14196:
14191:
14186:
14180:
14178:
14169:
14168:Writers/groups
14165:
14164:
14162:
14161:
14156:
14155:
14154:
14149:
14147:United Kingdom
14144:
14139:
14134:
14129:
14124:
14119:
14117:colonial Kenya
14114:
14109:
14099:
14093:
14091:
14087:
14086:
14084:
14083:
14078:
14073:
14068:
14063:
14058:
14056:Husband stitch
14053:
14048:
14043:
14038:
14036:Clitoridectomy
14032:
14030:
14026:
14025:
14018:
14017:
14010:
14003:
13995:
13989:
13988:
13982:
13970:
13956:
13955:External links
13953:
13952:
13951:
13939:
13925:
13913:
13895:
13894:
13883:
13876:
13865:
13855:
13849:
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13803:
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13728:
13720:
13712:
13702:
13694:
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13656:
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13630:
13621:
13609:
13599:
13587:
13580:
13579:
13548:
13522:(2): 189–204.
13511:
13458:
13405:
13362:
13326:(3): 251–261.
13311:
13293:(3): 338–363.
13282:
13253:
13235:(2): 225–236.
13224:
13173:
13161:(3): 130–133.
13146:
13112:(3): 323–347.
13101:
13056:
13021:
12976:
12938:(2): 166–172.
12923:
12870:
12850:(3): 135–139.
12835:
12806:
12765:(2): 135–158.
12744:
12690:
12664:(3): 291–298.
12653:
12633:10.2307/524569
12627:(1): 95–1100.
12616:
12580:10.1086/385184
12574:(2): 317–338.
12563:
12527:(1): 105–115.
12512:
12483:
12458:
12424:(5): 490–494.
12413:
12385:(5): e000549.
12370:
12342:(5): 368–377.
12327:
12268:
12232:(3): 200–210.
12220:
12193:
12148:
12120:(3): 188–190.
12105:
12085:(4): 617–633.
12070:
12036:(5): 429–441.
12022:
11971:
11920:
11894:(2): 138–144.
11883:
11842:(7): 611–613.
11824:
11782:(2): 430–434.
11767:
11730:
11704:(1): 103–109.
11693:
11659:(7): 437–443.
11648:
11597:
11569:
11533:(7): 402–405.
11518:
11467:
11430:
11412:
11361:
11310:
11259:
11213:
11177:(9): 619–620.
11162:
11119:
11076:
11036:(3): 722–724.
11021:
10987:(5): 958–963.
10975:
10931:
10924:
10923:
10914:
10905:
10887:
10832:
10823:
10814:
10808:
10791:
10782:
10773:
10764:
10758:
10738:Tamale, Sylvia
10734:
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10716:
10704:
10695:
10686:
10677:
10668:
10650:
10633:
10615:
10597:
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10541:
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10029:
10028:
9974:
9948:
9922:
9875:
9863:
9847:
9835:
9811:
9784:
9772:
9764:El Guindi 2007
9756:
9744:
9728:
9712:
9692:
9666:
9650:
9634:
9618:
9606:
9602:Silverman 2004
9594:
9578:
9554:
9542:
9512:
9489:
9468:
9415:
9407:David Gollaher
9399:
9380:
9367:
9354:Megan Rowling
9342:
9327:
9315:
9291:
9272:
9245:
9242:, 6 May 2010.
9129:
9109:
9082:
9063:
9026:
8984:
8972:
8948:
8920:
8908:
8886:
8826:
8799:
8787:
8775:
8763:
8747:
8727:
8708:
8696:
8684:
8667:
8639:
8633:; for Vienna,
8604:
8595:
8586:
8570:
8558:
8546:
8534:
8510:
8494:
8482:
8466:
8447:Gruenbaum 2001
8439:
8424:
8412:
8400:
8388:
8376:
8360:
8348:
8317:
8293:
8277:
8249:
8225:
8197:
8185:
8173:
8133:
8116:
8086:
8030:
8026:Rodriguez 2014
8015:
7991:
7975:
7959:
7947:
7935:
7915:
7891:
7887:Rodriguez 2008
7879:
7850:
7838:
7816:
7799:
7787:
7775:
7763:
7751:
7739:
7709:
7687:
7675:
7659:
7647:
7635:
7618:
7594:
7582:
7570:
7558:
7533:
7521:
7482:
7441:
7429:
7418:
7406:
7390:
7375:
7355:
7339:
7324:
7312:
7300:Gruenbaum 2001
7292:
7280:
7262:
7250:
7238:
7226:
7222:Gruenbaum 2005
7214:
7202:
7182:
7170:
7158:
7154:El Dareer 1983
7146:
7134:
7130:Gruenbaum 2005
7122:
7110:
7094:
7090:Gruenbaum 2001
7086:Gruenbaum 2005
7078:
7074:Gruenbaum 2005
7066:
7042:
7034:El Guindi 2007
7030:Abusharaf 2007
7022:
7003:
6991:
6979:
6967:
6955:
6951:El Guindi 2007
6943:
6931:
6927:El Guindi 2007
6919:
6903:
6885:
6871:
6839:
6833:
6816:
6804:
6792:
6769:
6757:
6745:
6726:
6711:
6699:
6686:
6674:
6639:
6627:
6611:
6599:
6583:
6572:. 16 June 2010
6561:
6535:
6520:
6483:(5): e024684.
6463:
6406:
6395:. 16 June 2010
6384:
6372:
6360:
6345:
6333:
6321:
6309:
6285:
6273:
6261:
6245:
6233:
6221:
6206:"DHS overview"
6198:
6186:
6161:
6142:
6123:
6111:
6096:
6092:El Dareer 1982
6084:
6069:
6057:
6040:
6023:
6003:
5991:
5979:
5967:
5948:
5923:
5911:
5896:
5884:
5872:
5868:El Dareer 1982
5856:
5852:El Dareer 1982
5844:
5824:
5808:
5793:
5785:El Guindi 2007
5777:
5765:
5746:
5731:
5719:
5707:
5687:
5664:
5634:
5618:
5602:
5582:
5559:
5547:
5535:
5523:
5508:
5496:
5484:
5467:
5452:
5440:
5424:
5412:
5408:Gruenbaum 2001
5400:
5385:
5377:El Guindi 2007
5369:
5353:
5337:
5318:
5306:
5291:
5279:
5262:
5260:, n. 631.
5246:
5206:
5202:Silverman 2004
5190:
5171:
5154:
5138:
5105:
5092:
5075:
5060:
5029:
4993:
4981:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4951:
4941:
4929:
4920:
4907:
4898:
4888:
4878:
4869:
4857:
4848:
4831:
4807:
4798:
4785:
4775:
4766:
4750:
4740:
4728:
4719:
4707:
4687:
4677:
4667:
4657:
4647:
4634:
4621:
4611:
4609:labia majora."
4601:
4588:
4575:
4565:, copied from
4554:
4533:
4520:
4511:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4483:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4452:
4449:
4405:
4402:
4355:Benoîte Groult
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4196:
4193:
4156:
4153:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4094:
4088:
4082:
4076:
4070:
4059:
4058:United Nations
4056:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3945:
3938:
3931:
3923:
3920:
3919:
3914:
3913:
3893:
3884:
3871:
3858:
3849:
3836:
3827:
3806:
3797:
3785:
3776:
3763:
3754:
3741:
3724:
3711:
3699:
3693:Jill Tweedie,
3686:
3673:
3671:, p. 618.
3661:
3648:
3644:The New Yorker
3631:
3629:, 5 June 1997.
3615:
3606:
3593:
3581:
3569:
3560:
3547:
3538:
3522:
3509:
3496:
3495:
3490:
3489:
3488:
3477:
3476:
3461:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3445:
3444:
3437:Asma El Dareer
3429:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3412:
3411:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3377:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3367:Gloria Steinem
3356:
3355:
3344:
3342:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3295:February: The
3290:
3289:
3288:
3287:
3277:
3276:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3242:
3241:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3208:
3207:
3204:Asma El Dareer
3196:
3195:
3184:
3183:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3142:Benoîte Groult
3136:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3123:
3122:
3111:
3110:
3099:
3098:
3066:Benoite Groult
3055:
3053:
3052:
3045:
3044:
3037:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3028:
3027:
3020:
3019:
3004:
3003:
2992:
2991:
2980:
2979:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2946:
2945:
2938:
2937:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2913:
2912:
2897:
2896:
2885:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2870:
2862:
2861:
2860:FGM opposition
2854:
2851:
2832:Ngo ya Tuiritu
2783:oral tradition
2703:
2697:
2696:
2688:
2685:
2677:
2674:
2631:J. Marion Sims
2583:
2580:
2557:
2554:
2506:pudendal cleft
2491:British Museum
2479:Middle Kingdom
2464:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2448:
2445:
2435:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2276:
2273:
2269:child marriage
2260:Molly Melching
2210:
2207:
2170:Fuambai Ahmadu
2162:Fuambai Ahmadu
2123:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2056:
2055:Age, ethnicity
2053:
2047:
2044:
1971:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1945:Downward trend
1944:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1933:
1930:
1912:
1909:
1880:
1877:
1868:
1865:
1844:
1841:
1831:the baby, and
1802:anal-sphincter
1776:
1773:
1769:Asma El Dareer
1757:menstrual flow
1702:
1699:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1584:
1581:
1571:reinfibulation
1567:deinfibulation
1504:
1503:
1498:
1492:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1462:
1459:
1455:clitoral glans
1451:clitoridectomy
1439:clitoral glans
1431:
1428:
1412:
1409:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1359:Classification
1357:
1321:clitoral crura
1317:clitoral glans
1315:, showing the
1304:
1301:
1281:Ancient Romans
1146:FGM ceremony,
1136:
1133:
1120:reinfibulation
1083:is opened for
1061:clitoral glans
1041:FGM prevalence
1008:
1007:
1005:
1004:
997:
990:
982:
979:
978:
977:
976:
974:Law portal
964:
949:
948:
944:
943:
942:
941:
936:
928:
927:
923:
922:
921:
920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
899:
898:
893:
883:
878:
873:
871:Sexual assault
868:
867:
866:
856:
851:
846:
841:
836:
835:
834:
829:
819:
814:
813:
812:
807:
797:
792:
791:
790:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
744:
743:
733:
731:Child grooming
728:
723:
722:
721:
711:
710:
709:
696:
695:
683:
682:
681:
680:
675:
670:
665:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
626:
625:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
568:Age of consent
565:
531:
517:
512:
504:
503:
499:
498:
490:
489:
479:
478:
475:
474:
472:
471:
465:
459:
453:
447:
441:
435:
429:
423:
417:
411:
405:
399:
393:
387:
381:
375:
369:
363:
357:
351:
344:
341:
340:
337:
336:
333:
326:
325:
322:
321:
319:
318:
312:
306:
300:
294:
288:
282:
276:
270:
264:
258:
252:
246:
240:
234:
228:
222:
216:
210:
204:
198:
192:
186:
180:
174:
168:
162:
156:
150:
143:
140:
139:
136:
135:
132:
125:
124:
122:
118:
117:
114:
110:
109:
106:
102:
101:
98:
94:
93:
78:
74:
73:
71:, Uganda, 2004
66:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
18440:
18429:
18426:
18424:
18421:
18419:
18416:
18414:
18411:
18409:
18406:
18404:
18401:
18399:
18396:
18395:
18393:
18378:
18377:
18368:
18366:
18365:
18356:
18354:
18353:
18344:
18343:
18340:
18335:
18332:
18330:
18327:
18323:
18320:
18319:
18318:
18315:
18313:
18310:
18308:
18305:
18303:
18297:
18291:
18288:
18286:
18283:
18281:
18278:
18276:
18273:
18271:
18268:
18267:
18258:
18255:
18253:
18250:
18249:
18247:
18245:
18244:United States
18241:
18235:
18232:
18230:
18227:
18225:
18222:
18220:
18217:
18215:
18212:
18211:
18209:
18207:
18203:
18200:
18194:
18189:
18186:
18184:
18181:
18179:
18176:
18174:
18171:
18169:
18166:
18164:
18161:
18159:
18158:Disadvantaged
18156:
18154:
18151:
18149:
18143:
18135:
18132:
18130:
18127:
18125:
18122:
18121:
18120:
18119:Urinary tract
18117:
18111:
18108:
18107:
18106:
18103:
18101:
18098:
18097:
18096:
18095:Mental health
18093:
18092:
18083:
18080:
18074:
18071:
18070:
18069:
18066:
18065:
18064:
18061:
18057:
18054:
18053:
18052:
18049:
18047:
18044:
18043:
18034:
18031:
18025:
18022:
18021:
18020:
18017:
18015:
18012:
18011:
18010:
18007:
18005:
18004:Breast cancer
18002:
18000:
17997:
17996:
17994:
17992:
17988:
17985:
17983:
17977:
17971:
17968:
17966:
17963:
17959:
17956:
17955:
17954:
17951:
17949:
17946:
17944:
17941:
17939:
17936:
17932:
17929:
17928:
17927:
17924:
17922:
17919:
17918:
17916:
17914:
17913:against women
17908:
17905:
17899:
17889:
17888:Sex education
17886:
17884:
17881:
17879:
17876:
17874:
17871:
17869:
17866:
17864:
17861:
17859:
17856:
17852:
17849:
17848:
17847:
17844:
17842:
17839:
17837:
17834:
17832:
17829:
17827:
17824:
17822:
17821:Breast health
17819:
17817:
17814:
17810:
17807:
17805:
17802:
17801:
17800:
17797:
17796:
17793:
17787:
17784:
17780:
17777:
17776:
17775:
17772:
17770:
17767:
17765:
17762:
17761:
17759:
17757:
17751:
17748:
17742:
17730:
17727:
17726:
17725:
17722:
17720:
17717:
17715:
17712:
17710:
17707:
17703:
17700:
17698:
17695:
17693:
17692:Menstrual cup
17690:
17688:
17685:
17684:
17683:
17680:
17678:
17675:
17673:
17670:
17668:
17665:
17663:
17660:
17659:
17657:
17655:
17651:
17645:
17642:
17640:
17637:
17635:
17632:
17630:
17627:
17625:
17622:
17620:
17617:
17615:
17612:
17610:
17607:
17606:
17604:
17602:
17597:
17596:Contraception
17593:
17585:
17582:
17580:
17577:
17576:
17575:
17572:
17568:
17565:
17563:
17560:
17558:
17557:Childlessness
17555:
17554:
17553:
17550:
17549:
17547:
17545:
17542:Reproductive
17539:
17529:
17526:
17522:
17519:
17518:
17517:
17516:Sterilization
17514:
17512:
17509:
17507:
17504:
17502:
17499:
17497:
17494:
17492:
17489:
17488:
17485:
17479:
17476:
17474:
17471:
17467:
17464:
17463:
17462:
17459:
17455:
17452:
17450:
17447:
17446:
17445:
17442:
17440:
17437:
17435:
17432:
17430:
17427:
17425:
17422:
17420:
17417:
17415:
17414:Preterm birth
17412:
17410:
17407:
17406:
17404:
17402:
17398:
17388:
17385:
17383:
17380:
17379:
17378:
17375:
17373:
17370:
17368:
17365:
17363:
17360:
17358:
17355:
17353:
17350:
17349:
17348:
17345:
17343:
17340:
17338:
17335:
17333:
17330:
17328:
17325:
17323:
17320:
17319:
17317:
17315:
17311:
17308:
17306:
17300:
17294:
17291:
17289:
17286:
17284:
17281:
17279:
17276:
17274:
17271:
17269:
17266:
17262:
17259:
17257:
17254:
17250:
17249:Clitoral hood
17247:
17246:
17245:
17242:
17241:
17240:
17237:
17236:
17234:
17232:
17226:
17223:
17220:
17217:Reproductive
17213:
17209:
17205:
17197:
17192:
17190:
17185:
17183:
17178:
17177:
17174:
17162:
17154:
17152:
17144:
17142:
17141:
17130:
17129:
17126:
17116:
17113:
17110:
17109:
17105:
17103:
17100:
17098:
17095:
17091:
17088:
17086:
17083:
17082:
17081:
17078:
17076:
17073:
17072:
17070:
17066:
17061:
17058:
17056:
17053:
17051:
17048:
17046:
17043:
17041:
17038:
17036:
17033:
17031:
17028:
17026:
17023:
17021:
17018:
17016:
17013:
17011:
17009:
17005:
17002:
16998:
16988:
16985:
16984:
16983:
16982:United States
16980:
16978:
16975:
16973:
16970:
16968:
16965:
16963:
16960:
16958:
16955:
16953:
16950:
16948:
16945:
16943:
16940:
16938:
16935:
16933:
16930:
16928:
16925:
16923:
16920:
16918:
16915:
16913:
16910:
16908:
16905:
16903:
16900:
16898:
16895:
16893:
16890:
16888:
16885:
16883:
16880:
16878:
16875:
16871:
16868:
16866:
16863:
16861:
16858:
16856:
16853:
16851:
16848:
16846:
16843:
16841:
16838:
16836:
16833:
16832:
16831:
16830:Latin America
16828:
16826:
16823:
16821:
16818:
16816:
16813:
16811:
16808:
16806:
16803:
16801:
16798:
16796:
16793:
16791:
16788:
16786:
16783:
16781:
16778:
16776:
16773:
16771:
16768:
16766:
16763:
16761:
16758:
16756:
16753:
16751:
16748:
16746:
16743:
16741:
16738:
16736:
16733:
16729:
16726:
16724:
16721:
16719:
16716:
16714:
16711:
16709:
16706:
16704:
16701:
16699:
16696:
16694:
16691:
16690:
16689:
16686:
16685:
16681:
16677:
16671:
16668:
16666:
16663:
16661:
16660:Technoscience
16658:
16656:
16653:
16651:
16648:
16646:
16643:
16641:
16638:
16634:
16631:
16630:
16629:
16626:
16624:
16621:
16617:
16614:
16612:
16609:
16607:
16604:
16600:
16597:
16596:
16595:
16592:
16590:
16587:
16585:
16582:
16580:
16577:
16576:
16575:
16572:
16570:
16567:
16565:
16562:
16558:
16555:
16554:
16553:
16550:
16548:
16545:
16543:
16540:
16538:
16535:
16533:
16530:
16528:
16525:
16521:
16518:
16516:
16513:
16511:
16510:Art criticism
16508:
16507:
16506:
16503:
16501:
16498:
16496:
16493:
16491:
16488:
16486:
16483:
16479:
16476:
16474:
16471:
16470:
16469:
16466:
16464:
16461:
16459:
16456:
16454:
16451:
16449:
16446:
16444:
16441:
16439:
16436:
16434:
16431:
16429:
16426:
16424:
16423:Men's studies
16421:
16419:
16416:
16414:
16411:
16410:
16408:
16405:
16403:
16400:
16398:
16395:
16393:
16390:
16388:
16386:
16382:
16374:
16371:
16369:
16366:
16364:
16359:
16357:
16354:
16352:
16349:
16347:
16344:
16342:
16339:
16337:
16334:
16332:
16331:Transmisogyny
16329:
16327:
16324:
16322:
16319:
16317:
16314:
16312:
16309:
16307:
16304:
16302:
16299:
16297:
16294:
16292:
16291:Purplewashing
16289:
16287:
16286:Protofeminism
16284:
16282:
16279:
16277:
16274:
16272:
16269:
16267:
16264:
16262:
16259:
16257:
16254:
16252:
16249:
16247:
16244:
16242:
16239:
16237:
16234:
16232:
16229:
16227:
16224:
16222:
16218:
16214:
16212:
16209:
16207:
16204:
16202:
16199:
16197:
16196:Honor killing
16194:
16192:
16189:
16187:
16184:
16182:
16179:
16177:
16174:
16172:
16169:
16165:
16162:
16160:
16157:
16155:
16152:
16151:
16150:
16147:
16145:
16142:
16140:
16137:
16135:
16132:
16129:
16127:
16124:
16122:
16119:
16117:
16114:
16112:
16109:
16107:
16104:
16102:
16099:
16095:
16092:
16091:
16090:
16087:
16085:
16082:
16080:
16077:
16076:
16072:
16068:
16059:
16056:
16054:
16051:
16047:
16044:
16043:
16042:
16039:
16035:
16032:
16030:
16027:
16025:
16022:
16021:
16020:
16017:
16015:
16012:
16010:
16007:
16005:
16001:
15993:
15990:
15986:
15983:
15982:
15981:
15978:
15976:
15973:
15971:
15968:
15964:
15961:
15959:
15956:
15954:
15951:
15950:
15949:
15946:
15942:
15939:
15937:
15934:
15932:
15929:
15927:
15924:
15923:
15922:
15919:
15917:
15914:
15912:
15909:
15908:
15904:
15902:
15898:
15892:
15889:
15885:
15882:
15881:
15880:
15877:
15875:
15872:
15870:
15869:Transnational
15867:
15865:
15862:
15860:
15857:
15855:
15852:
15848:
15845:
15844:
15843:
15840:
15838:
15835:
15833:
15830:
15828:
15825:
15823:
15820:
15818:
15815:
15811:
15808:
15807:
15806:
15803:
15801:
15798:
15796:
15793:
15791:
15788:
15786:
15783:
15781:
15778:
15776:
15773:
15771:
15768:
15766:
15763:
15759:
15756:
15755:
15754:
15751:
15749:
15746:
15744:
15741:
15739:
15738:Individualist
15736:
15732:
15729:
15728:
15727:
15724:
15722:
15719:
15717:
15714:
15712:
15709:
15707:
15704:
15702:
15699:
15695:
15692:
15691:
15690:
15687:
15685:
15682:
15678:
15675:
15674:
15673:
15670:
15668:
15665:
15663:
15660:
15658:
15655:
15653:
15650:
15648:
15645:
15643:
15640:
15638:
15637:Anti-abortion
15635:
15633:
15630:
15628:
15625:
15624:
15622:
15618:
15615:
15613:
15607:
15593:
15590:
15588:
15585:
15583:
15580:
15579:
15578:
15575:
15573:
15570:
15568:
15565:
15564:
15563:
15562:United States
15560:
15556:
15553:
15552:
15551:
15548:
15546:
15543:
15541:
15538:
15536:
15533:
15531:
15528:
15526:
15523:
15521:
15518:
15516:
15513:
15511:
15508:
15507:
15505:
15503:
15499:
15492:
15488:
15486:
15483:
15481:
15478:
15476:
15473:
15472:
15470:
15466:
15460:
15457:
15455:
15452:
15448:
15445:
15444:
15443:
15440:
15438:
15435:
15433:
15430:
15429:
15427:
15423:
15420:
15418:
15414:
15410:
15403:
15398:
15396:
15391:
15389:
15384:
15383:
15380:
15368:
15365:
15363:
15360:
15359:
15357:
15355:
15351:
15345:
15342:
15340:
15337:
15335:
15332:
15330:
15327:
15325:
15322:
15321:
15319:
15317:
15313:
15307:
15304:
15302:
15299:
15297:
15296:Hymenorrhaphy
15294:
15292:
15289:
15287:
15284:
15280:
15277:
15276:
15275:
15272:
15270:
15269:Culdocentesis
15267:
15265:
15262:
15260:
15257:
15256:
15254:
15252:
15248:
15237:
15234:
15232:
15229:
15226:
15222:
15219:
15217:
15214:
15210:
15207:
15206:
15205:
15202:
15200:
15197:
15196:
15194:
15191:
15189:
15183:
15177:
15174:
15173:
15171:
15168:
15166:
15160:
15154:
15151:
15149:
15146:
15145:
15143:
15140:
15138:
15132:
15126:
15123:
15121:
15118:
15117:
15115:
15112:
15110:
15104:
15098:
15095:
15093:
15090:
15088:
15085:
15083:
15080:
15078:
15075:
15073:
15070:
15069:
15067:
15064:
15059:
15056:
15054:
15050:
15044:
15041:
15039:
15036:
15034:
15031:
15029:
15028:Salpingectomy
15026:
15024:
15021:
15020:
15018:
15016:
15012:
15006:
15003:
15001:
14998:
14997:
14995:
14993:
14989:
14985:
14980:
14976:
14968:
14963:
14961:
14956:
14954:
14949:
14948:
14945:
14935:
14934:
14923:
14917:
14916:Serial rapist
14914:
14912:
14909:
14907:
14906:November 25th
14904:
14902:
14899:
14897:
14894:
14893:
14891:
14887:
14881:
14878:
14876:
14873:
14871:
14868:
14866:
14863:
14859:
14856:
14854:
14851:
14849:
14846:
14844:
14841:
14839:
14836:
14834:
14831:
14829:
14826:
14824:
14821:
14819:
14816:
14814:
14811:
14810:
14809:
14808:Types of rape
14806:
14802:
14799:
14797:
14796:and pregnancy
14794:
14793:
14792:
14789:
14785:
14782:
14780:
14777:
14776:
14775:
14772:
14771:
14769:
14765:
14759:
14756:
14752:
14749:
14747:
14744:
14742:
14739:
14737:
14734:
14733:
14732:
14729:
14727:
14724:
14722:
14719:
14717:
14714:
14712:
14709:
14707:
14704:
14702:
14699:
14697:
14694:
14692:
14689:
14687:
14684:
14682:
14681:Force-feeding
14679:
14677:
14674:
14672:
14669:
14667:
14664:
14660:
14657:
14655:
14652:
14650:
14647:
14646:
14645:
14642:
14640:
14639:Honor killing
14637:
14635:
14632:
14630:
14627:
14623:
14622:and pregnancy
14620:
14618:
14615:
14613:
14610:
14609:
14608:
14605:
14603:
14600:
14598:
14595:
14593:
14590:
14588:
14587:Bride burning
14585:
14583:
14580:
14578:
14575:
14573:
14570:
14569:
14567:
14563:
14559:
14552:
14547:
14545:
14540:
14538:
14533:
14532:
14529:
14517:
14514:
14512:
14509:
14508:
14506:
14502:
14496:
14493:
14491:
14488:
14486:
14483:
14481:
14478:
14476:
14473:
14472:
14470:
14466:
14455:
14454:
14450:
14447:
14446:
14445:Desert Flower
14442:
14439:
14438:
14434:
14433:
14431:
14427:
14420:
14419:
14418:Desert Flower
14415:
14412:
14411:
14407:
14404:
14403:
14399:
14396:
14395:
14391:
14390:
14388:
14384:
14381:
14377:
14367:
14364:
14362:
14359:
14357:
14354:
14352:
14349:
14347:
14344:
14342:
14339:
14337:
14334:
14332:
14329:
14328:
14326:
14322:
14316:
14313:
14311:
14310:Comfort Momoh
14308:
14306:
14303:
14301:
14298:
14296:
14293:
14291:
14288:
14286:
14283:
14281:
14278:
14276:
14273:
14271:
14268:
14267:
14265:
14261:
14255:
14254:Amina Warsame
14252:
14250:
14247:
14245:
14242:
14240:
14237:
14235:
14232:
14230:
14227:
14225:
14222:
14220:
14217:
14215:
14212:
14210:
14207:
14205:
14202:
14200:
14199:Efua Dorkenoo
14197:
14195:
14192:
14190:
14187:
14185:
14182:
14181:
14179:
14177:and activists
14175:Early writers
14173:
14170:
14166:
14160:
14157:
14153:
14152:United States
14150:
14148:
14145:
14143:
14140:
14138:
14135:
14133:
14130:
14128:
14125:
14123:
14120:
14118:
14115:
14113:
14110:
14108:
14105:
14104:
14103:
14100:
14098:
14095:
14094:
14092:
14088:
14082:
14079:
14077:
14074:
14072:
14069:
14067:
14064:
14062:
14059:
14057:
14054:
14052:
14049:
14047:
14044:
14042:
14039:
14037:
14034:
14033:
14031:
14029:Health issues
14027:
14023:
14016:
14011:
14009:
14004:
14002:
13997:
13996:
13993:
13987:
13983:
13980:
13975:
13971:
13968:
13963:
13959:
13958:
13949:
13948:
13943:
13940:
13937:
13933:
13929:
13926:
13923:
13922:
13921:Desert Flower
13917:
13914:
13911:
13910:
13905:
13902:
13901:
13900:
13899:
13892:
13888:
13884:
13881:
13877:
13874:
13870:
13866:
13863:
13859:
13856:
13853:
13850:
13848:
13845:
13844:
13834:
13830:
13826:
13825:
13820:
13816:
13812:
13808:
13804:
13800:
13799:
13793:
13789:
13788:
13782:
13778:
13774:
13773:Mackie, Gerry
13770:
13766:
13765:
13760:
13756:
13752:
13748:
13744:
13740:
13736:
13735:
13729:
13725:
13721:
13717:
13713:
13709:
13708:
13703:
13699:
13695:
13691:
13690:
13685:
13681:
13680:
13675:
13671:
13670:
13665:
13661:
13657:
13653:
13649:
13645:
13644:
13639:
13635:
13631:
13627:
13622:
13618:
13614:
13610:
13606:
13605:
13600:
13596:
13595:
13589:
13588:
13586:
13585:
13565:
13562:(39). USAID.
13561:
13554:
13549:
13545:
13541:
13537:
13533:
13529:
13525:
13521:
13517:
13512:
13508:
13504:
13499:
13494:
13490:
13486:
13481:
13476:
13472:
13468:
13464:
13459:
13447:
13443:
13439:
13435:
13431:
13427:
13423:
13419:
13415:
13411:
13406:
13402:
13398:
13394:
13390:
13385:
13380:
13376:
13372:
13368:
13363:
13359:
13355:
13351:
13347:
13343:
13339:
13334:
13329:
13325:
13321:
13317:
13312:
13308:
13304:
13300:
13296:
13292:
13288:
13283:
13279:
13275:
13271:
13267:
13263:
13259:
13254:
13250:
13246:
13242:
13238:
13234:
13230:
13225:
13221:
13217:
13213:
13209:
13205:
13201:
13196:
13191:
13187:
13183:
13179:
13174:
13169:
13164:
13160:
13156:
13152:
13147:
13143:
13139:
13135:
13131:
13127:
13123:
13119:
13115:
13111:
13107:
13102:
13098:
13094:
13090:
13086:
13082:
13078:
13074:
13070:
13066:
13062:
13057:
13053:
13049:
13044:
13039:
13036:(2): 95–101.
13035:
13031:
13027:
13022:
13018:
13014:
13010:
13006:
13002:
12998:
12994:
12990:
12986:
12982:
12977:
12966:on 2 May 2019
12965:
12961:
12957:
12953:
12949:
12945:
12941:
12937:
12933:
12929:
12924:
12920:
12916:
12911:
12906:
12902:
12898:
12893:
12888:
12884:
12880:
12876:
12871:
12867:
12863:
12858:
12853:
12849:
12845:
12841:
12836:
12832:
12828:
12824:
12820:
12817:(2): 92–104.
12816:
12812:
12807:
12792:
12788:
12784:
12780:
12776:
12772:
12768:
12764:
12760:
12753:
12750:(June 2003).
12749:
12748:Mackie, Gerry
12745:
12730:
12726:
12722:
12718:
12714:
12710:
12706:
12699:
12695:
12694:Mackie, Gerry
12691:
12687:
12683:
12679:
12675:
12671:
12667:
12663:
12659:
12654:
12650:
12646:
12642:
12638:
12634:
12630:
12626:
12622:
12617:
12613:
12609:
12605:
12601:
12597:
12593:
12589:
12585:
12581:
12577:
12573:
12569:
12564:
12560:
12556:
12552:
12548:
12544:
12540:
12535:
12530:
12526:
12522:
12518:
12513:
12509:
12505:
12501:
12497:
12493:
12489:
12484:
12472:
12468:
12464:
12459:
12455:
12451:
12447:
12443:
12439:
12435:
12431:
12427:
12423:
12419:
12414:
12410:
12406:
12401:
12396:
12392:
12388:
12384:
12380:
12376:
12371:
12367:
12363:
12358:
12353:
12349:
12345:
12341:
12337:
12333:
12328:
12321:
12317:
12313:
12309:
12305:
12301:
12297:
12293:
12289:
12286:(35): 29–37.
12285:
12281:
12274:
12269:
12265:
12261:
12257:
12253:
12249:
12245:
12240:
12235:
12231:
12227:
12221:
12206:
12199:
12194:
12190:
12186:
12182:
12178:
12174:
12170:
12166:
12162:
12158:
12154:
12149:
12145:
12141:
12137:
12133:
12128:
12123:
12119:
12115:
12111:
12106:
12102:
12098:
12093:
12088:
12084:
12080:
12076:
12071:
12067:
12063:
12059:
12055:
12051:
12047:
12043:
12039:
12035:
12031:
12027:
12023:
12019:
12015:
12010:
12005:
12001:
11997:
11993:
11989:
11985:
11981:
11977:
11972:
11968:
11964:
11959:
11954:
11950:
11946:
11942:
11938:
11935:(7559): 124.
11934:
11930:
11926:
11921:
11917:
11913:
11909:
11905:
11901:
11897:
11893:
11889:
11884:
11877:
11873:
11869:
11865:
11861:
11857:
11853:
11849:
11845:
11841:
11837:
11830:
11825:
11821:
11815:
11807:
11803:
11798:
11793:
11789:
11785:
11781:
11777:
11773:
11768:
11764:
11760:
11756:
11752:
11748:
11744:
11740:
11736:
11731:
11727:
11723:
11719:
11715:
11711:
11707:
11703:
11699:
11694:
11690:
11686:
11682:
11678:
11674:
11670:
11666:
11662:
11658:
11654:
11649:
11645:
11641:
11636:
11631:
11627:
11623:
11619:
11615:
11611:
11607:
11603:
11598:
11586:
11582:
11578:
11575:
11570:
11566:
11562:
11557:
11552:
11548:
11544:
11540:
11536:
11532:
11528:
11524:
11519:
11515:
11511:
11506:
11501:
11497:
11493:
11489:
11485:
11481:
11477:
11473:
11468:
11453:
11449:
11445:
11441:
11437:
11433:
11427:
11420:
11419:
11413:
11409:
11405:
11400:
11395:
11391:
11387:
11383:
11379:
11375:
11371:
11367:
11362:
11358:
11354:
11349:
11344:
11340:
11336:
11332:
11328:
11324:
11320:
11316:
11311:
11307:
11303:
11298:
11293:
11289:
11285:
11281:
11277:
11273:
11269:
11265:
11260:
11256:
11252:
11248:
11244:
11240:
11236:
11232:
11228:
11224:
11220:
11214:
11210:
11206:
11201:
11196:
11192:
11188:
11184:
11180:
11176:
11172:
11168:
11163:
11159:
11155:
11151:
11147:
11142:
11137:
11133:
11129:
11125:
11120:
11116:
11112:
11108:
11104:
11099:
11094:
11090:
11086:
11082:
11077:
11065:
11061:
11057:
11053:
11049:
11044:
11039:
11035:
11031:
11027:
11022:
11018:
11014:
11010:
11006:
11002:
10998:
10994:
10990:
10986:
10982:
10976:
10972:
10968:
10964:
10960:
10955:
10950:
10946:
10942:
10938:
10933:
10932:
10930:
10929:
10920:
10915:
10911:
10906:
10894:
10890:
10884:
10880:
10876:
10872:
10868:
10864:
10860:
10859:
10854:
10850:
10847:; Lewis, B.;
10846:
10842:
10838:
10833:
10829:
10824:
10820:
10815:
10811:
10805:
10801:
10797:
10792:
10788:
10783:
10779:
10774:
10770:
10765:
10761:
10755:
10751:
10746:
10745:
10739:
10735:
10731:
10726:
10722:
10717:
10713:
10709:
10705:
10701:
10696:
10692:
10687:
10683:
10678:
10674:
10669:
10657:
10653:
10647:
10643:
10639:
10634:
10622:
10618:
10612:
10608:
10607:
10602:
10598:
10586:
10582:
10576:
10572:
10568:
10564:
10560:
10556:
10551:
10547:
10542:
10535:
10531:
10524:
10520:
10519:Mackie, Gerry
10516:
10512:
10507:
10495:
10491:
10485:
10481:
10477:
10472:
10460:
10456:
10450:
10446:
10442:
10437:
10433:
10427:
10423:
10422:
10416:
10412:
10407:
10403:
10398:
10394:
10388:
10384:
10380:
10376:
10371:
10367:
10362:
10358:
10354:
10350:
10346:
10340:
10335:
10334:
10327:
10323:
10319:
10315:
10311:
10306:
10302:
10298:
10294:
10282:
10278:
10272:
10268:
10264:
10262:
10256:
10252:
10248:
10243:
10239:
10234:
10230:
10226:
10225:Boddy, Janice
10222:
10218:
10214:
10213:Boddy, Janice
10210:
10206:
10201:
10197:
10192:
10180:
10176:
10170:
10166:
10162:
10157:
10142:
10135:
10134:
10128:
10124:
10118:
10113:
10112:
10106:
10102:
10098:
10094:
10090:
10086:
10082:
10078:
10066:
10062:
10056:
10052:
10048:
10043:
10042:
10040:
10039:
10026:
10015:
10011:
10007:
10000:
9990:
9986:
9983:
9978:
9963:
9959:
9952:
9937:
9936:openDemocracy
9933:
9926:
9919:
9918:Boston Review
9915:
9911:
9908:
9904:
9900:
9899:Boston Review
9896:
9892:
9889:
9885:
9879:
9872:
9871:Nussbaum 1999
9867:
9860:
9856:
9851:
9844:
9839:
9832:
9828:
9824:
9821:
9815:
9808:
9804:
9800:
9797:
9793:
9788:
9781:
9776:
9769:
9765:
9760:
9753:
9748:
9741:
9737:
9732:
9725:
9721:
9720:Nnaemeka 2005
9716:
9709:
9705:
9701:
9696:
9688:
9684:
9679:
9675:
9670:
9663:
9659:
9658:Nnaemeka 2005
9654:
9647:
9643:
9638:
9631:
9627:
9626:Nnaemeka 2005
9622:
9615:
9610:
9603:
9598:
9591:
9587:
9586:Nnaemeka 2005
9582:
9575:
9571:
9567:
9564:
9558:
9551:
9546:
9539:
9535:
9532:
9528:
9524:
9521:
9516:
9509:
9505:
9501:
9498:
9493:
9486:
9482:
9479:
9478:
9472:
9466:
9465:
9459:
9455:
9451:
9448:
9444:
9440:
9436:
9432:
9429:
9425:
9424:Efua Dorkenoo
9419:
9412:
9408:
9403:
9396:
9392:
9389:
9384:
9377:
9371:
9364:
9360:
9357:
9351:
9349:
9347:
9339:
9334:
9332:
9324:
9319:
9312:
9308:
9304:
9301:
9295:
9288:
9284:
9281:
9276:
9269:
9265:
9261:
9258:
9252:
9250:
9243:
9241:
9237:
9233:
9230:
9227:Pam Belluck,
9215:
9211:
9207:
9202:
9197:
9193:
9189:
9185:
9169:
9165:
9161:
9156:
9151:
9147:
9143:
9139:
9133:
9126:
9122:
9119:
9113:
9106:
9102:
9098:
9095:
9089:
9087:
9079:
9075:
9072:
9067:
9061:
9059:
9055:
9052:
9047:
9043:
9039:
9036:
9030:
9024:
9013:
9009:
9005:
8998:
8994:
8988:
8981:
8976:
8969:
8965:
8961:
8958:
8952:
8945:
8941:
8937:
8934:
8929:
8927:
8925:
8917:
8912:
8905:
8901:
8898:
8893:
8891:
8884:
8882:
8876:
8872:
8869:
8865:
8861:
8858:
8854:
8850:
8847:
8843:
8839:
8836:
8830:
8823:
8819:
8815:
8812:
8808:
8803:
8796:
8791:
8784:
8779:
8772:
8767:
8760:
8756:
8751:
8744:
8740:
8737:
8731:
8724:
8720:
8717:
8712:
8705:
8700:
8693:
8688:
8681:
8676:
8674:
8672:
8664:
8660:
8656:
8652:
8649:
8646:Emma Bonino,
8643:
8636:
8632:
8628:
8625:
8621:
8617:
8613:
8608:
8599:
8590:
8583:
8579:
8574:
8567:
8562:
8555:
8550:
8543:
8538:
8531:
8527:
8523:
8520:
8514:
8507:
8503:
8498:
8491:
8486:
8479:
8475:
8470:
8463:
8459:
8455:
8452:
8448:
8443:
8436:
8431:
8429:
8421:
8416:
8409:
8404:
8397:
8392:
8385:
8380:
8373:
8369:
8364:
8357:
8352:
8336:
8332:
8328:
8321:
8314:
8310:
8306:
8302:
8297:
8290:
8289:Peterson 2012
8286:
8281:
8274:
8270:
8266:
8262:
8258:
8253:
8246:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8229:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8210:
8206:
8201:
8194:
8189:
8182:
8181:Kenyatta 1962
8177:
8170:
8166:
8162:
8161:Kenyatta 1962
8159:as outcasts,
8158:
8154:
8153:Kenyatta 1962
8150:
8146:
8142:
8137:
8130:
8126:
8120:
8104:
8100:
8096:
8090:
8084:
8073:
8069:
8065:
8049:
8045:
8041:
8034:
8027:
8022:
8020:
8012:
8008:
8004:
8000:
7995:
7988:
7984:
7983:Hoberman 2005
7979:
7972:
7968:
7963:
7956:
7955:McGregor 1998
7951:
7944:
7939:
7932:
7928:
7924:
7919:
7912:
7908:
7904:
7900:
7895:
7888:
7883:
7876:
7872:
7868:
7864:
7863:J. F. C. 1873
7859:
7857:
7855:
7848:, 1003, 1009.
7847:
7842:
7834:
7833:The Telegraph
7830:
7823:
7821:
7814:
7808:
7806:
7804:
7796:
7791:
7784:
7779:
7772:
7767:
7760:
7755:
7748:
7743:
7736:
7732:
7728:
7724:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7706:
7702:
7701:
7696:
7691:
7684:
7679:
7672:
7668:
7663:
7656:
7655:O'Rourke 2007
7651:
7644:
7639:
7632:
7627:
7625:
7623:
7615:
7611:
7607:
7603:
7598:
7591:
7586:
7579:
7574:
7567:
7562:
7544:
7537:
7530:
7529:Kunhiyop 2008
7525:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7486:
7478:
7474:
7469:
7464:
7460:
7456:
7452:
7445:
7438:
7433:
7427:
7422:
7415:
7414:Wensinck 2012
7410:
7403:
7399:
7394:
7387:
7382:
7380:
7372:
7368:
7365:
7359:
7352:
7348:
7343:
7336:
7331:
7329:
7321:
7316:
7309:
7305:
7301:
7296:
7289:
7284:
7276:
7272:
7266:
7259:
7254:
7247:
7242:
7235:
7230:
7223:
7218:
7211:
7206:
7199:
7195:
7192:
7186:
7179:
7174:
7167:
7162:
7155:
7150:
7143:
7138:
7131:
7126:
7119:
7114:
7107:
7103:
7098:
7091:
7087:
7082:
7075:
7070:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7046:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7026:
7019:
7015:
7010:
7008:
7000:
6995:
6988:
6983:
6976:
6971:
6964:
6959:
6952:
6947:
6940:
6935:
6929:, 35, 42, 46.
6928:
6923:
6916:
6912:
6907:
6899:
6895:
6889:
6881:
6875:
6856:
6849:
6843:
6837:
6830:
6826:
6820:
6813:
6808:
6801:
6796:
6789:
6785:
6781:
6778:
6773:
6766:
6761:
6754:
6749:
6742:
6738:
6735:
6730:
6723:
6718:
6716:
6708:
6703:
6696:
6690:
6683:
6678:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6648:
6643:
6636:
6631:
6624:
6620:
6615:
6608:
6603:
6596:
6592:
6587:
6571:
6565:
6550:
6546:
6539:
6532:
6527:
6525:
6516:
6512:
6507:
6502:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6467:
6459:
6455:
6450:
6445:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6425:
6421:
6417:
6410:
6394:
6388:
6381:
6376:
6369:
6364:
6357:
6352:
6350:
6342:
6337:
6330:
6325:
6318:
6313:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6289:
6282:
6277:
6270:
6265:
6258:
6254:
6249:
6242:
6237:
6230:
6225:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6207:
6202:
6195:
6190:
6171:
6165:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6146:
6139:
6135:
6132:
6127:
6120:
6115:
6108:
6103:
6101:
6093:
6088:
6081:
6076:
6074:
6066:
6061:
6054:
6049:
6047:
6045:
6037:
6032:
6030:
6028:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6007:
6000:
5995:
5988:
5983:
5976:
5971:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5952:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5927:
5920:
5915:
5908:
5903:
5901:
5893:
5888:
5881:
5876:
5869:
5865:
5860:
5853:
5848:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5828:
5821:
5817:
5812:
5805:
5800:
5798:
5790:
5786:
5781:
5774:
5769:
5762:
5758:
5755:
5750:
5743:
5738:
5736:
5728:
5723:
5716:
5711:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5691:
5684:
5680:
5677:
5673:
5668:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5638:
5631:
5627:
5622:
5615:
5611:
5606:
5600:
5595:
5593:
5591:
5589:
5587:
5580:
5576:
5575:Reprod Health
5572:
5568:
5566:
5564:
5556:
5551:
5544:
5539:
5532:
5527:
5520:
5515:
5513:
5505:
5500:
5493:
5488:
5481:
5476:
5474:
5472:
5464:
5459:
5457:
5449:
5444:
5437:
5433:
5428:
5421:
5416:
5409:
5404:
5397:
5392:
5390:
5382:
5378:
5373:
5366:
5362:
5357:
5350:
5346:
5341:
5334:
5329:
5327:
5325:
5323:
5315:
5310:
5303:
5298:
5296:
5288:
5283:
5276:
5271:
5269:
5267:
5259:
5255:
5250:
5243:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5213:
5211:
5203:
5199:
5194:
5187:
5183:
5178:
5176:
5168:
5163:
5161:
5159:
5151:
5147:
5142:
5135:
5130:
5128:
5126:
5124:
5122:
5120:
5118:
5116:
5114:
5112:
5110:
5102:
5096:
5089:
5088:Nussbaum 1999
5084:
5082:
5080:
5072:
5067:
5065:
5057:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5046:
5044:
5042:
5040:
5038:
5036:
5034:
5018:
5017:
5012:
5006:
5004:
5002:
5000:
4998:
4990:
4985:
4978:
4973:
4971:
4969:
4967:
4965:
4960:
4945:
4938:
4933:
4924:
4917:
4916:Dawoodi Bohra
4911:
4902:
4892:
4882:
4873:
4866:
4861:
4852:
4845:
4841:
4835:
4829:
4827:
4822:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4802:
4795:
4794:uncircumcised
4789:
4779:
4770:
4763:
4759:
4754:
4744:
4737:
4732:
4723:
4716:
4711:
4705:
4700:
4696:
4691:
4681:
4671:
4661:
4651:
4644:
4638:
4631:
4625:
4615:
4605:
4598:
4592:
4586:
4579:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4561:A diagram in
4558:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4537:
4530:
4524:
4515:
4508:
4504:
4499:
4495:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4459:
4455:
4454:
4448:
4446:
4442:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4428:Conservatives
4425:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4401:
4398:
4393:
4390:
4386:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4337:
4322:
4319:
4315:
4309:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4286:Sylvia Tamale
4283:
4279:
4274:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4252:
4248:
4234:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4215:
4213:
4209:
4202:
4192:
4189:
4188:Criminal Code
4184:
4182:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4162:
4155:North America
4152:
4150:
4146:
4140:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4098: No data
4068:
4064:
4055:
4051:
4048:
4045:ratified the
4044:
4043:African Union
4040:
4036:
4032:
4027:
4025:
4021:
4015:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3984:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3968:
3964:
3963:Women and Sex
3960:
3955:
3944:
3939:
3937:
3932:
3930:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3921:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3897:
3888:
3881:
3875:
3868:
3862:
3853:
3846:
3840:
3831:
3824:
3820:
3818:
3810:
3801:
3794:
3789:
3780:
3773:
3767:
3758:
3751:
3745:
3738:
3734:
3728:
3721:
3715:
3706:
3704:
3696:
3690:
3683:
3677:
3670:
3665:
3658:
3652:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3628:
3624:
3619:
3610:
3603:
3597:
3590:
3585:
3576:
3574:
3564:
3557:
3551:
3542:
3535:
3531:
3526:
3519:
3513:
3506:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3486:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3469:Efua Dorkenoo
3466:
3463:
3462:
3456:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3413:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3402:
3401:Efua Dorkenoo
3398:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3378:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3337:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3298:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3285:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3260:
3256:
3255:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3225:
3219:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3147:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3096:
3095:Women and Sex
3092:
3088:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3077:
3073:
3067:
3063:
3058:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3017:
3016:Sawt el Maraa
3013:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2954:Salama Moussa
2951:
2948:
2947:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2921:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2843:Njuri Nchecke
2839:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2797:
2796:(bottom left)
2794:
2790:
2786:
2784:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2769:
2768:Jomo Kenyatta
2765:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2722:
2716:
2700:
2694:
2683:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2662:more stitches
2659:
2655:
2654:James C. Burt
2651:
2646:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2592:
2588:
2579:
2577:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2536:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2509:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2457:
2454:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2439:
2438:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2425:may refer in
2424:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2398:
2396:
2376:
2374:
2370:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2329:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2258:, founded by
2257:
2251:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2220:
2215:
2206:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2183:
2182:Sande society
2179:
2175:
2171:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2121:
2109:
2107:
2106:Bondo society
2103:
2098:
2094:
2093:Somali people
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2052:
2043:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1968:
1954:
1939:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1908:
1906:
1903:(USAID); and
1902:
1898:
1894:
1885:
1876:
1874:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1857:meta-analysis
1854:
1850:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1794:pre-eclampsia
1786:
1781:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1735:Vesicovaginal
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1709:that lead to
1708:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1644:
1643:complications
1636:
1632:
1627:
1616:Complications
1613:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1579:
1574:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1447:clitoral hood
1444:
1443:clitoral hood
1440:
1436:
1427:
1424:
1417:
1407:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1356:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1273:derives from
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1221:Igbo language
1218:
1214:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1057:clitoral hood
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1003:
998:
996:
991:
989:
984:
983:
981:
980:
975:
970:
965:
963:
958:
953:
952:
951:
950:
946:
945:
940:
937:
935:
932:
931:
930:
929:
925:
924:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
897:
896:Female sodomy
894:
892:
889:
888:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
865:
862:
861:
860:
857:
855:
852:
850:
847:
845:
842:
840:
837:
833:
830:
828:
825:
824:
823:
820:
818:
815:
811:
808:
806:
803:
802:
801:
798:
796:
793:
789:
786:
785:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
742:
739:
738:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
720:
717:
716:
715:
712:
708:
705:
704:
703:
700:
699:
698:
697:
692:
685:
684:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
663:
662:World Charter
659:
655:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
624:
621:
620:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
603:Antisexualism
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
588:Miscegenation
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
532:
529:
525:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
507:
506:
505:
502:Social issues
501:
500:
496:
492:
491:
488:
485:
484:
469:
466:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
448:
445:
442:
439:
436:
433:
432:Côte d'Ivoire
430:
427:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
400:
397:
394:
391:
388:
385:
384:Guinea-Bissau
382:
379:
376:
373:
370:
367:
364:
361:
358:
355:
352:
349:
346:
345:
342:
338:
331:
327:
316:
313:
310:
307:
304:
301:
298:
295:
292:
289:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
265:
262:
259:
256:
253:
250:
247:
244:
241:
238:
237:Côte d'Ivoire
235:
232:
229:
226:
225:Guinea-Bissau
223:
220:
217:
214:
211:
208:
205:
202:
199:
196:
193:
190:
187:
184:
181:
178:
175:
172:
169:
166:
163:
160:
157:
154:
151:
148:
145:
144:
141:
137:
130:
126:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
70:
64:
59:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
18374:
18362:
18350:
18073:Hip fracture
18068:Osteoporosis
17809:Infibulation
17798:
17709:Dysmenorrhea
17702:Sanitary pad
17654:Menstruation
17382:Preeclampsia
17377:Hypertension
17261:Labia majora
17256:Labia minora
17131:
17106:
17050:Rhetoricians
17040:Philosophers
16932:Saudi Arabia
16728:South Africa
16589:Epistemology
16542:Anthropology
16537:Architecture
16500:Legal theory
16407:Gynocentrism
16346:War on women
16281:Pro-feminism
16236:Gender-blind
16186:Gender quota
16159:Art movement
15953:Dianic Wicca
15832:Sex-positive
15795:Postcolonial
15662:Conservative
15642:Anti-fascist
15328:
15291:Colpocleisis
15231:Cervicectomy
15186:
15163:
15135:
15120:Hysteroscopy
15107:
15077:Hysterectomy
15072:Genitoplasty
15062:
15023:Falloposcopy
15000:Oophorectomy
14931:
14911:February 6th
14813:by deception
14676:Foot binding
14654:Infibulation
14643:
14602:Dating abuse
14592:Bride buying
14451:
14443:
14435:
14416:
14408:
14400:
14392:
14336:Equality Now
14315:Alice Walker
14295:Gerry Mackie
14249:Nahid Toubia
14244:Hulda Stumpf
14189:Janice Boddy
14137:Sierra Leone
14066:Keloid scars
14061:Infibulation
14041:Dysmenorrhea
14021:
13986:Dishonour.ca
13981:at Wikiquote
13945:
13935:
13919:
13916:Dirie, Waris
13907:
13897:
13896:
13890:
13879:
13873:The Observer
13872:
13862:The Guardian
13861:
13823:
13797:
13786:
13763:
13742:
13733:
13706:
13688:
13678:
13668:
13642:
13603:
13593:
13583:
13582:
13571:. Retrieved
13559:
13519:
13515:
13470:
13466:
13450:. Retrieved
13417:
13413:
13374:
13370:
13323:
13319:
13290:
13286:
13261:
13257:
13232:
13228:
13185:
13181:
13158:
13154:
13109:
13105:
13067:(1): 48–51.
13064:
13060:
13033:
13029:
12987:(1): 47–50.
12984:
12980:
12968:. Retrieved
12964:the original
12935:
12931:
12885:(1): 70–73.
12882:
12878:
12847:
12843:
12814:
12810:
12798:. Retrieved
12762:
12758:
12736:. Retrieved
12708:
12704:
12661:
12657:
12624:
12620:
12571:
12567:
12524:
12520:
12491:
12487:
12475:. Retrieved
12467:The Atlantic
12466:
12421:
12417:
12382:
12378:
12339:
12335:
12320:the original
12283:
12279:
12229:
12225:
12214:10 September
12212:. Retrieved
12156:
12152:
12117:
12113:
12082:
12078:
12033:
12029:
11983:
11979:
11932:
11928:
11891:
11887:
11876:the original
11839:
11835:
11814:cite journal
11779:
11775:
11738:
11734:
11701:
11697:
11656:
11652:
11609:
11605:
11589:. Retrieved
11580:
11576:
11530:
11526:
11479:
11475:
11459:. Retrieved
11417:
11373:
11369:
11322:
11318:
11271:
11267:
11222:
11218:
11174:
11170:
11131:
11127:
11088:
11084:
11068:. Retrieved
11033:
11029:
10984:
10980:
10944:
10940:
10927:
10926:
10918:
10909:
10897:. Retrieved
10856:
10827:
10818:
10799:
10786:
10777:
10768:
10743:
10729:
10720:
10711:
10699:
10690:
10681:
10672:
10660:. Retrieved
10641:
10625:. Retrieved
10605:
10589:. Retrieved
10570:
10554:
10545:
10534:the original
10529:
10510:
10498:. Retrieved
10479:
10463:. Retrieved
10444:
10420:
10410:
10401:
10374:
10365:
10356:
10353:Hosken, Fran
10332:
10321:
10309:
10300:
10285:. Retrieved
10266:
10260:
10246:
10237:
10228:
10216:
10204:
10195:
10183:. Retrieved
10164:
10148:. Retrieved
10132:
10110:
10096:
10084:
10069:. Retrieved
10050:
10037:
10036:
10018:. Retrieved
10009:
10002:
9998:
9977:
9965:. Retrieved
9961:
9951:
9939:. Retrieved
9935:
9925:
9917:
9898:
9878:
9866:
9850:
9838:
9814:
9806:
9787:
9775:
9759:
9747:
9731:
9715:
9695:
9669:
9653:
9637:
9621:
9609:
9597:
9581:
9574:The Guardian
9573:
9557:
9545:
9515:
9492:
9476:
9471:
9461:
9457:
9443:Equality Now
9418:
9410:
9402:
9383:
9370:
9338:Gallard 1995
9318:
9310:
9294:
9275:
9267:
9239:
9226:
9218:. Retrieved
9191:
9187:
9172:. Retrieved
9145:
9141:
9132:
9112:
9104:
9066:
9049:
9045:
9029:
9016:. Retrieved
9007:
9000:
8996:
8987:
8975:
8967:
8951:
8943:
8911:
8878:
8829:
8821:
8802:
8790:
8778:
8766:
8750:
8730:
8711:
8699:
8687:
8658:
8642:
8619:
8616:Nahid Toubia
8612:Anika Rahman
8607:
8598:
8589:
8573:
8561:
8549:
8537:
8530:The Guardian
8529:
8513:
8502:Abdalla 2007
8497:
8485:
8469:
8462:The Guardian
8461:
8442:
8415:
8403:
8391:
8379:
8363:
8351:
8339:. Retrieved
8331:The Guardian
8330:
8320:
8296:
8280:
8252:
8228:
8209:Karanja 2009
8200:
8193:Fiedler 1996
8188:
8176:
8156:
8148:
8136:
8128:
8119:
8107:. Retrieved
8098:
8089:
8076:. Retrieved
8067:
8060:
8052:. Retrieved
8043:
8033:
7994:
7978:
7967:Sheehan 1981
7962:
7950:
7938:
7927:Shorter 2008
7918:
7907:Shorter 2008
7894:
7882:
7841:
7832:
7790:
7778:
7766:
7754:
7742:
7720:
7712:
7698:
7690:
7678:
7662:
7650:
7638:
7597:
7585:
7573:
7561:
7549:. Retrieved
7536:
7524:
7512:. Retrieved
7508:the original
7496:The Guardian
7495:
7485:
7458:
7454:
7444:
7432:
7421:
7409:
7393:
7388:, 1004–1005.
7358:
7342:
7315:
7295:
7283:
7265:
7253:
7241:
7229:
7217:
7205:
7185:
7173:
7161:
7149:
7137:
7125:
7113:
7097:
7081:
7069:
7045:
7025:
6994:
6982:
6970:
6958:
6946:
6934:
6922:
6911:Abdalla 2007
6906:
6888:
6874:
6862:. Retrieved
6855:the original
6842:
6836:
6819:
6807:
6795:
6772:
6760:
6748:
6729:
6702:
6689:
6677:
6665:. Retrieved
6657:The Guardian
6656:
6642:
6630:
6614:
6602:
6586:
6574:. Retrieved
6564:
6552:. Retrieved
6549:The Guardian
6548:
6538:
6480:
6476:
6466:
6426:(2): 81–89.
6423:
6419:
6409:
6397:. Retrieved
6387:
6375:
6363:
6336:
6324:
6312:
6288:
6276:
6264:
6248:
6236:
6224:
6201:
6189:
6177:. Retrieved
6164:
6145:
6126:
6114:
6087:
6080:Rushwan 2013
6060:
6006:
5994:
5982:
5970:
5964:Mandara 2004
5956:Mandara 2000
5951:
5926:
5914:
5887:
5875:
5859:
5847:
5832:Abdalla 2007
5827:
5816:Abdalla 2007
5811:
5780:
5768:
5749:
5722:
5710:
5690:
5667:
5655:. Retrieved
5646:
5637:
5628:, 4, 23–28;
5621:
5605:
5550:
5538:
5526:
5499:
5487:
5443:
5432:Abdalla 2007
5427:
5415:
5403:
5372:
5356:
5340:
5309:
5282:
5254:Karanja 2009
5249:
5241:
5234:. Retrieved
5223:The Guardian
5222:
5193:
5141:
5095:
5020:. Retrieved
5014:
4984:
4944:
4932:
4923:
4910:
4901:
4891:
4881:
4872:
4860:
4851:
4834:
4824:
4818:
4810:
4801:
4793:
4788:
4778:
4769:
4761:
4758:Gerry Mackie
4753:
4743:
4736:Gerry Mackie
4731:
4722:
4715:Gerry Mackie
4710:
4702:
4695:Gerry Mackie
4690:
4680:
4670:
4660:
4650:
4642:
4637:
4629:
4624:
4614:
4604:
4597:Nahid Toubia
4591:
4583:
4578:
4571:circumcision
4570:
4557:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4536:
4528:
4523:
4514:
4506:
4498:
4465:Emasculation
4456:
4421:
4414:Circumcision
4394:
4382:
4366:
4339:
4310:
4281:
4275:
4256:
4216:
4212:Aminata Diop
4204:
4185:
4164:
4148:
4142:
4102:
4052:
4028:
4023:
4016:
4007:
3991:
3988:
3972:
3966:
3962:
3956:
3952:
3908:
3905:Nahid Toubia
3901:Anika Rahman
3896:
3887:
3874:
3866:
3861:
3852:
3844:
3839:
3830:
3822:
3816:
3809:
3800:
3795:, p. 3.
3788:
3779:
3771:
3766:
3757:
3749:
3744:
3737:The Guardian
3736:
3727:
3714:
3695:It's Only Me
3694:
3689:
3681:
3676:
3664:
3656:
3651:
3643:
3634:
3626:
3618:
3609:
3601:
3596:
3584:
3563:
3555:
3550:
3541:
3533:
3530:Janice Boddy
3525:
3517:
3512:
3500:
3491:
3480:
3464:
3454:
3440:
3432:
3422:
3407:
3370:
3363:Robin Morgan
3351:
3345:
3313:
3268:
3258:
3252:
3235:
3227:
3213:
3199:
3192:Jill Tweedie
3187:
3175:
3165:
3161:
3145:
3114:
3106:
3105:: Saadawi's
3102:
3094:
3090:
3082:
3056:
3048:
3040:
3023:
3015:
3007:
2999:
2995:
2987:
2983:
2971:
2965:
2957:
2949:
2941:
2934:Hulda Stumpf
2929:
2911:follow suit.
2900:
2892:
2886:
2846:
2842:
2840:
2831:
2821:
2809:Edward Grigg
2805:Hulda Stumpf
2801:
2795:
2793:Hulda Stumpf
2775:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2739:
2728:
2725:
2704:
2698:
2658:episiotomies
2649:
2647:
2638:
2613:
2602:
2596:
2571:infibulation
2559:
2546:frankincense
2543:
2538:
2532:
2528:
2510:
2495:
2482:
2468:
2430:
2423:Coffin Texts
2413:
2400:
2394:
2392:
2353:
2341:FGM in India
2327:
2308:
2303:
2293:In 2007 the
2292:
2288:
2252:
2246:
2243:Ya, mutmura!
2242:
2238:
2224:
2203:
2191:
2187:Janice Boddy
2178:Sierra Leone
2167:
2148:Gerry Mackie
2139:
2133:
2127:
2120:
2085:Sulaymaniyah
2074:
2058:
2049:
2039:
2036:
2015:Saudi Arabia
1986:
1981:Gerry Mackie
1978:
1918:
1914:
1890:
1870:
1867:Distribution
1846:
1810:
1790:
1785:Burkina Faso
1761:hematocolpos
1751:
1704:
1683:endometritis
1648:
1640:
1598:
1587:
1586:
1576:
1570:
1566:
1563:defibulation
1562:
1559:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1524:infibulation
1519:
1518:
1510:
1507:
1477:
1465:
1464:
1434:
1433:
1421:
1404:
1371:
1367:
1352:
1343:
1341:
1296:
1275:
1271:infibulation
1270:
1262:
1256:
1253:infibulation
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1216:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1189:
1179:
1175:
1153:
1116:
1108:chronic pain
1089:
1073:infibulation
1053:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1011:
859:Sexual abuse
839:Revenge porn
800:Prostitution
762:
690:
678:Circumcision
668:Survival sex
650:Sex industry
420:Sierra Leone
414:Burkina Faso
195:Burkina Faso
165:Sierra Leone
55:
39:Vaginoplasty
18376:WikiProject
18063:Bone health
17999:Lung cancer
17836:Dyspareunia
17779:HPV vaccine
17719:Amenorrhoea
17714:Menorrhagia
17552:Infertility
17501:Stillbirths
17362:Miscarriage
17090:Comic books
17015:Art critics
16937:South Korea
16917:Philippines
16897:New Zealand
16892:Netherlands
16623:Pornography
16611:Metaphysics
16552:Criminology
16547:Archaeology
16520:Film theory
16221:Women's Day
15963:Ecofeminist
15822:Reactionary
15770:Materialist
15545:Switzerland
15540:New Zealand
15459:Fourth-wave
15442:Second-wave
15334:Labiaplasty
15259:Vaginectomy
15137:Endometrium
15082:Hysterotomy
14634:Eve teasing
14629:Dowry death
14577:Acid attack
14468:Legislation
14290:Asha Ismail
14280:Waris Dirie
14219:Fran Hosken
14127:New Zealand
14046:Dyspareunia
13858:FGM archive
13716:"Indonesia"
13264:: 419–445.
13188:(4): 9–15.
12738:6 September
10853:Pellat, Ch.
10033:Works cited
9967:24 December
9752:Conroy 2006
9700:Walley 2002
9674:Korieh 2005
9642:Tamale 2011
9280:Section 268
9018:28 November
8881:Section 268
8833:Australia:
8759:UNICEF 2010
8755:UNICEF 2013
8692:UNICEF 2013
8680:UNICEF 2013
8635:UNICEF 2013
8566:Hosken 1994
8554:Mackie 2003
8396:Elduma 2018
8384:UNICEF 2013
8356:UNICEF 2013
8313:Thomas 2003
8309:Thomas 1996
8301:Thomas 2000
8287:, 118–120;
8269:Robert 1996
8245:Murray 1976
8205:Thomas 2000
8155:, 129; for
8141:Thomas 2000
8109:10 February
8054:10 February
8005:. Also see
8001:, cited in
7999:Cutner 1985
7899:Thomas 1813
7869:, cited in
7846:Mackie 1996
7795:Knight 2001
7783:Knight 2001
7771:Knight 2001
7759:Knight 2001
7747:Knight 2001
7722:Geographica
7705:Knight 2001
7700:Geographica
7683:Knight 2001
7671:Kenyon 1893
7669:, 329–330;
7667:Knight 2001
7645:, 264, 267.
7643:Mackie 2000
7631:Knight 2001
7610:Berlin 2011
7590:UNICEF 2013
7578:UNICEF 2013
7566:Murray 1976
7551:10 November
7386:Mackie 1996
7351:UNICEF 2013
7335:UNICEF 2013
7320:Mackie 1996
7288:UNICEF 2013
7258:Mackie 2000
7234:Mackie 2003
7210:UNICEF 2013
7178:UNICEF 2013
7166:UNICEF 2013
7142:UNICEF 2013
7056:; also see
7014:Ahmadu 2000
7001:, 999–1000.
6999:Mackie 1996
6989:, 620, 624.
6975:Khazan 2015
6939:Mackie 1996
6864:22 December
6825:UNICEF 2013
6802:, 196, 198.
6777:UNICEF 2013
6765:UNICEF 2013
6753:UNICEF 2013
6734:UNICEF 2005
6722:UNICEF 2013
6707:Mackie 2000
6695:UNICEF 2013
6682:UNICEF 2014
6635:UNICEF 2014
6623:UNICEF 2013
6607:UNICEF 2016
6593:, 25, 100;
6591:UNICEF 2013
6531:UNICEF 2013
6380:UNICEF 2013
6368:UNICEF 2014
6317:UNICEF 2013
6293:UNICEF 2013
6253:UNICEF 2013
6241:UNICEF 2013
5932:Nzegwu 2011
5892:UNICEF 2013
5804:Ismail 2016
5773:Ismail 2016
5699:Toubia 1994
5647:www.who.int
5614:UNICEF 2013
5504:UNICEF 2013
5492:Wakabi 2007
5463:UNICEF 2005
5448:UNICEF 2013
5333:UNICEF 2013
5314:UNICEF 2013
5302:Hosken 1994
5204:, 420, 427.
5146:UNICEF 2013
5101:UNICEF 2013
5071:UNICEF 2013
5056:UNICEF 2016
4989:UNICEF 2013
4865:UNICEF 2013
4820:Geographica
4550:sewn closed
4436:transgender
4385:labiaplasty
4363:rhinoplasty
4298:bride price
4177:Khalid Adem
4145:New Zealand
4121:game theory
4004:Fran Hosken
3815:"Review of
3793:UNICEF 2013
3750:Gyn/Ecology
3748:Mary Daly,
3640:"Rebellion"
3505:UNICEF 2013
3384:Fran Hosken
3310:Fran Hosken
3237:Gyn/Ecology
3158:Fran Hosken
2966:1940s–1960s
2887:1920s–1930s
2748:joined the
2746:John Arthur
2727:— From the
2599:nymphomania
2471:sarcophagus
2427:hieroglyphs
2407:sarcophagus
2369:Beta Israel
2337:Sunni Islam
2335:version of
2239:Ya, ghalfa!
2237:girls with
2174:Kono people
2152:footbinding
2034:continue".
1911:Type of FGM
1861:dyspareunia
1829:resuscitate
1765:hematometra
1747:infertility
1691:hepatitis C
1687:hepatitis B
1667:septicaemia
1474:outer labia
1470:inner labia
1186:Fran Hosken
1135:Terminology
1085:intercourse
1069:outer labia
1065:inner labia
913:Trafficking
773:Fornication
618:Pornography
562:Transgender
546:Civil union
534:LGBT rights
362:(49%, 0–11)
51:Vulvoplasty
43:Labiaplasty
18392:Categories
18301:by country
18105:Depression
17756:infections
17461:Episiotomy
17401:Childbirth
17332:Obstetrics
17080:Literature
17025:Economists
16745:Bangladesh
16679:By country
16628:Psychology
16584:Empiricism
16579:Aesthetics
16574:Philosophy
16433:Patriarchy
16413:Matriarchy
16217:Girl's Day
16191:Girl power
16164:In hip hop
16089:Literature
16019:Indigenous
15958:Reclaiming
15854:Standpoint
15827:Separatism
15800:Postmodern
15694:Vegetarian
15684:Difference
15627:Analytical
15454:Third-wave
15437:First-wave
15324:Vulvectomy
15286:Hymenotomy
15274:Episiotomy
15264:Culdoscopy
15199:Colposcopy
15165:Myometrium
14818:corrective
14617:management
14504:Categories
14090:By country
13634:"Djibouti"
12970:15 October
11134:(1): 191.
11128:Pediatrics
11085:Pediatrics
11070:28 October
10947:: w13137.
10899:7 February
10837:"K̲h̲itān"
10287:16 January
10071:16 January
9941:14 October
9884:Yael Tamir
9873:, 123–124.
9740:Berer 2007
9706:, 34, 43,
9614:Kirby 2005
9220:27 October
9188:Pediatrics
9174:22 October
9142:Pediatrics
9127:. Reuters.
8916:Boyle 2002
8783:UNFPA 2013
8771:UNFPA 2013
8578:Boyle 2002
8490:Hayes 1975
8420:Boyle 2002
8410:, 92, 103.
8408:Boyle 2002
8368:Boddy 2007
8341:17 January
8257:Boddy 2007
8233:Boddy 2007
8183:, 127–130.
8165:Zabus 2008
8078:6 February
8028:, 149–153.
7971:Black 1997
7871:Allen 2000
7785:, 327–328.
7731:Cohen 2005
7729:, 17.2.5.
7602:Cohen 2005
7514:1 December
7437:Roald 2003
7398:Roald 2003
7236:, 147–148.
7224:, 432–433.
7076:, 435–436.
7058:Boddy 1989
7050:Boddy 2007
6987:Hayes 1975
6724:, 47, 183.
6667:7 November
6554:9 November
6243:, 134–135.
6055:, 491–492.
5361:Zabus 2013
5345:Zabus 2008
5287:Hayes 1975
4529:exciseuses
4486:References
4334:See also:
3492:References
3475:in London.
3453:publishes
3439:publishes
3421:publishes
3312:publishes
3214:March 1977
3008:Late 1950s
2604:The Lancet
2389:Spell 1117
2345:Shia Islam
1932:Prevalence
1833:stillbirth
1798:laceration
1711:strictures
1621:Short term
1399:clinicians
1353:The Lancet
1204:(FGC) and
726:Bestiality
520:Homophobia
354:Mauritania
213:Mauritania
133:Ages 15–49
121:Prevalence
77:Definition
17931:Pregnancy
17911:Violence
17851:Vaginitis
17724:Menopause
17584:Fostering
17574:Parenting
17544:life plan
17409:Midwifery
17387:Eclampsia
17314:Pregnancy
17303:Maternal
16835:Argentina
16795:Indonesia
16785:Hong Kong
16740:Australia
16640:Seriality
16564:Geography
16490:Sociology
16443:Economics
16428:Kyriarchy
15921:Christian
15901:Religious
15842:Socialist
15632:Anarchist
15577:States of
15515:Australia
15238:insertion
14858:statutory
14833:genocidal
14194:Mary Daly
14122:Kurdistan
13815:"Somalia"
13807:"Nigeria"
13652:"Eritrea"
13536:0039-3665
13489:1471-2458
13393:0028-4793
13342:0020-7292
13204:0543-2499
13126:1468-4373
13081:1873-4111
13061:Maturitas
13001:1879-3479
12960:141166451
12952:2196-713X
12901:2141-9248
12800:8 January
12649:144705914
12588:0021-1753
12543:1360-2276
12477:27 August
12438:1040-872X
12348:0033-3549
12300:1460-9576
12256:0039-3665
12234:CiteSeerX
12173:1432-0711
12136:0028-4793
12000:0959-8138
11949:1756-1833
11908:0300-5771
11856:0001-6349
11755:0029-7828
11718:1558-0520
11673:0029-7828
11626:0959-8138
11591:27 August
11547:0141-0768
11496:0959-8138
11440:1890-1298
11390:1096-4665
11339:2044-6055
11288:1756-1833
11239:1474-547X
11191:0306-6800
11150:1098-4275
11107:0031-4005
11052:1556-5653
11001:1873-233X
10963:1424-3997
10710:(2007) .
10662:27 August
10627:27 August
10591:27 August
10500:27 August
10465:27 August
10355:(1994) .
10185:27 August
9882:Also see
8247:, 92–104.
8241:Hyam 1990
8003:Nour 2008
7504:0261-3077
7477:2167-1907
7200:, Tostan.
6576:15 August
6497:2044-6055
6440:0256-4947
6399:15 August
5231:0261-3077
4956:Citations
4783:Tanzania.
4748:network."
4458:Dishonour
4318:Mary Daly
3373:magazine.
3249:Awa Thiam
3232:Mary Daly
3176:1976–1985
2996:1957–1958
2988:Al Doktor
2729:Muthirigu
2699:Muthirigu
2402:—From an
2384:Antiquity
2315:Abū Dāwūd
2108:rituals.
2011:Palestine
1800:(tears),
1787:about FGM
1723:urination
1701:Long term
1635:Mogadishu
1364:Variation
1344:exciseuse
918:Voyeurism
891:U.S. laws
844:Seduction
827:statutory
810:procuring
783:Obscenity
719:U.S. laws
360:Indonesia
334:Ages 0–14
69:Kapchorwa
18352:Category
18312:Ethiopia
18234:UN Women
18051:Dementia
17982:diseases
17965:Femicide
17943:Misogyny
17863:Polygamy
17764:Safe sex
17672:Menarche
17579:Adoption
17506:Abortion
17424:Oxytocin
17244:Clitoris
17151:Category
17085:American
16957:Thailand
16912:Pakistan
16882:Malaysia
16865:Paraguay
16855:Honduras
16703:Ethiopia
16569:Pedagogy
16495:Rhetoric
16485:Sexology
16478:Womanist
16473:Thealogy
16468:Theology
16266:Misogyny
16134:Femicide
16121:Equality
16070:Concepts
15985:Orthodox
15948:Neopagan
15936:Womanist
15916:Buddhist
15884:Africana
15879:Womanism
15775:Maternal
15765:Lipstick
15731:Activism
15701:Equality
15667:Cultural
15652:Carceral
15587:Virginia
15567:Timeline
15510:Timeline
15447:timeline
15432:Timeline
15409:Feminism
15225:pap test
15063:General:
14933:Category
14711:Misogyny
14671:Femicide
14437:Moolaadé
13944:(2007).
13934:(1998).
13906:(1975).
13833:27359024
13751:Volume 2
13747:Volume 1
13564:Archived
13544:23720002
13507:24010850
13452:24 April
13446:Archived
13442:29006442
13434:17405200
13358:39607405
13350:14499972
13307:12322506
13278:25064860
13249:27563985
13220:12263443
13134:18065832
13097:40413987
13089:25466303
13052:58404665
13017:28600501
13009:21513937
12919:23209995
12866:19015765
12791:Archived
12787:12846114
12729:Archived
12686:20969247
12678:15001386
12612:38351439
12604:11590895
12559:12050442
12551:15655020
12471:Archived
12446:16141763
12409:30483404
12308:20541081
12264:14558322
12205:Archived
12189:11973412
12181:23315098
12058:16864214
11967:16803943
11872:44583626
11864:15225183
11806:29531618
11726:21095534
11689:22472191
11644:16840444
11585:Archived
11583:(1180).
11461:11 April
11452:Archived
11448:29320014
11408:23489149
11357:25416059
11319:BMJ Open
11306:17599983
11247:16753486
11209:27059789
11158:20530070
11064:Archived
11060:19028385
11017:46830711
11009:27741194
10971:21213149
10893:Archived
10855:(eds.).
10656:Archived
10621:Archived
10603:(1999).
10585:Archived
10565:(2005).
10521:(2000).
10494:Archived
10459:Archived
10320:(2001).
10299:(1982).
10281:Archived
10257:(2007).
10227:(1989).
10215:(2007).
10179:Archived
10141:Archived
10107:(2000).
10065:Archived
10014:Archived
10010:Newsweek
9985:Archived
9910:Archived
9891:Archived
9843:WHO 2008
9823:Archived
9799:Archived
9687:Archived
9566:Archived
9534:Archived
9523:Archived
9500:Archived
9481:Archived
9450:Archived
9431:Archived
9391:Archived
9359:Archived
9303:Archived
9283:Archived
9260:Archived
9232:Archived
9214:Archived
9210:20421257
9168:Archived
9121:Archived
9097:Archived
9074:Archived
9054:Archived
9038:Archived
9012:Archived
8960:Archived
8936:Archived
8900:Archived
8879:Canada:
8871:Archived
8860:Archived
8849:Archived
8838:Archived
8814:Archived
8795:WHO 2008
8739:Archived
8719:Archived
8651:Archived
8627:Archived
8522:Archived
8454:Archived
8335:Archived
8315:, 89–91.
8103:Archived
8072:Archived
8068:ABC News
8048:Archived
7367:Archived
7290:, 69–71.
7275:Archived
7260:, 256ff.
7194:Archived
7120:, 27–28.
7118:WHO 2008
6898:Archived
6812:"Guinea"
6780:Archived
6767:, 28–37.
6737:Archived
6661:Archived
6515:31154295
6477:BMJ Open
6458:29620540
6370:, 89–90.
6297:Djibouti
6283:, 70–73.
6209:Archived
6134:Archived
5919:WHO 2005
5907:WHO 2008
5880:WHO 2008
5870:, 42–49.
5854:, 56–64.
5757:Archived
5744:, 13–14.
5727:WHO 1998
5715:WHO 2008
5695:WHO 2008
5679:Archived
5672:WHO 2016
5657:29 April
5651:Archived
5626:WHO 2008
5506:, 43–45.
5422:, 96–97.
5277:, 4, 22.
5275:WHO 2008
5236:12 March
5167:WHO 2018
4977:WHO 2014
4563:WHO 2016
4451:See also
4445:intersex
4294:polygyny
4133:Overview
3507:, p. 10.
3386:at UN's
3308:Autumn:
3284:Khartoum
3261:, 1986).
3166:WIN News
2984:May 1951
2930:Jan 1930
2847:Ngaitana
2826:, where
2824:Karatina
2731:(1929),
2715:Kenyatta
2627:hysteria
2550:calamine
2404:Egyptian
2275:Religion
2019:Malaysia
1999:Colombia
1926:Tigrinya
1821:perineum
1675:gangrene
1520:Type III
1484:Type III
1478:Excision
1313:clitoris
1267:Muhammad
1217:bolokoli
1148:Laikipia
1051:of FGM.
908:Violence
788:U.S. law
702:Adultery
558:Intersex
554:Adoption
390:Ethiopia
315:Cameroon
207:Ethiopia
159:Djibouti
92:, 1997).
18364:Commons
18153:Poverty
18147:factors
18124:Urethra
18100:Anxiety
18082:Anaemia
17878:Puberty
17858:Leblouh
17744:Sexual
17619:Condoms
17097:Parties
16972:Ukraine
16967:Vietnam
16877:Lebanon
16775:Germany
16765:Finland
16760:Denmark
16735:Albania
16723:Senegal
16718:Nigeria
16633:Therapy
16616:Science
16527:Biology
16046:Mizrahi
16014:Chicana
15975:Islamic
15911:Atheist
15847:Marxist
15817:Radical
15753:Liberal
15748:Lesbian
15726:Hip hop
15706:Eugenic
15647:Atheist
15620:General
15592:Wyoming
15425:General
15417:History
15236:Pessary
14992:Ovaries
14848:marital
14612:outline
14341:FORWARD
14132:Nigeria
13617:WebCite
13573:29 July
13498:3844478
13473:: 809.
13401:8058079
13142:9234753
12910:3507121
12857:2582648
12831:1594780
12779:3655332
12725:2096305
12596:3080631
12508:3812643
12454:7706452
12400:6231106
12366:9323387
12357:1381943
12316:2261601
12144:7695718
12066:4999356
12050:4005473
12018:7787655
12009:2549952
11958:1502195
11916:6874206
11797:5839462
11763:9326757
11681:4022475
11635:1502236
11565:9290425
11556:1296388
11514:7787654
11505:2549951
11399:3783896
11348:4244458
11297:1906631
11255:1077505
11200:5013096
11115:9651425
10150:26 July
10020:9 April
9742:, 1335.
9678:121–122
9340:, 1592.
9164:9651425
8999:, 877.
8386:, 2, 9.
8305:129–131
8243:, 196;
8237:241–245
7903:585–586
7404:, 6–13.
7400:, 224;
7322:, 1008.
7106:277–281
7088:, 437;
7018:284–285
6941:, 1003.
6621:, 194;
6506:6549616
6449:6074365
6329:Nigeria
6305:Somalia
6301:Eritrea
5944:272–276
5836:190–191
5612:, 189;
5200:, 225;
5182:UN 2010
4290:dry sex
3473:FORWARD
3471:founds
3361:March:
2498:mummies
2487:papyrus
2379:History
2373:animist
2356:Skoptsy
2333:Shafi'i
2307:(weak)
2247:mutmura
2235:Zabarma
2195:dry sex
2112:Reasons
2072:at 16.
2027:Kurdish
1922:Hedareb
1731:urethra
1719:neuroma
1707:keloids
1671:tetanus
1659:anaemia
1588:Type IV
1583:Type IV
1466:Type II
1461:Type II
1333:vaginal
1303:Methods
1293:Somalia
1229:iwu aru
1225:isa aru
1144:Samburu
947:Portals
881:Slavery
854:Sexting
832:marital
795:Pimping
510:Consent
426:Senegal
396:Nigeria
372:Eritrea
249:Senegal
243:Nigeria
219:Liberia
189:Eritrea
147:Somalia
105:Numbers
18329:Russia
17991:Cancer
17903:health
17873:Orgasm
17746:health
17697:Tampon
17305:health
17278:Uterus
17273:Cervix
17268:Vagina
17219:health
17111:(1967)
17035:Muslim
17030:Jewish
17008:People
16962:Turkey
16952:Taiwan
16942:Sweden
16927:Russia
16922:Poland
16907:Norway
16860:Mexico
16840:Brazil
16815:Israel
16780:Greece
16770:France
16750:Canada
16688:Africa
16594:Ethics
16453:Method
16385:Theory
16296:Racism
16053:Romani
16041:Jewish
15980:Jewish
15926:Mormon
15874:Victim
15837:Social
15810:French
15758:Equity
15721:Global
15657:Choice
15530:Kuwait
15520:Canada
15468:Social
15251:Vagina
15188:Cervix
15053:Uterus
15038:Essure
14853:prison
14843:in war
14838:halala
14731:Sharia
14721:Raptio
14565:Issues
14456:(2015)
14448:(2009)
14440:(2004)
14421:(1998)
14413:(1992)
14405:(1982)
14397:(1975)
14356:Tostan
14351:RAINBO
14324:Groups
14263:Others
13984:Film:
13831:
13542:
13534:
13505:
13495:
13487:
13440:
13432:
13414:Lancet
13399:
13391:
13356:
13348:
13340:
13305:
13276:
13247:
13218:
13212:647794
13210:
13202:
13140:
13132:
13124:
13095:
13087:
13079:
13050:
13015:
13007:
12999:
12958:
12950:
12917:
12907:
12899:
12864:
12854:
12829:
12785:
12777:
12723:
12684:
12676:
12647:
12641:524569
12639:
12610:
12602:
12594:
12586:
12557:
12549:
12541:
12506:
12452:
12444:
12436:
12407:
12397:
12364:
12354:
12346:
12314:
12306:
12298:
12262:
12254:
12236:
12187:
12179:
12171:
12142:
12134:
12101:643328
12099:
12064:
12056:
12048:
12016:
12006:
11998:
11965:
11955:
11947:
11914:
11906:
11870:
11862:
11854:
11804:
11794:
11761:
11753:
11724:
11716:
11687:
11679:
11671:
11642:
11632:
11624:
11563:
11553:
11545:
11512:
11502:
11494:
11446:
11438:
11428:
11406:
11396:
11388:
11355:
11345:
11337:
11304:
11294:
11286:
11253:
11245:
11237:
11219:Lancet
11207:
11197:
11189:
11156:
11148:
11113:
11105:
11058:
11050:
11015:
11007:
10999:
10969:
10961:
10885:
10867:Boston
10863:Leiden
10806:
10756:
10648:
10613:
10577:
10486:
10451:
10428:
10389:
10341:
10273:
10171:
10119:
10057:
9857:, 33;
9782:, 148.
9738:, 32;
9604:, 420.
9325:, 195.
9208:
9162:
8982:, 372.
8757:, 15;
8694:, 8–9.
8665:, 7–8.
8584:, 281.
8580:, 47;
8556:, 139.
8437:, 281.
8374:, 299.
8291:, 217.
8147:. For
7973:, 405.
7969:, 14;
7957:, 146.
7797:, 328.
7773:, 336.
7761:, 333.
7749:, 326.
7717:Strabo
7695:Strabo
7685:, 331.
7633:, 330.
7531:, 297.
7502:
7475:
7439:, 243.
7337:, 175.
7310:, 8–9.
7168:, 178.
7156:, 140.
7132:, 437.
7092:, 140.
6965:, 228.
6823:Chad:
6709:, 275.
6597:, 196.
6513:
6503:
6495:
6456:
6446:
6438:
6319:, 114.
6259:, 189.
6196:, 193.
6156:, 51;
6082:, 132.
6013:, 49;
5521:, 190.
5482:, 491.
5410:, 2–3.
5398:, 3–5.
5316:, 6–7.
5229:
5148:, 15;
5090:, 119.
5022:5 July
5016:UNICEF
4815:Strabo
4762:hadith
4416:, and
4195:Europe
4096:
4090:
4084:
4078:
4072:
3273:Lusaka
3000:Hawwaa
2811:, the
2754:Kikuyu
2733:Kikuyu
2533:nymphê
2513:Strabo
2323:Hadith
2310:hadith
2256:Tostan
2219:Tostan
2102:Creole
2097:Fulani
2089:Kirkuk
2021:, the
2003:Jordan
1873:UNICEF
1637:, 2014
1554:acacia
1435:Type I
1430:Type I
1348:barber
1331:, and
1276:fibula
1249:khifaḍ
1241:tahara
1192:. The
1081:vagina
1079:, the
1045:UNICEF
1031:) and
886:Sodomy
805:forced
778:Incest
608:Ethics
470:(0.2%)
464:(0.3%)
444:Uganda
366:Guinea
348:Gambia
309:Uganda
201:Gambia
153:Guinea
88:, and
86:UNICEF
18428:Vulva
18317:India
18307:China
17598:&
17288:Ovary
17231:tract
17161:Index
17068:Other
17045:Poets
17000:Lists
16947:Syria
16887:Nepal
16850:Haiti
16845:Chile
16825:Japan
16820:Italy
16790:India
16755:China
16708:Ghana
16698:Egypt
16256:Media
16058:White
16009:Black
15970:Hindu
15941:Asian
15864:Trans
15859:State
15790:Post-
15743:Labor
15672:Cyber
15555:Wales
15525:Japan
15316:Vulva
14429:Films
14386:Books
14379:Media
14142:Sudan
14112:India
13567:(PDF)
13556:(PDF)
13438:S2CID
13354:S2CID
13274:JSTOR
13245:JSTOR
13208:JSTOR
13138:S2CID
13093:S2CID
13048:S2CID
13013:S2CID
12956:S2CID
12827:JSTOR
12794:(PDF)
12775:JSTOR
12755:(PDF)
12732:(PDF)
12721:JSTOR
12701:(PDF)
12682:S2CID
12645:S2CID
12637:JSTOR
12608:S2CID
12592:JSTOR
12555:S2CID
12504:JSTOR
12450:S2CID
12323:(PDF)
12312:S2CID
12276:(PDF)
12208:(PDF)
12201:(PDF)
12185:S2CID
12097:JSTOR
12062:S2CID
12046:JSTOR
11879:(PDF)
11868:S2CID
11832:(PDF)
11685:S2CID
11455:(PDF)
11422:(PDF)
11251:S2CID
11013:S2CID
10839:. In
10752:–36.
10537:(PDF)
10526:(PDF)
10259:"Had
10144:(PDF)
10137:(PDF)
9861:, 32.
9845:, 28.
9724:38–39
9662:30–33
9646:19–20
9616:, 83.
8918:, 97.
8706:, 12.
8624:10–11
8492:, 21.
8422:, 41.
8358:, 10.
8221:139ff
8195:, 75.
8157:irugu
7735:59–61
7707:, 318
7546:(PDF)
7461:(2).
7353:, 70.
7212:, 15.
7144:, 67.
7062:52–61
7038:36–37
7032:, 8;
6953:, 35.
6858:(PDF)
6851:(PDF)
6755:, 51.
6625:, 25.
6533:, 23.
6179:6 May
6173:(PDF)
6109:, 97.
6094:, 37.
6038:, 50.
5989:, 49.
5921:, 31.
5909:, 27.
5882:, 24.
5806:, 14.
5775:, 12.
5616:, 47.
5335:, 48.
5073:, 50.
4896:2011.
4844:Lydia
4491:Notes
4271:other
4170:from
4024:sunna
3823:Signs
3346:1980s
3117:: UN
3057:1970s
3041:1960s
2942:1930s
2893:1920s
2762:irugu
2717:comes
2713:When
2521:Galen
2349:Bohra
2328:daʻīf
2304:daʻīf
2299:Quran
2081:Erbil
2077:Kurds
2070:Kamba
1606:hymen
1550:agave
1411:Types
1297:qodob
1291:. In
1289:Egypt
1285:Sudan
1263:sunna
1258:sunna
1255:and "
1245:khafḍ
1237:tahur
1233:t-h-r
1112:cysts
1037:vulva
1029:FGM/C
864:child
593:Norms
468:Benin
456:Ghana
438:Kenya
434:(10%)
428:(13%)
422:(13%)
416:(13%)
410:(14%)
408:Egypt
404:(15%)
402:Yemen
398:(17%)
392:(24%)
386:(30%)
380:(32%)
378:Sudan
374:(33%)
368:(46%)
356:(54%)
350:(56%)
303:Niger
297:Ghana
279:Benin
275:(10%)
269:(19%)
267:Yemen
263:(21%)
261:Kenya
257:(24%)
251:(25%)
245:(25%)
239:(38%)
233:(44%)
227:(45%)
221:(50%)
215:(69%)
209:(74%)
203:(75%)
197:(76%)
191:(83%)
185:(87%)
183:Sudan
179:(87%)
177:Egypt
173:(89%)
167:(90%)
161:(93%)
155:(97%)
149:(98%)
97:Areas
90:UNFPA
49:, or
17958:Rape
16805:Iraq
16800:Iran
16713:Mali
16219:and
16034:Sámi
15992:Sikh
15780:Neo-
15582:Utah
15209:LEEP
14828:gang
14823:date
14801:laws
14791:Rape
14726:Sati
13930:and
13829:PMID
13575:2014
13540:PMID
13532:ISSN
13503:PMID
13485:ISSN
13454:2013
13430:PMID
13397:PMID
13389:ISSN
13346:PMID
13338:ISSN
13303:PMID
13216:PMID
13200:ISSN
13130:PMID
13122:ISSN
13085:PMID
13077:ISSN
13005:PMID
12997:ISSN
12972:2017
12948:ISSN
12915:PMID
12897:ISSN
12862:PMID
12802:2016
12783:PMID
12740:2014
12674:PMID
12600:PMID
12584:ISSN
12568:Isis
12547:PMID
12539:ISSN
12479:2017
12442:PMID
12434:ISSN
12405:PMID
12362:PMID
12344:ISSN
12304:PMID
12296:ISSN
12260:PMID
12252:ISSN
12216:2017
12177:PMID
12169:ISSN
12140:PMID
12132:ISSN
12054:PMID
12014:PMID
11996:ISSN
11963:PMID
11945:ISSN
11912:PMID
11904:ISSN
11860:PMID
11852:ISSN
11820:link
11802:PMID
11759:PMID
11751:ISSN
11722:PMID
11714:ISSN
11677:PMID
11669:ISSN
11640:PMID
11622:ISSN
11593:2017
11561:PMID
11543:ISSN
11510:PMID
11492:ISSN
11463:2018
11444:PMID
11436:ISSN
11426:ISBN
11404:PMID
11386:ISSN
11353:PMID
11335:ISSN
11302:PMID
11284:ISSN
11243:PMID
11235:ISSN
11205:PMID
11187:ISSN
11154:PMID
11146:ISSN
11111:PMID
11103:ISSN
11072:2014
11056:PMID
11048:ISSN
11005:PMID
10997:ISSN
10967:PMID
10959:ISSN
10901:2020
10883:ISBN
10865:and
10804:ISBN
10754:ISBN
10664:2017
10646:ISBN
10629:2017
10611:ISBN
10593:2017
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