243:
to flow to higher crustal levels along lithostatic pressure gradients that can be caused by melt-induced buoyancy or differences in topography and lateral density contrasts. both of which are affected by erosion. Characteristics of this mode of exhumation include simultaneous normal shearing and reverse shearing along the roof and the base of the channel respectively, high-temperature retrograde metamorphic assemblages, cooing ages should be younger to the front of the channel and P-T-t paths suggesting prolonged burial and synchronous exhumation throughout the channel.
256:. Alternatively, or in conjunction with the extension of the center of the orogen, propagation of the rock-mass towards the margin may lead to exhumation along a series of brittle or ductile thrusts and normal faults and ultimately the formation of fold and thrust type belts along the margins of the collapsed orogen. Characteristics of gravitational collapse include outward verging, normal sense shear zones along the margins of the core complexes and exhumation-only type P-T-t paths.
226:
mid-crustal rocks to the hanging wall of the wedge. Characteristics of this mode of exhumation include, evidence for strong non coaxial reverse-shearing, pro-grade metamorphism, cooling ages are progressively younger towards deeper structural levels and that exhumation at higher structural levels is coeval to burial of the structural levels. Tectonics of this kind result in
242:
Channel flow typically occurs in long-hot orogens when the orogen is sufficiently thick to promote partial melting in the middle-lower part of the orogen to a point where the rocks reach a critically low viscosity enabling them to flow. Subsequently these rocks can decoupled from their base and begin
146:
Exhumation by tectonic processes refers to any geological mechanism that brings rocks from deeper crustal levels to shallower crustal levels. While erosion or denudation is fundamental in eventually exposing these deeper rocks at the Earth's surface, the geological phenomenon that drive the rocks to
121:
Exhumation through denudation could be considered as the process of exposing rock packages solely through the removal of their overlying unconsolidated sediments or solid rock layers. Denudation is here considered as a process that removes parts of the Earth's upper crust by physical processes that
251:
Post-convergent gravitational collapse (extension) occurs once the convergence forces can no longer support the gravitational force of the orogen that was built up during collision. During collapse, high-grade rocks from the core of the orogen are exhumed through upward flow towards now thinned
225:
by the interaction of thickening through basal accretion or foreland propagation (frontal accretion) and thinning through normal faulting and erosion at the upper part of the wedge. Erosion of the wedge significantly impacts the dynamics within the wedge, which promotes exhumation by thrusting
211:
or during post-collision extension and is thus, is broadly grouped into the three mechanisms which are used to describe the burial and exhumation of the cycle namely, syn-convergent orogenic wedges, channel flow (also known as ductile extrusion) and post-convergence gravitational collapse.
151:
typically occurring within the shallow crust (less than ca. 10 km deep) which results in exhumation in the order of centimeters to meters scales, to larger-scale features originating at deeper crustal levels along which, exhumation is in the order of hundreds of meters to kilometers.
220:
During the subduction to the collisional phases of the orogenic cycle, a tectonic wedge forms on the prowedge (side of the subducting plate) and commonly the retrowedge (continental side) of the orogen. During the continued convergence, the wedge maintains its shape by maintaining its
199:. While the exact mechanism behind the formation of ophiolites is still up for debate, those rocks still show an example of rocks being exhumed and exposed at the surface by the tectonic process of obduction and then exposed.
34:
It differs from the related ideas of rock uplift and surface uplift in that it is explicitly measured relative to the surface of the Earth, rather than with reference to some absolute reference frame, such as the Earth's
58:. In the latter case, rocks (or rock packages) from deeper crustal levels (meter to kilometer depths below the Earth's surface) are brought towards the Earth's surface (i.e.shallower crustal levels) by
801:
Gervais, Félix; Ranalli, Giorgio (2017). "The effects of lateral density gradients, slopes and buoyancy on channel flow: 1D analytical solutions and applications to the SE Canadian
Cordillera".
561:
Beaumont, C.; Jamieson, R. A.; Nguyen, M. H.; Lee, B. (2001). "Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation".
73:
Notably, there are overlapping characteristics between the different modes of burial and exhumation and distinction and between them relies on a series of parameters such as:
191:
During the subduction of an oceanic plate underneath the continental crust, some fragments of the oceanic crust can be trapped above the continental crust through
884:
832:
Godin, L.; Grujic, D.; Law, R. D.; Searle, M. P. (2006). "Channel flow, ductile extrusion and exhumation in continental collision zones: an introduction".
70:
and are subsequently exposed by erosion. Often exhumation involves a complex interaction between crustal thickening, extensional tectonics and erosion.
147:
shallower crust are still considered exhumation processes. Geological exhumation occurs on a range of scales, from smaller-scale
330:"Testing modes of exhumation in collisional orogens: Synconvergent channel flow in the southeastern Canadian Cordillera"
908:
297:
534:
95:
985:
276:
England, Philip; Molnar, Peter (1990-12-01). "Surface uplift, uplift of rocks, and exhumation of rocks".
669:
Willett, Sean D. (1999). "Rheological dependence of extension in wedge models of convergent orogens".
513:
Platt, J. P. (1986). "Dynamics of orogenic wedges and the uplift of high-pressure metamorphic rocks".
253:
42:
Exhumation of buried rocks should be considered as two different categories namely, exhumation by
230:
or if they are built up over long periods, can form thick-stacked long-hot-orogens, such as the
931:
467:
Dahlen, F A (1995). "Critical Taper Model of Fold-And-Thrust Belts and
Accretionary Wedges".
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The geological mechanisms that drive deep crustal exhumation can occur in a variety of
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Sibson, R H (1986-05-01). "Earthquakes and Rock
Deformation in Crustal Fault Zones".
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Grujic, D. (2006). "Channel flow and continental collision tectonics: an overview".
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622:"Orogeny and orography: The effects of erosion on the structure of mountain belts"
113:
and metamorphic geological disciplines are key to understanding these processes.
63:
818:
222:
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Exhumation of deep crustal rocks during an orogenic cycle occurs mainly during
28:
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Brun, Jean-Pierre; Sokoutis, Dimitrios; Driessche, Jean Van Den (1994-04-01).
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Jamieson, R. A.; Beaumont, C. (2013-11-01). "On the origin of orogens".
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Robinson, Paul T.; Malpas, John; Dilek, Yildirim; Zhou, Mei-fu (2008).
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127:
51:
582:
932:"Dynamics and structural development of metamorphic core complexes"
195:. The resulting rocks obducted on the continental crust are called
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131:
130:). Through this form of exhumation, something previously buried in
885:"Analogue modeling of detachment fault systems and core complexes"
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123:
55:
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20:
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36:
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10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0319:AMODFS>2.3.CO;2
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10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<1173:SUUORA>2.3.CO;2
535:
10.1130/0016-7606(1986)97<1037:DOOWAT>2.0.CO;2
417:"The significance of sheeted dike complexes in ophiolites"
87:
The spatial distribution of cooling ages (see for example
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Tirel, Céline; Brun, Jean-Pierre; Burov, Evgueni (2008).
560:
246:
414:
203:
Exhumation of the deep crust during an orogenic cycle.
183:cycle (i.e. mountain building and collapse cycle).
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834:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
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706:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
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929:
800:
469:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
371:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
275:
77:The spatial and temporal distribution of the
936:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
626:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
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27:is the process by which a parcel of buried
328:Gervais, Félix; Brown, Richard L. (2011).
159:settings but are ultimately driven by the
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171:, exhumation occurs by thrusting in the
94:The spatial distribution of metamorphic
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96:pressure-temperature-time (P-T-t) paths
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760:Geological Society of America Bulletin
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515:Geological Society of America Bulletin
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252:crustal areas forming domal shaped
138:, is uncovered and can be exposed.
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16:Geological rock movement process
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691:10.1016/S0040-1951(99)00034-7
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216:Syn-convergent orogenic wedge
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31:approaches Earth's surface.
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819:10.1016/j.tecto.2017.06.023
167:. Depending on the type of
163:of tectonic plates through
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254:metamorphic core complexes
620:Willett, Sean D. (1999).
101:Detailed and integrated
223:critical angle of taper
122:occur naturally (e.g.
54:processes followed by
228:fold and thrust belts
209:continental collision
68:extensional tectonics
986:Geological processes
957:10.1029/2005JB003694
805:. 712–713: 578–588.
766:(11–12): 1671–1702.
647:10.1029/1999JB900248
632:(B12): 28957–28981.
948:2008JGRB..113.4403T
901:1994Geo....22..319B
846:2006GSLSP.268....1G
811:2017Tectp.712..578G
772:2013GSAB..125.1671J
718:2006GSLSP.268...25G
683:1999Tectp.305..419W
638:1999JGR...10428957W
575:2001Natur.414..738B
527:1986GSAB...97.1037P
433:2008GSAT...18k...4R
383:1986AREPS..14..149S
346:2011Lsphe...3...55G
290:1990Geo....18.1173E
169:convergent boundary
62:(see compared also
442:10.1130/GSATG22A.1
173:accretionary wedge
107:structural geology
103:geologic modelling
89:radiometric dating
60:crustal thickening
569:(6865): 738–742.
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334:Lithosphere
161:convergence
980:Categories
260:References
197:ophiolites
165:subduction
128:landslides
117:Denudation
44:denudation
25:exhumation
966:2156-2202
917:0091-7613
862:0305-8719
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656:2156-2202
591:0028-0836
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497:128774151
489:0084-6597
451:1052-5173
427:(11): 4.
421:GSA Today
399:0084-6597
306:0091-7613
232:Himalayas
193:obduction
187:Obduction
177:obduction
132:sediments
66:) and/or
870:56520730
599:11742396
181:orogenic
157:tectonic
136:landform
124:glaciers
52:tectonic
991:Erosion
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889:Geology
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807:Bibcode
768:Bibcode
714:Bibcode
679:Bibcode
634:Bibcode
607:4382486
571:Bibcode
523:Bibcode
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278:Geology
149:thrusts
81:pattern
56:erosion
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37:geoid
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29:rock
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905:doi
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838:268
815:doi
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764:125
722:doi
710:268
687:doi
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