408:
299:
measurement. The in-growth method is one way of measuring the decay constant of a system, which involves accumulating daughter nuclides. Unfortunately for nuclides with high decay constants (which are useful for dating very old samples), long periods of time (decades) are required to accumulate enough decay products in a single sample to accurately measure them. A faster method involves using particle counters to determine alpha, beta or gamma activity, and then dividing that by the number of radioactive nuclides. However, it is challenging and expensive to accurately determine the number of radioactive nuclides. Alternatively, decay constants can be determined by comparing isotope data for rocks of known age. This method requires at least one of the isotope systems to be very precisely calibrated, such as the
1755:
1727:
382:, resetting the isotopic "clock" to zero. As the mineral cools, the crystal structure begins to form and diffusion of isotopes is less easy. At a certain temperature, the crystal structure has formed sufficiently to prevent diffusion of isotopes. Thus an igneous or metamorphic rock or melt, which is slowly cooling, does not begin to exhibit measurable radioactive decay until it cools below the closure temperature. The age that can be calculated by radiometric dating is thus the time at which the rock or mineral cooled to closure temperature. This temperature varies for every mineral and isotopic system, so a system can be
134:
312:
3055:
902:, and animals acquire it from consumption of plants and other animals. When an organism dies, it ceases to take in new carbon-14, and the existing isotope decays with a characteristic half-life (5730 years). The proportion of carbon-14 left when the remains of the organism are examined provides an indication of the time elapsed since its death. This makes carbon-14 an ideal dating method to date the age of bones or the remains of an organism. The carbon-14 dating limit lies around 58,000 to 62,000 years.
1741:
240:, eventually ending with the formation of a stable (nonradioactive) daughter nuclide; each step in such a chain is characterized by a distinct half-life. In these cases, usually the half-life of interest in radiometric dating is the longest one in the chain, which is the rate-limiting factor in the ultimate transformation of the radioactive nuclide into its stable daughter. Isotopic systems that have been exploited for radiometric dating have half-lives ranging from only about 10 years (e.g.,
629:
853:
944:
1045:. The radiation causes charge to remain within the grains in structurally unstable "electron traps". Exposure to sunlight or heat releases these charges, effectively "bleaching" the sample and resetting the clock to zero. The trapped charge accumulates over time at a rate determined by the amount of background radiation at the location where the sample was buried. Stimulating these mineral grains using either light (
792:. Closure temperatures are so high that they are not a concern. Rubidium-strontium dating is not as precise as the uraniumâlead method, with errors of 30 to 50 million years for a 3-billion-year-old sample. Application of in situ analysis (Laser-Ablation ICP-MS) within single mineral grains in faults have shown that the Rb-Sr method can be used to decipher episodes of fault movement.
327:. Precision is enhanced if measurements are taken on multiple samples from different locations of the rock body. Alternatively, if several different minerals can be dated from the same sample and are assumed to be formed by the same event and were in equilibrium with the reservoir when they formed, they should form an
280:, whose decay rate may be affected by local electron density. For all other nuclides, the proportion of the original nuclide to its decay products changes in a predictable way as the original nuclide decays over time. This predictability allows the relative abundances of related nuclides to be used as a
1145:
At the beginning of the solar system, there were several relatively short-lived radionuclides like Al, Fe, Mn, and I present within the solar nebula. These radionuclidesâpossibly produced by the explosion of a supernovaâare extinct today, but their decay products can be detected in very old material,
377:
The closure temperature or blocking temperature represents the temperature below which the mineral is a closed system for the studied isotopes. If a material that selectively rejects the daughter nuclide is heated above this temperature, any daughter nuclides that have been accumulated over time will
1141:
Absolute radiometric dating requires a measurable fraction of parent nucleus to remain in the sample rock. For rocks dating back to the beginning of the solar system, this requires extremely long-lived parent isotopes, making measurement of such rocks' exact ages imprecise. To be able to distinguish
354:
Accurate radiometric dating generally requires that the parent has a long enough half-life that it will be present in significant amounts at the time of measurement (except as described below under "Dating with short-lived extinct radionuclides"), the half-life of the parent is accurately known, and
1014:
between 1952 and 1958. The residence time of Cl in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in soil and ground water, Cl is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. Cl has seen use in other areas of the geological sciences, including dating
362:
The precision of a dating method depends in part on the half-life of the radioactive isotope involved. For instance, carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years. After an organism has been dead for 60,000 years, so little carbon-14 is left that accurate dating cannot be established. On the other hand,
1154:
and using isochronplots, it is possible to determine relative ages of different events in the early history of the solar system. Dating methods based on extinct radionuclides can also be calibrated with the UâPb method to give absolute ages. Thus both the approximate age and a high time resolution
251:
For most radioactive nuclides, the half-life depends solely on nuclear properties and is essentially constant. This is known because decay constants measured by different techniques give consistent values within analytical errors and the ages of the same materials are consistent from one method to
322:
The basic equation of radiometric dating requires that neither the parent nuclide nor the daughter product can enter or leave the material after its formation. The possible confounding effects of contamination of parent and daughter isotopes have to be considered, as do the effects of any loss or
701:
One of its great advantages is that any sample provides two clocks, one based on uranium-235's decay to lead-207 with a half-life of about 700 million years, and one based on uranium-238's decay to lead-206 with a half-life of about 4.5 billion years, providing a built-in crosscheck that allows
298:
The radioactive decay constant, the probability that an atom will decay per year, is the solid foundation of the common measurement of radioactivity. The accuracy and precision of the determination of an age (and a nuclide's half-life) depends on the accuracy and precision of the decay constant
390:
for another. Dating of different minerals and/or isotope systems (with differing closure temperatures) within the same rock can therefore enable the tracking of the thermal history of the rock in question with time, and thus the history of metamorphic events may become known in detail. These
651:
involves using uranium-235 or uranium-238 to date a substance's absolute age. This scheme has been refined to the point that the error margin in dates of rocks can be as low as less than two million years in two-and-a-half billion years. An error margin of 2â5% has been achieved on younger
1056:
These methods can be used to date the age of a sediment layer, as layers deposited on top would prevent the grains from being "bleached" and reset by sunlight. Pottery shards can be dated to the last time they experienced significant heat, generally when they were fired in a kiln.
355:
enough of the daughter product is produced to be accurately measured and distinguished from the initial amount of the daughter present in the material. The procedures used to isolate and analyze the parent and daughter nuclides must be precise and accurate. This normally involves
874:
is also simply called carbon-14 dating. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon, with a half-life of 5,730 years (which is very short compared with the above isotopes), and decays into nitrogen. In other radiometric dating methods, the heavy parent isotopes were produced by
806:
A relatively short-range dating technique is based on the decay of uranium-234 into thorium-230, a substance with a half-life of about 80,000 years. It is accompanied by a sister process, in which uranium-235 decays into protactinium-231, which has a half-life of 32,760 years.
2501:
Manyeruke, Tawanda D.; Thomas G. Blenkinsop; Peter
Buchholz; David Love; Thomas OberthĂŒr; Ulrich K. Vetter; Donald W. Davis (2004). "The age and petrology of the Chimbadzi Hill Intrusion, NW Zimbabwe: first evidence for early Paleoproterozoic magmatism in Zimbabwe".
997:
which have a variable amount of uranium content. Because the fission tracks are healed by temperatures over about 200 °C the technique has limitations as well as benefits. The technique has potential applications for detailing the thermal history of a deposit.
686:, but strongly reject lead. Zircon has a very high closure temperature, is resistant to mechanical weathering and is very chemically inert. Zircon also forms multiple crystal layers during metamorphic events, which each may record an isotopic age of the event.
2917:
Jacobs, J.; R. J. Thomas (August 2001). "A titanite fission track profile across the southeastern ArchĂŠan
Kaapvaal Craton and the Mesoproterozoic Natal Metamorphic Province, South Africa: evidence for differential cryptic Meso- to Neoproterozoic tectonism".
702:
accurate determination of the age of the sample even if some of the lead has been lost. This can be seen in the concordia diagram, where the samples plot along an errorchron (straight line) which intersects the concordia curve at the age of the sample.
962:. This causes induced fission of U, as opposed to the spontaneous fission of U. The fission tracks produced by this process are recorded in the plastic film. The uranium content of the material can then be calculated from the number of tracks and the
2465:
OberthĂŒr, Thomas; Davis, Donald W.; Blenkinsop, Thomas G.; Höhndorf, Axel (2002). "Precise UâPb mineral ages, RbâSr and SmâNd systematics for the Great Dyke, Zimbabweâconstraints on late
Archean events in the Zimbabwe craton and Limpopo belt".
578:. This is well established for most isotopic systems. However, construction of an isochron does not require information on the original compositions, using merely the present ratios of the parent and daughter isotopes to a standard isotope. An
614:," depending on their mass and level of ionization. On impact in the cups, the ions set up a very weak current that can be measured to determine the rate of impacts and the relative concentrations of different atoms in the beams.
1053:) causes a luminescence signal to be emitted as the stored unstable electron energy is released, the intensity of which varies depending on the amount of radiation absorbed during burial and specific properties of the mineral.
2537:
Li, Xian-hua; Liang, Xi-rong; Sun, Min; Guan, Hong; Malpas, J. G. (2001). "Precise Pb/U age determination on zircons by laser ablation microprobe-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry using continuous linear ablation".
2089:
Begemann, F.; Ludwig, K.R.; Lugmair, G.W.; Min, K.; Nyquist, L.E.; Patchett, P.J.; Renne, P.R.; Shih, C.-Y.; Villa, I.M.; Walker, R.J. (January 2001). "Call for an improved set of decay constants for geochronological use".
1711:, the authors proposed that the terms "parent isotope" and "daughter isotope" be avoided in favor of the more descriptive "precursor isotope" and "product isotope", analogous to "precursor ion" and "product ion" in
1142:
the relative ages of rocks from such old material, and to get a better time resolution than that available from long-lived isotopes, short-lived isotopes that are no longer present in the rock can be used.
2882:
232:, usually given in units of years when discussing dating techniques. After one half-life has elapsed, one half of the atoms of the nuclide in question will have decayed into a "daughter" nuclide or
343:
is used which also decreases the problem of nuclide loss. Finally, correlation between different isotopic dating methods may be required to confirm the age of a sample. For example, the age of the
958:
of uranium-238 impurities. The uranium content of the sample has to be known, but that can be determined by placing a plastic film over the polished slice of the material, and bombarding it with
905:
The rate of creation of carbon-14 appears to be roughly constant, as cross-checks of carbon-14 dating with other dating methods show it gives consistent results. However, local eruptions of
2125:
Stewart, Kathy; Turner, Simon; Kelley, Simon; Hawkesworth, Chris; Kirstein, Linda; Mantovani, Marta (1996). "3-D, Ar-Ar geochronology in the ParanĂĄ continental flood basalt province".
644:. All the samples show loss of lead isotopes, but the intercept of the errorchron (straight line through the sample points) and the concordia (curve) shows the correct age of the rock.
323:
gain of such isotopes since the sample was created. It is therefore essential to have as much information as possible about the material being dated and to check for possible signs of
879:
in supernovas, meaning that any parent isotope with a short half-life should be extinct by now. Carbon-14, though, is continuously created through collisions of neutrons generated by
2428:
Vinyu, M. L.; R. E. Hanson; M. W. Martin; S. A. Bowring; H. A. Jelsma; P. H. G. M. Dirks (2001). "UâPb zircon ages from a craton-margin archaean orogenic belt in northern
Zimbabwe".
3054:
Application of the authigenic 10 Be/ 9 Be dating method to Late
MioceneâPliocene sequences in the northern Danube Basin;Michal Ć ujan â Global and Planetary Change 137 (2016) 35â53;
414:
isochrons plotted of meteorite samples. The age is calculated from the slope of the isochron (line) and the original composition from the intercept of the isochron with the y-axis.
909:
or other events that give off large amounts of carbon dioxide can reduce local concentrations of carbon-14 and give inaccurate dates. The releases of carbon dioxide into the
746:
decay of potassium-40 to argon-40. Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.3 billion years, so this method is applicable to the oldest rocks. Radioactive potassium-40 is common in
1081:
1123:
2643:
Mukasa, S. B.; A. H. Wilson; R. W. Carlson (December 1998). "A multielement geochronologic study of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe: significance of the robust and reset ages".
1933:
Pommé, S.; Stroh, H.; Altzitzoglou, T.; Paepen, J.; Van Ammel, R.; Kossert, K.; NÀhle, O.; Keightley, J. D.; Ferreira, K. M.; Verheyen, L.; Bruggeman, M. (1 April 2018).
4273:
1029:
Luminescence dating methods are not radiometric dating methods in that they do not rely on abundances of isotopes to calculate age. Instead, they are a consequence of
2743:
1697:
chronometer gives an estimate of the time period for formation of primitive meteorites of only a few million years (1.4 million years for
Chondrule formation).
1212:. The iodine-xenon chronometer is an isochron technique. Samples are exposed to neutrons in a nuclear reactor. This converts the only stable isotope of iodine (
407:
1306:
ratio is observed across several consecutive temperature steps, it can be interpreted as corresponding to a time at which the sample stopped losing xenon.
602:. In the century since then the techniques have been greatly improved and expanded. Dating can now be performed on samples as small as a nanogram using a
351:(billion years ago) using uraniumâlead dating and 3.56 ± 0.10 Ga (billion years ago) using leadâlead dating, results that are consistent with each other.
574:
The above equation makes use of information on the composition of parent and daughter isotopes at the time the material being tested cooled below its
1812:
363:
the concentration of carbon-14 falls off so steeply that the age of relatively young remains can be determined precisely to within a few decades.
606:. The mass spectrometer was invented in the 1940s and began to be used in radiometric dating in the 1950s. It operates by generating a beam of
637:
3976:
3652:
120:
Different methods of radiometric dating vary in the timescale over which they are accurate and the materials to which they can be applied.
610:
from the sample under test. The ions then travel through a magnetic field, which diverts them into different sampling sensors, known as "
193:
and spontaneously transform into a different nuclide. This transformation may be accomplished in a number of different ways, including
2883:"Cosmic background reduction in the radiocarbon measurement by scintillation spectrometry at the underground laboratory of Gran Sasso"
224:
While the moment in time at which a particular nucleus decays is unpredictable, a collection of atoms of a radioactive nuclide decays
917:
have also depressed the proportion of carbon-14 by a few percent; in contrast, the amount of carbon-14 was increased by above-ground
1793:
2573:
Wingate, M.T.D. (2001). "SHRIMP baddeleyite and zircon ages for an
Umkondo dolerite sill, Nyanga Mountains, Eastern Zimbabwe".
3392:
3373:
3335:
2974:
2326:
2280:
1917:
1309:
Samples of a meteorite called
Shallowater are usually included in the irradiation to monitor the conversion efficiency from
105:. By allowing the establishment of geological timescales, it provides a significant source of information about the ages of
3423:
1417:
when they each stopped losing xenon. This in turn corresponds to a difference in age of closure in the early solar system.
724:
of 1.06 x 10 years. Accuracy levels of within twenty million years in ages of two-and-a-half billion years are achievable.
315:
954:
This involves inspection of a polished slice of a material to determine the density of "track" markings left in it by the
758:, though the closure temperature is fairly low in these materials, about 350 °C (mica) to 500 °C (hornblende).
648:
3192:
Alexander N. Krot(2002) Dating the
Earliest Solids in our Solar System, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology
2747:
3770:
3354:
2393:
Stacey, J. S.; J. D. Kramers (June 1975). "Approximation of terrestrial lead isotope evolution by a two-stage model".
826:, from which their ratios are measured. The scheme has a range of several hundred thousand years. A related method is
3971:
3567:
3214:
3075:
2430:
2351:
2194:
2169:
1046:
54:
products, which form at a known constant rate of decay. The use of radiometric dating was first published in 1907 by
1844:"The Ultimate Disintegration Products of the Radio-active Elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium"
3607:
1988:
591:
1908:
Bernard-Griffiths, J.; Groan, G. (1989). "The samariumâneodymium method". In Roth, Etienne; Poty, Bernard (eds.).
1754:
2379:
695:
356:
2955:"The Application of Fission-Track Dating to the Depositional and Thermal History of Rocks in Sedimentary Basins"
582:
is used to solve the age equation graphically and calculate the age of the sample and the original composition.
189:. Some nuclides are inherently unstable. That is, at some point in time, an atom of such a nuclide will undergo
46:
were selectively incorporated when they were formed. The method compares the abundance of a naturally occurring
2678:
Tillberg, Mikael; Drake, Henrik; Zack, Thomas; Kooijman, Ellen; Whitehouse, Martin J.; Ă
ström, Mats E. (2020).
3279:
1155:
can be obtained. Generally a shorter half-life leads to a higher time resolution at the expense of timescale.
887:
and thus remains at a near-constant level on Earth. The carbon-14 ends up as a trace component in atmospheric
4017:
3765:
2809:
1941:. ICRM 2017 Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Radionuclide Metrology and its Applications.
767:
711:
411:
2077:
977:(glass fragments from volcanic eruptions), and meteorites are best used. Older materials can be dated using
153:. The final decay product, lead-208 (Pb), is stable and can no longer undergo spontaneous radioactive decay.
141:
from lead-212 (Pb) to lead-208 (Pb) . Each parent nuclide spontaneously decays into a daughter nuclide (the
3760:
2268:
387:
4268:
3950:
3820:
1099:
1093:
682:). Zircon and baddeleyite incorporate uranium atoms into their crystalline structure as substitutes for
4160:
4140:
1117:
801:
733:
98:
4150:
4122:
3955:
3734:
1111:
1050:
969:
This scheme has application over a wide range of geologic dates. For dates up to a few million years
827:
284:
to measure the time from the incorporation of the original nuclides into a material to the present.
4217:
3416:
1129:
4155:
4105:
3892:
3739:
2954:
1778:
1075:
633:
623:
336:
102:
133:
4055:
3856:
3602:
3501:
1069:
679:
75:
1010:(half-life ~300ky) were produced by irradiation of seawater during atmospheric detonations of
3657:
3294:
1732:
293:
3138:
2656:
2406:
2138:
1164:
4090:
4031:
4007:
4002:
3315:
3239:
3175:
3134:
3003:
2927:
2828:
2691:
2652:
2582:
2547:
2511:
2475:
2439:
2402:
2222:
2134:
2099:
2038:
1997:
1946:
1855:
1773:
1707:
1087:
1030:
938:
344:
300:
31:
3364:
McSween, Harry Y; Richardson, Steven Mcafee; Uhle, Maria E; Uhle, Professor Maria (2003).
2608:
Ireland, Trevor (December 1999). "Isotope
Geochemistry: New Tools for Isotopic Analysis".
2265:
Principles and applications of geochemistry: a comprehensive textbook for geology students
268:. The only exceptions are nuclides that decay by the process of electron capture, such as
8:
4117:
4012:
3930:
3920:
3695:
3612:
3592:
3582:
3409:
2856:
1896:
1024:
955:
929:
above the current value would depress the amount of carbon-14 created in the atmosphere.
575:
372:
218:
90:
3319:
3243:
3179:
3163:
3007:
2931:
2832:
2695:
2586:
2551:
2515:
2479:
2443:
2226:
2103:
2042:
2010:
2001:
1983:
1950:
1859:
898:
A carbon-based life form acquires carbon during its lifetime. Plants acquire it through
4242:
4222:
4100:
4070:
3992:
3791:
3755:
3557:
3298:
3257:
3147:
3122:
3088:
3037:
3024:
2991:
2790:
2725:
2712:
2679:
2625:
2358:
2056:
1890:
Radiometric Dating and the Geological Time Scale: Circular Reasoning or Reliable Tools?
1871:
1267:
1042:
1034:
871:
847:
311:
94:
3193:
2939:
2664:
2559:
2487:
2451:
2111:
4050:
3846:
3841:
3685:
3521:
3388:
3369:
3350:
3331:
3302:
3261:
3210:
3071:
3029:
2970:
2794:
2729:
2717:
2629:
2523:
2500:
2414:
2375:
2332:
2322:
2286:
2276:
2190:
2165:
2146:
1964:
1913:
1875:
1746:
1712:
1508:
1151:
914:
867:
were dated at 56 CE using the carbon-14 method on organic material found at the site.
603:
595:
340:
225:
190:
51:
3252:
3227:
2880:
2770:
1822:
1507:
of 720 000 years. The dating is simply a question of finding the deviation from the
563:
is known to high precision, and one has accurate and precise measurements of D* and
4247:
4196:
4112:
4060:
3836:
3814:
3680:
3577:
3323:
3290:
3247:
3142:
3103:
3041:
3019:
3011:
2962:
2935:
2897:
2836:
2782:
2707:
2699:
2660:
2617:
2590:
2555:
2519:
2483:
2447:
2410:
2240:
2230:
2142:
2107:
2060:
2046:
2005:
1959:
1954:
1934:
1863:
1826:
1817:
959:
884:
785:
739:
599:
396:
214:
162:
55:
3120:
2621:
1136:
475:
is number of atoms of the daughter isotope in the original or initial composition,
4180:
4145:
4132:
4095:
4042:
3900:
3795:
3729:
3690:
3527:
2966:
1381:
ratios of the sample and Shallowater then corresponds to the different ratios of
1105:
876:
856:
579:
328:
59:
1037:
is absorbed by mineral grains in sediments and archaeological materials such as
4080:
3878:
3866:
3810:
3805:
3799:
3724:
3647:
3572:
3107:
2992:"Ancient biomolecules from deep ice cores reveal a forested southern Greenland"
2703:
1760:
1011:
926:
899:
888:
835:
519:
418:
The mathematical expression that relates radioactive decay to geologic time is
265:
261:
198:
174:
35:
2902:
2841:
2810:"The ~2400-year cycle in atmospheric radiocarbon concentration: Bispectrum of
2786:
2235:
2210:
1892:
1740:
530:
The equation is most conveniently expressed in terms of the measured quantity
392:
4262:
3997:
3915:
3910:
3861:
3851:
3491:
2881:
Plastino, Wolfango; Lauri Kaihola; Paolo Bartolomei; Francesco Bella (2001).
2272:
1867:
1821:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
1783:
1768:
549:
383:
332:
233:
166:
142:
86:
3327:
3015:
2336:
2290:
1830:
1266:). After irradiation, samples are heated in a series of steps and the xenon
236:. In many cases, the daughter nuclide itself is radioactive, resulting in a
4075:
3873:
3587:
3562:
3547:
3513:
3473:
3033:
2721:
2680:"In situ Rb-Sr dating of slickenfibres in deep crystalline basement faults"
1968:
1427:
963:
918:
819:
781:
777:
324:
277:
273:
245:
82:
71:
67:
47:
3168:
Press Abstracts from the Nineteenth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
2427:
3775:
3672:
3634:
3617:
3552:
3533:
3466:
3446:
1007:
921:
tests that were conducted into the early 1960s. Also, an increase in the
880:
773:
717:
671:
611:
269:
253:
237:
194:
185:
in the nucleus. A particular isotope of a particular element is called a
146:
138:
114:
3121:
Gilmour, J. D.; O. V Pravdivtseva; A. Busfield; C. M. Hohenberg (2006).
780:, with a half-life of 50 billion years. This scheme is used to date old
628:
3542:
3537:
3432:
922:
755:
202:
150:
2746:. The Swedish National Heritage Board. 11 October 2006. Archived from
2245:
4232:
4212:
3945:
3905:
3642:
3451:
2594:
2051:
2026:
1788:
1504:
1464:
1147:
910:
789:
721:
683:
523:
379:
348:
229:
110:
1843:
464:
is number of atoms of the radiogenic daughter isotope in the sample,
4227:
4065:
3709:
3622:
3087:
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
2211:"INTCAL04 Terrestrial Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 0â26 Cal Kyr BP"
986:
852:
823:
822:
are not, and so they are selectively precipitated into ocean-floor
751:
743:
675:
653:
641:
552:(neither parent nor daughter isotopes have been lost from system),
257:
210:
206:
43:
3162:
Hutcheon, I. D.; Hutchison, R.; Wasserburg, G. J. (1 March 1988).
2189:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 15â49.
1425:
Another example of short-lived extinct radionuclide dating is the
1150:. By measuring the decay products of extinct radionuclides with a
4237:
3461:
3456:
2318:
990:
982:
974:
947:
943:
906:
815:
811:
660:
241:
186:
182:
178:
74:
itself, and can also be used to date a wide range of natural and
63:
2311:
Using geochemical data: evaluation, presentation, interpretation
1463:
chronometer, which can be used to estimate the relative ages of
2642:
2464:
2314:
2027:"Direct test of the constancy of fundamental nuclear constants"
1270:
of the gas evolved in each step is analysed. When a consistent
1137:
Dating with decay products of short-lived extinct radionuclides
1038:
994:
978:
864:
831:
691:
663:
590:
Radiometric dating has been carried out since 1905 when it was
522:
of the parent isotope, equal to the inverse of the radioactive
488:
is number of atoms of the parent isotope in the sample at time
170:
158:
106:
39:
2124:
3662:
3401:
3310:
Magill, Joseph; Galy, Jean (2005). "Archaeology and Dating".
860:
281:
181:, with each isotope of an element differing in the number of
3164:"Evidence of In-situ Decay of 26Al in a Semarkona Chondrule"
1932:
3596:
3478:
3161:
1547:
decay) in comparison with the ratio of the stable isotopes
970:
747:
559:
either must be negligible or can be accurately estimated,
3496:
3363:
2677:
607:
395:
using a high-temperature furnace. This field is known as
391:
temperatures are experimentally determined in the lab by
58:
and is now the principal source of information about the
2953:
Naeser, Nancy; Naeser, Charles; McCulloh, Thane (1989).
2088:
252:
another. It is not affected by external factors such as
16:
Technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon
2807:
548:
To calculate the age, it is assumed that the system is
526:
of the parent isotope times the natural logarithm of 2.
1907:
1049:
or infrared stimulated luminescence dating) or heat (
670:), though it can be used on other materials, such as
3383:
Harry y. Mcsween, Jr; Huss, Gary R (29 April 2010).
3382:
3086:
2952:
1901:
1722:
3977:
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
3194:
http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Sept02/isotopicAges.html
2946:
2392:
761:
705:
3226:Pourret, Olivier; Johannesson, Karen (July 2022).
3225:
2916:
859:at KĂ„seberga, around ten kilometres south east of
4274:Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
3123:"The I-Xe Chronometer and the Early Solar System"
3089:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
2024:
1841:
950:crystals are widely used in fission track dating.
306:
4260:
3314:. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 105â115.
1893:Radiometric Dating and the Geological Time Scale
795:
727:
228:at a rate described by a parameter known as the
177:. Additionally, elements may exist in different
113:change. Radiometric dating is also used to date
1658:ratio to that of other Solar System materials.
1248:via neutron capture followed by beta decay (of
1158:
287:
3209:, page 322. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
3070:, page 321. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
2536:
1420:
1018:
932:
690:micro-beam analysis can be achieved via laser
659:Uraniumâlead dating is often performed on the
3417:
617:
598:as a method by which one might determine the
2957:. In Naeser, Nancy; McCulloh, Thane (eds.).
2352:"Basics of Radioactive Isotope Geochemistry"
2304:
2302:
2300:
1001:
841:
50:within the material to the abundance of its
3280:"Radioactivity: A Tool to Explore the Past"
2771:"A calibration curve for radiocarbon dates"
3424:
3410:
3309:
3228:"Radiogenic isotope: Not just about words"
3080:
2989:
2164:. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press.
1981:
3368:(2 ed.). Columbia University Press.
3251:
3146:
3023:
2901:
2840:
2808:Vasiliev, S. S.; V. A. Dergachev (2002).
2711:
2458:
2308:
2297:
2244:
2234:
2159:
2050:
2009:
1958:
538:) rather than the constant initial value
260:, chemical environment, or presence of a
85:, radiometric dating methods are used in
3972:Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
3295:10.1524/ract.1995.7071.special-issue.305
2258:
2256:
1912:. Springer Netherlands. pp. 53â72.
1794:Sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe
942:
851:
627:
585:
406:
310:
132:
117:materials, including ancient artifacts.
3344:
2961:. Springer New York. pp. 157â180.
2607:
2572:
2376:"Geologic Time: Radiometric Time Scale"
2370:
2368:
2343:
345:Amitsoq gneisses from western Greenland
4261:
3277:
2184:
1700:
1345:. The difference between the measured
1165:Iodine-129 § Meteorite age dating
393:artificially resetting sample minerals
366:
93:. Among the best-known techniques are
3405:
3345:AllĂšgre, Claude J (4 December 2008).
3312:Radioactivity Radionuclides Radiation
2959:Thermal History of Sedimentary Basins
2768:
2349:
2262:
2253:
1984:"Perturbation of Nuclear Decay Rates"
3366:Geochemistry: Pathways and Processes
3205:Imke de Pater and Jack J. Lissauer:
3066:Imke de Pater and Jack J. Lissauer:
2365:
1705:In a July 2022 paper in the journal
316:Thermal ionization mass spectrometer
128:
3114:
2645:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2395:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2127:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2011:10.1146/annurev.ns.22.120172.001121
772:This is based on the beta decay of
402:
244:) to over 100 billion years (e.g.,
13:
3771:Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
3271:
3148:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2006.tb00190.x
1818:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
14:
4285:
3127:Meteoritics and Planetary Science
2920:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2504:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2431:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2075:How to Change Nuclear Decay Rates
1047:optically stimulated luminescence
788:, and has also been used to date
347:was determined to be 3.60 ± 0.05
331:. This can reduce the problem of
2575:South African Journal of Geology
2524:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2004.12.003
1989:Annual Review of Nuclear Science
1753:
1739:
1725:
1060:
1033:on certain minerals. Over time,
1006:Large amounts of otherwise rare
834:(thorium-230) to thorium-232 in
762:Rubidiumâstrontium dating method
706:Samariumâneodymium dating method
30:is a technique which is used to
3653:English and British regnal year
3253:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105348
3219:
3199:
3186:
3155:
3060:
3048:
2983:
2910:
2874:
2849:
2801:
2762:
2736:
2671:
2636:
2601:
2566:
2530:
2494:
2421:
2386:
2380:United States Geological Survey
2203:
2178:
2153:
2118:
2092:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1146:such as that which constitutes
649:Uraniumâlead radiometric dating
632:A concordia diagram as used in
357:isotope-ratio mass spectrometry
123:
3431:
3387:. Cambridge University Press.
3349:. Cambridge University Press.
2814:data over the last 8000 years"
2082:
2067:
2018:
1975:
1960:10.1016/j.apradiso.2017.09.002
1939:Applied Radiation and Isotopes
1926:
1882:
1835:
1806:
830:, which measures the ratio of
307:Accuracy of radiometric dating
161:is made up of combinations of
1:
3766:Old Style and New Style dates
2940:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)80066-X
2665:10.1016/S0012-821X(98)00228-3
2622:10.1126/science.286.5448.2289
2560:10.1016/S0009-2541(00)00394-6
2488:10.1016/S0301-9268(01)00215-7
2452:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)90021-1
2112:10.1016/s0016-7037(00)00512-3
1800:
1622:*) is found by comparing the
796:Uraniumâthorium dating method
728:Potassiumâargon dating method
42:, in which trace radioactive
3718:Pre-Julian / Julian
3278:Gunten, Hans R. von (1995).
2967:10.1007/978-1-4612-3492-0_10
2415:10.1016/0012-821X(75)90088-6
2269:Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
2160:Dalrymple, G. Brent (1994).
2147:10.1016/0012-821X(96)00132-X
288:Decay constant determination
7:
3951:Geological history of Earth
3821:Astronomical year numbering
2309:Rollinson, Hugh R. (1993).
1848:American Journal of Science
1718:
1019:Luminescence dating methods
933:Fission track dating method
318:used in radiometric dating.
221:into two or more nuclides.
169:, indicating the number of
10:
4290:
2704:10.1038/s41598-019-57262-5
2187:Radiogenic isotope geology
2025:Shlyakhter, A. I. (1976).
1842:Boltwood, Bertram (1907).
1162:
1022:
936:
845:
799:
765:
731:
709:
621:
618:Uraniumâlead dating method
370:
291:
217:). Another possibility is
4205:
4189:
4173:
4131:
4123:Thermoluminescence dating
4041:
4030:
4018:Samariumâneodymium dating
3985:
3964:
3938:
3929:
3891:
3829:
3784:
3748:
3717:
3708:
3671:
3633:
3512:
3487:
3439:
2903:10.1017/S0033822200037954
2842:10.5194/angeo-20-115-2002
2787:10.1017/S0003598X00070277
2236:10.1017/S0033822200032999
1910:Nuclear Methods of Dating
1051:thermoluminescence dating
1002:Chlorine-36 dating method
842:Radiocarbon dating method
768:Rubidiumâstrontium dating
712:Samariumâneodymium dating
137:Example of a radioactive
109:and the deduced rates of
3837:Chinese sexagenary cycle
3108:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
2185:Dickin, Alan P. (2008).
1868:10.2475/ajs.s4-23.134.78
492:(the present), given by
83:stratigraphic principles
4051:Amino acid racemisation
3328:10.1007/3-540-26881-2_6
3289:. 70â71 (s1): 305â413.
3139:2006M&PS...41...19G
3016:10.1126/science.1141758
2990:Willerslev, E. (2007).
2657:1998E&PSL.164..353M
2407:1975E&PSL..26..207S
2139:1996E&PSL.143...95S
1831:10.1351/goldbook.R05082
1779:Paleopedological record
1421:The Al â Mg chronometer
1210:0.12 million years
1100:Hafniumâtungsten dating
1065:Other methods include:
66:, including the age of
4056:Archaeomagnetic dating
3568:Era of Caesar (Iberia)
2263:Faure, Gunter (1998).
2221:(3): 1029â1058. 2004.
1159:The I â Xe chronometer
951:
868:
802:Uraniumâthorium dating
734:Potassiumâargon dating
680:monazite geochronology
645:
415:
399:or thermochronometry.
319:
154:
99:potassiumâargon dating
3956:Geological time units
2769:Clark, R. M. (1975).
2350:White, W. M. (2003).
1733:Earth sciences portal
946:
883:with nitrogen in the
855:
828:ioniumâthorium dating
636:, with data from the
631:
586:Modern dating methods
455:is age of the sample,
410:
314:
294:Radioactive decay law
136:
68:fossilized life forms
4008:Law of superposition
4003:Isotope geochemistry
3232:Applied Geochemistry
2468:Precambrian Research
2162:The age of the earth
2073:Johnson, B. (1993).
1935:"Is decay constant?"
1774:Isotope geochemistry
1708:Applied Geochemistry
1204:with a half-life of
1031:background radiation
939:fission track dating
913:as a consequence of
386:for one mineral but
165:, each with its own
4141:Fluorine absorption
4118:Luminescence dating
4013:Luminescence dating
3921:Milankovitch cycles
3761:Proleptic Gregorian
3593:Hindu units of time
3320:2005rrr..book.....M
3244:2022ApGC..14205348P
3180:1988LPICo.650...14H
3008:2007Sci...317..111W
2932:2001JAfES..33..323J
2833:2002AnGeo..20..115V
2821:Annales Geophysicae
2696:2020NatSR..10..562T
2616:(5448): 2289â2290.
2587:2001SAJG..104...13W
2552:2001ChGeo.175..209L
2516:2004JAfES..40..281M
2480:2002PreR..113..293O
2444:2001JAfES..32..103V
2227:2004Radcb..46.1029.
2104:2001GeCoA..65..111B
2043:1976Natur.264..340S
2002:1972ARNPS..22..165E
1982:Emery, G T (1972).
1951:2018AppRI.134....6P
1897:TalkOrigins Archive
1860:1907AmJS...23...78B
1701:A terminology issue
1025:Luminescence dating
1015:ice and sediments.
956:spontaneous fission
720:of Sm to Nd with a
634:uraniumâlead dating
624:Uraniumâlead dating
576:closure temperature
373:Closure temperature
367:Closure temperature
337:uraniumâlead dating
219:spontaneous fission
103:uraniumâlead dating
91:geologic time scale
64:geological features
62:of rocks and other
48:radioactive isotope
28:radioisotope dating
4269:Radiometric dating
4243:Terminus post quem
4223:Synchronoptic view
4190:Linguistic methods
4151:Obsidian hydration
4086:Radiometric dating
4071:Incremental dating
3993:Chronostratigraphy
3207:Planetary Sciences
3068:Planetary Sciences
2857:"Carbon-14 Dating"
2684:Scientific Reports
2359:Cornell University
2078:Usenet Physics FAQ
1823:radioactive dating
1604:(often designated
1268:isotopic signature
1043:potassium feldspar
1035:ionizing radiation
952:
872:Radiocarbon dating
869:
848:Radiocarbon dating
814:is water-soluble,
716:This involves the
646:
416:
320:
155:
95:radiocarbon dating
76:man-made materials
34:materials such as
24:radioactive dating
20:Radiometric dating
4256:
4255:
4169:
4168:
4026:
4025:
3887:
3886:
3842:Geologic Calendar
3704:
3703:
3394:978-0-521-87862-3
3375:978-0-231-12440-9
3337:978-3-540-26881-9
3287:Radiochimica Acta
3096:Chinese Physics C
3002:(5834): 111â114.
2976:978-1-4612-8124-5
2861:www.chem.uwec.edu
2328:978-0-582-06701-1
2282:978-0-02-336450-1
1919:978-0-7923-0188-2
1747:Geophysics portal
1713:mass spectrometry
1509:natural abundance
1152:mass spectrometer
1106:Potassiumâcalcium
915:industrialization
786:metamorphic rocks
604:mass spectrometer
596:Ernest Rutherford
341:concordia diagram
191:radioactive decay
163:chemical elements
129:Radioactive decay
89:to establish the
4281:
4248:ASPRO chronology
4197:Glottochronology
4113:Tephrochronology
4061:Dendrochronology
4039:
4038:
3936:
3935:
3735:Proleptic Julian
3725:Pre-Julian Roman
3715:
3714:
3510:
3509:
3426:
3419:
3412:
3403:
3402:
3398:
3379:
3360:
3341:
3306:
3284:
3266:
3265:
3255:
3223:
3217:
3203:
3197:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3093:
3084:
3078:
3064:
3058:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3027:
2987:
2981:
2980:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2887:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2818:
2805:
2799:
2798:
2781:(196): 251â266.
2766:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2750:on 31 March 2009
2740:
2734:
2733:
2715:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2651:(1â2): 353â369.
2640:
2634:
2633:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2595:10.2113/104.1.13
2570:
2564:
2563:
2546:(3â4): 209â219.
2540:Chemical Geology
2534:
2528:
2527:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2474:(3â4): 293â306.
2462:
2456:
2455:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2372:
2363:
2362:
2356:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2306:
2295:
2294:
2267:(2nd ed.).
2260:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2238:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2086:
2080:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2054:
2052:10.1038/264340a0
2022:
2016:
2015:
2013:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1962:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1905:
1899:
1888:McRae, A. 1998.
1886:
1880:
1879:
1839:
1833:
1810:
1763:
1758:
1757:
1749:
1744:
1743:
1735:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1696:
1695:
1694:
1687:
1686:
1678:
1677:
1676:
1669:
1668:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1648:
1647:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1630:
1629:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1612:
1611:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1594:
1593:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1573:
1572:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1555:
1554:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1537:
1536:
1529:(the product of
1528:
1527:
1526:
1519:
1518:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1493:
1492:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1475:
1474:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1453:
1452:
1444:
1442:
1441:
1434:
1433:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1407:
1406:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1389:
1388:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1371:
1370:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1353:
1352:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1335:
1334:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1316:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1296:
1295:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1278:
1277:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1256:
1255:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1238:
1237:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1220:
1219:
1211:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1194:
1193:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1176:
1175:
1094:Lutetiumâhafnium
1082:Lanthanumâbarium
885:upper atmosphere
740:electron capture
600:age of the Earth
517:
511:
487:
474:
463:
454:
445:
403:The age equation
397:thermochronology
378:be lost through
215:electron capture
56:Bertram Boltwood
4289:
4288:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4252:
4201:
4185:
4181:Molecular clock
4174:Genetic methods
4165:
4146:Nitrogen dating
4133:Relative dating
4127:
4096:Potassiumâargon
4043:Absolute dating
4033:
4022:
3981:
3960:
3925:
3901:Cosmic Calendar
3893:Astronomic time
3883:
3825:
3780:
3744:
3730:Original Julian
3700:
3667:
3629:
3528:Ab urbe condita
3506:
3483:
3435:
3430:
3395:
3376:
3357:
3347:Isotope Geology
3338:
3282:
3274:
3272:Further reading
3269:
3224:
3220:
3204:
3200:
3191:
3187:
3160:
3156:
3119:
3115:
3091:
3085:
3081:
3065:
3061:
3053:
3049:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2951:
2947:
2915:
2911:
2896:(2A): 157â161.
2885:
2879:
2875:
2865:
2863:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2816:
2806:
2802:
2767:
2763:
2753:
2751:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2676:
2672:
2641:
2637:
2606:
2602:
2571:
2567:
2535:
2531:
2499:
2495:
2463:
2459:
2426:
2422:
2391:
2387:
2382:. 16 June 2001.
2374:
2373:
2366:
2354:
2348:
2344:
2329:
2307:
2298:
2283:
2261:
2254:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2183:
2179:
2172:
2158:
2154:
2133:(1â4): 95â109.
2123:
2119:
2087:
2083:
2072:
2068:
2023:
2019:
1980:
1976:
1931:
1927:
1920:
1906:
1902:
1887:
1883:
1840:
1836:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1759:
1752:
1745:
1738:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1689:
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1675:
1673:
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1664:
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1662:
1654:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1636:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1626:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1590:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1579:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1499:
1497:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1440:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1207:
1205:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1186:beta-decays to
1182:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1174:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1169:
1167:
1161:
1139:
1124:Kryptonâkrypton
1118:Uraniumâuranium
1063:
1027:
1021:
1012:nuclear weapons
1004:
941:
935:
925:or the Earth's
894:
877:nucleosynthesis
850:
844:
804:
798:
770:
764:
736:
730:
714:
708:
669:
626:
620:
588:
558:
543:
515:
507:
493:
491:
478:
473:
467:
458:
452:
446:
431:
421:
405:
375:
369:
309:
296:
290:
199:alpha particles
131:
126:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4287:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4218:New Chronology
4215:
4209:
4207:
4206:Related topics
4203:
4202:
4200:
4199:
4193:
4191:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4183:
4177:
4175:
4171:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4137:
4135:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4083:
4081:Paleomagnetism
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4047:
4045:
4036:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3989:
3987:
3983:
3982:
3980:
3979:
3974:
3968:
3966:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3942:
3940:
3933:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3897:
3895:
3889:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3879:New Earth Time
3876:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3833:
3831:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3823:
3818:
3808:
3803:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3752:
3750:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3742:
3740:Revised Julian
3737:
3732:
3727:
3721:
3719:
3712:
3706:
3705:
3702:
3701:
3699:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3677:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3658:Lists of kings
3655:
3650:
3648:Canon of Kings
3645:
3639:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3600:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3573:Before present
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3531:
3524:
3518:
3516:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3470:
3469:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3443:
3441:
3437:
3436:
3429:
3428:
3421:
3414:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3393:
3385:Cosmochemistry
3380:
3374:
3361:
3356:978-0521862288
3355:
3342:
3336:
3307:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3267:
3218:
3198:
3185:
3154:
3113:
3079:
3059:
3047:
2982:
2975:
2945:
2926:(2): 323â333.
2909:
2873:
2848:
2827:(1): 115â120.
2800:
2761:
2735:
2670:
2635:
2600:
2565:
2529:
2510:(5): 281â292.
2493:
2457:
2438:(1): 103â114.
2420:
2401:(2): 207â221.
2385:
2364:
2342:
2327:
2296:
2281:
2252:
2202:
2195:
2177:
2170:
2152:
2117:
2098:(1): 111â121.
2081:
2066:
2017:
1996:(1): 165â202.
1974:
1925:
1918:
1900:
1881:
1854:(134): 77â88.
1834:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1761:Physics portal
1750:
1736:
1720:
1717:
1702:
1699:
1692:
1684:
1674:
1666:
1653:
1645:
1635:
1627:
1617:
1609:
1599:
1591:
1586:The excess of
1578:
1570:
1560:
1552:
1542:
1534:
1524:
1516:
1498:
1490:
1480:
1472:
1458:
1450:
1439:
1431:
1422:
1419:
1412:
1404:
1394:
1386:
1376:
1368:
1358:
1350:
1340:
1332:
1322:
1314:
1301:
1293:
1283:
1275:
1261:
1253:
1243:
1235:
1225:
1217:
1199:
1191:
1181:
1173:
1160:
1157:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1127:
1121:
1115:
1112:Rheniumâosmium
1109:
1103:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1062:
1059:
1023:Main article:
1020:
1017:
1003:
1000:
937:Main article:
934:
931:
927:magnetic field
900:photosynthesis
892:
889:carbon dioxide
846:Main article:
843:
840:
836:ocean sediment
800:Main article:
797:
794:
766:Main article:
763:
760:
738:This involves
732:Main article:
729:
726:
710:Main article:
707:
704:
667:
622:Main article:
619:
616:
587:
584:
556:
541:
528:
527:
520:decay constant
513:
505:
489:
476:
471:
465:
456:
429:
420:
404:
401:
371:Main article:
368:
365:
308:
305:
289:
286:
266:electric field
175:atomic nucleus
130:
127:
125:
122:
115:archaeological
81:Together with
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4286:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4204:
4198:
4195:
4194:
4192:
4188:
4182:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4172:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4044:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:Chronological
4029:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3998:Geochronology
3996:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3941:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3931:Geologic time
3928:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3916:Metonic cycle
3914:
3912:
3911:Galactic year
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3852:ISO week date
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3832:
3828:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3783:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3707:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3670:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3558:Byzantine era
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3529:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3517:
3515:
3514:Calendar eras
3511:
3508:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3427:
3422:
3420:
3415:
3413:
3408:
3407:
3404:
3396:
3390:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3371:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3352:
3348:
3343:
3339:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3276:
3275:
3263:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3216:
3215:0-521-48219-4
3212:
3208:
3202:
3195:
3189:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3158:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3117:
3109:
3105:
3102:(3): 030001.
3101:
3097:
3090:
3083:
3077:
3076:0-521-48219-4
3073:
3069:
3063:
3057:
3051:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2986:
2978:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2913:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2884:
2877:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2813:
2804:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2749:
2745:
2744:"Ales stenar"
2739:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2674:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2639:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2604:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2432:
2424:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2369:
2360:
2353:
2346:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2274:
2273:Prentice Hall
2270:
2266:
2259:
2257:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2198:
2196:9780521530170
2192:
2188:
2181:
2173:
2171:9780804723312
2167:
2163:
2156:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2085:
2079:
2076:
2070:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2037:(5584): 340.
2036:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2012:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1929:
1921:
1915:
1911:
1904:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1885:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1784:Radioactivity
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1769:Hadean zircon
1767:
1766:
1762:
1756:
1751:
1748:
1742:
1737:
1734:
1723:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1698:
1659:
1584:
1510:
1506:
1466:
1443:
1418:
1307:
1269:
1166:
1156:
1153:
1149:
1143:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1061:Other methods
1058:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1016:
1013:
1009:
999:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
967:
965:
961:
960:slow neutrons
957:
949:
945:
940:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
903:
901:
896:
890:
886:
882:
878:
873:
866:
862:
858:
854:
849:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
808:
803:
793:
791:
790:lunar samples
787:
783:
779:
775:
769:
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
735:
725:
723:
719:
713:
703:
699:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
665:
662:
657:
655:
650:
643:
639:
635:
630:
625:
615:
613:
609:
608:ionized atoms
605:
601:
597:
593:
583:
581:
580:isochron plot
577:
572:
570:
566:
562:
555:
551:
546:
544:
537:
533:
525:
521:
514:
510:
504:
500:
496:
485:
481:
477:
470:
466:
461:
457:
451:
450:
449:
443:
439:
435:
428:
424:
419:
413:
409:
400:
398:
394:
389:
385:
381:
374:
364:
360:
358:
352:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
333:contamination
330:
326:
317:
313:
304:
302:
295:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
249:
247:
243:
239:
235:
234:decay product
231:
227:
226:exponentially
222:
220:
216:
213:emission, or
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197:(emission of
196:
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188:
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167:atomic number
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157:All ordinary
152:
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143:decay product
140:
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4161:Stratigraphy
4106:Uraniumâlead
4085:
4076:Lichenometry
3874:Winter count
3857:Mesoamerican
3785:Astronomical
3603:Mesoamerican
3588:Sothic cycle
3563:Seleucid era
3548:Bosporan era
3536: /
3526:
3474:Paleontology
3384:
3365:
3346:
3311:
3286:
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2603:
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1987:
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1076:Iodineâxenon
1064:
1055:
1028:
1005:
968:
964:neutron flux
953:
919:nuclear bomb
904:
897:
870:
857:Ale's Stones
820:protactinium
809:
805:
778:strontium-87
771:
737:
715:
700:
698:techniques.
687:
658:
647:
612:Faraday cups
589:
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353:
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301:PbâPb system
297:
278:zirconium-89
274:strontium-85
250:
246:samarium-147
223:
156:
124:Fundamentals
119:
111:evolutionary
80:
72:age of Earth
60:absolute age
27:
23:
19:
18:
4101:Radiocarbon
3776:Dual dating
3635:Regnal year
3613:Short Count
3553:Bostran era
3534:Anno Domini
3467:Big History
3447:Archaeology
2890:Radiocarbon
2215:Radiocarbon
1070:Argonâargon
881:cosmic rays
774:rubidium-87
756:hornblendes
718:alpha decay
672:baddeleyite
638:Pfunze Belt
270:beryllium-7
254:temperature
238:decay chain
195:alpha decay
139:decay chain
4263:Categories
3696:Vietnamese
3608:Long Count
3543:Anno Mundi
3538:Common Era
3440:Key topics
3433:Chronology
3238:: 105348.
2690:(1): 562.
2246:10289/3690
1801:References
1485:decays to
1465:chondrules
1163:See also:
1148:meteorites
923:solar wind
325:alteration
292:See also:
209:emission,
203:beta decay
44:impurities
4233:Year zero
4213:Chronicle
4156:Seriation
4091:Leadâlead
3965:Standards
3946:Deep time
3906:Ephemeris
3792:Lunisolar
3756:Gregorian
3749:Gregorian
3710:Calendars
3673:Era names
3643:Anka year
3522:Human Era
3452:Astronomy
3303:100441969
3262:248907159
2795:161729853
2775:Antiquity
2730:210670668
2630:129408440
1876:131688682
1789:Radiohalo
1505:half-life
1130:Beryllium
1088:Leadâlead
911:biosphere
907:volcanoes
824:sediments
752:feldspars
722:half-life
684:zirconium
524:half-life
380:diffusion
230:half-life
145:) via an
4228:Timeline
4066:Ice core
3939:Concepts
3686:Japanese
3618:Tzolk'in
3583:Egyptian
3034:17615355
2722:31953465
2337:27937350
2291:37783103
1969:28947247
1945:: 6â12.
1796:(SHRIMP)
1719:See also
987:titanite
975:tektites
744:positron
676:monazite
654:Mesozoic
642:Zimbabwe
592:invented
329:isochron
262:magnetic
258:pressure
211:positron
207:electron
183:neutrons
179:isotopes
4238:Floruit
3986:Methods
3847:Iranian
3815:Islamic
3681:Chinese
3492:Periods
3462:History
3457:Geology
3316:Bibcode
3240:Bibcode
3176:Bibcode
3135:Bibcode
3042:7423309
3025:2694912
3004:Bibcode
2996:Science
2928:Bibcode
2866:6 April
2829:Bibcode
2754:9 March
2713:6969261
2692:Bibcode
2653:Bibcode
2610:Science
2583:Bibcode
2548:Bibcode
2512:Bibcode
2476:Bibcode
2440:Bibcode
2403:Bibcode
2319:Longman
2223:Bibcode
2135:Bibcode
2100:Bibcode
2061:4252035
2039:Bibcode
1998:Bibcode
1947:Bibcode
1856:Bibcode
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983:apatite
948:Apatite
816:thorium
812:uranium
782:igneous
688:In situ
661:mineral
656:rocks.
518:is the
242:tritium
187:nuclide
173:in the
171:protons
151:ÎČ decay
147:α decay
107:fossils
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832:ionium
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692:ICP-MS
678:(see:
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550:closed
448:where
384:closed
339:, the
276:, and
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3806:Solar
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3299:S2CID
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282:clock
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36:rocks
3862:Maya
3597:Yuga
3497:Eras
3479:Time
3389:ISBN
3370:ISBN
3351:ISBN
3332:ISBN
3211:ISBN
3072:ISBN
3030:PMID
2971:ISBN
2868:2016
2756:2009
2718:PMID
2333:OCLC
2323:ISBN
2287:OCLC
2277:ISBN
2191:ISBN
2166:ISBN
1965:PMID
1914:ISBN
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