Dark energy - Knowledge

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postulate that cold dark matter decays into dark energy. Another class of theories that unifies dark matter and dark energy are suggested to be covariant theories of modified gravities. These theories alter the dynamics of spacetime such that the modified dynamics stems to what have been assigned to the presence of dark energy and dark matter. Dark energy could in principle interact not only with the rest of the dark sector, but also with ordinary matter. However, cosmology alone is not sufficient to effectively constrain the strength of the coupling between dark energy and baryons, so that other indirect techniques or laboratory searches have to be adopted. It was briefly theorized in the early 2020s that excess observed in the

2217: 3438:. p. 44: "Much later, when I was discussing cosmological problems with Einstein, he remarked that the introduction of the cosmological term was the biggest blunder he ever made in his life." – Here the "cosmological term" refers to the cosmological constant in the equations of general relativity, whose value Einstein initially picked to ensure that his model of the universe would neither expand nor contract; if he had not done this he might have theoretically predicted the universal expansion that was first observed by Edwin Hubble. 836:. Such expansion is an essential feature of most current models of the Big Bang. However, inflation must have occurred at a much higher (negative) energy density than the dark energy we observe today, and inflation is thought to have completely ended when the universe was just a fraction of a second old. It is unclear what relation, if any, exists between dark energy and inflation. Even after inflationary models became accepted, the cosmological constant was thought to be irrelevant to the current universe. 1285: 2273: 8425: 568: 45: 7833: 2259: 8437: 1614: 1897:, aim to explain the observational data by a more refined use of established theories. In this scenario, dark energy does not actually exist, and is merely a measurement artifact. For example, if we are located in an emptier-than-average region of space, the observed cosmic expansion rate could be mistaken for a variation in time, or acceleration. A different approach uses a cosmological extension of the 580: 1189:. Some people argue that the only indications for the existence of dark energy are observations of distance measurements and their associated redshifts. Cosmic microwave background anisotropies and baryon acoustic oscillations serve only to demonstrate that distances to a given redshift are larger than would be expected from a "dusty" Friedmann–Lemaître universe and the local measured Hubble constant. 2245: 1385:. OHD directly tracks the expansion history of the universe by taking passively evolving early-type galaxies as "cosmic chronometers". From this point, this approach provides standard clocks in the universe. The core of this idea is the measurement of the differential age evolution as a function of redshift of these cosmic chronometers. Thus, it provides a direct estimate of the Hubble parameter 2231: 1124: 1581: 1075:). This can be understood intuitively: for an ordinary particle in a cube-shaped box, doubling the length of an edge of the box decreases the density (and hence energy density) by a factor of eight (2). For radiation, the decrease in energy density is greater, because an increase in spatial distance also causes a redshift. 3715:); Guy; Regnault; Pain; Aubourg; Balam; Basa; Carlberg; Fabbro; Fouchez; Hook; Howell; Lafoux; Neill; Palanque-Delabrouille; Perrett; Pritchet; Rich; Sullivan; Taillet; Aldering; Antilogus; Arsenijevic; Balland; Baumont; Bronder; Courtois; Ellis; Filiol; et al. (2006). "The Supernova legacy survey: Measurement of Ω 977:. Since it is rarefied and un-massive—roughly 10 kg/m—it is unlikely to be detectable in laboratory experiments. The reason dark energy can have such a profound effect on the universe, making up 68% of universal density in spite of being so dilute, is that it is believed to uniformly fill otherwise empty space. 808:

space itself, it would not be diluted as space expands. As more space comes into existence, more of this energy-of-space would appear, thereby causing accelerated expansion. These sorts of disturbances are inevitable, due to the uneven distribution of matter throughout the universe. Further, observations made by

1906:. Yet other possibilities are that the accelerated expansion of the universe is an illusion caused by the relative motion of us to the rest of the universe, or that the statistical methods employed were flawed. A laboratory direct detection attempt failed to detect any force associated with dark energy. 7517:

makes the comment "And actually, in the far future, everything we now see, except for our local galaxy and a region of galaxies will have disappeared. The entire universe will disappear before our very eyes, and it's one of my arguments for actually funding cosmology. We've got to do it while we have

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Kowalski, Marek; Rubin, David; Aldering, G.; Agostinho, R. J.; Amadon, A.; Amanullah, R.; Balland, C.; Barbary, K.; Blanc, G.; Challis, P. J.; Conley, A.; Connolly, N. V.; Covarrubias, R.; Dawson, K. S.; Deustua, S. E.; Ellis, R.; Fabbro, S.; Fadeyev, V.; Fan, X.; Farris, B.; Folatelli, G.; Frye, B.

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expansion, which would imply that the effective force of dark energy continues growing until it dominates all other forces in the universe. Under this scenario, dark energy would ultimately tear apart all gravitationally bound structures, including galaxies and solar systems, and eventually overcome

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began roughly 5 billion years ago. Before that, it is thought that the expansion was decelerating, due to the attractive influence of matter. The density of dark matter in an expanding universe decreases more quickly than dark energy, and eventually the dark energy dominates. Specifically, when

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This class of theories attempts to come up with an all-encompassing theory of both dark matter and dark energy as a single phenomenon that modifies the laws of gravity at various scales. This could, for example, treat dark energy and dark matter as different facets of the same unknown substance, or

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and the Supernova Legacy Survey. First results from the SNLS reveal that the average behavior (i.e., equation of state) of dark energy behaves like Einstein's cosmological constant to a precision of 10%. Recent results from the Hubble Space Telescope Higher-Z Team indicate that dark energy has been

941:(the relationship between temperature, pressure, and combined matter, energy, and vacuum energy density for any region of space). Measuring the equation of state for dark energy is one of the biggest efforts in observational cosmology today. Adding the cosmological constant to cosmology's standard 807:

is unstable: if the universe expands slightly, then the expansion releases vacuum energy, which causes yet more expansion. Likewise, a universe which contracts slightly will continue contracting. According to Einstein, "empty space" can possess its own energy. Because this energy is a property of

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Dark energy's status as a hypothetical force with unknown properties makes it an active target of research. The problem is attacked from a variety of angles, such as modifying the prevailing theory of gravity (general relativity), attempting to pin down the properties of dark energy, and finding

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Observational skepticism explanations of dark energy have generally not gained much traction among cosmologists. For example, a paper that suggested the anisotropy of the local Universe has been misrepresented as dark energy was quickly countered by another paper claiming errors in the original

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No evidence of quintessence is yet available, nor has it been ruled out. It generally predicts a slightly slower acceleration of the expansion of the universe than the cosmological constant. Some scientists think that the best evidence for quintessence would come from violations of Einstein's

2999:, Guidebook Part 2. p. 46. Retrieved 7 October 2013, "...dark energy: A smooth, persistent component of invisible energy, thought to make up about 70 percent of the energy density of the universe. Dark energy is smooth because it doesn't accumulate preferentially in galaxies and clusters..." 1901:

to show how space might appear to be expanding more rapidly in the voids surrounding our local cluster. While weak, such effects considered cumulatively over billions of years could become significant, creating the illusion of cosmic acceleration, and making it appear as if we live in a

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where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future because the light never reaches a point where its "peculiar velocity" toward us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in

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regularly of ≈150 Mpc diameter, surrounded by the galaxies, the voids were used as standard rulers to estimate distances to galaxies as far as 2,000 Mpc (redshift 0.6), allowing for accurate estimate of the speeds of galaxies from their redshift and distance. The data confirmed

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states that, while such alternatives gain mainstream press coverage, almost all professional astrophysicists are confident that dark energy exists and that none of the competing theories successfully explain observations to the same level of precision as standard dark energy.

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of dark energy. To that end, several models have been proposed. One of the most popular models is the Chevallier–Polarski–Linder model (CPL). Some other common models are (Barboza & Alcaniz. 2008), (Jassal et al. 2005), (Wetterich. 2004), and (Oztas et al. 2018).

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view this as support for their arguments. However, many models of quintessence have a so-called "tracker" behavior, which solves this problem. In these models, the quintessence field has a density which closely tracks (but is less than) the radiation density until

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tension) in all the universe causes an acceleration in the expansion if the universe is already expanding, or a deceleration in contraction if the universe is already contracting. This accelerating expansion effect is sometimes labeled "gravitational repulsion".

1027:. According to general relativity, the pressure within a substance contributes to its gravitational attraction for other objects just as its mass density does. This happens because the physical quantity that causes matter to generate gravitational effects is the 791:

that would lead to a static universe, effectively using dark energy to balance gravity. Einstein gave the cosmological constant the symbol Λ (capital lambda). Einstein stated that the cosmological constant required that 'empty space takes the role of gravitating

3523:; Aldering; Goldhaber; Knop; Nugent; Castro; Deustua; Fabbro; Goobar; Groom; Hook; Kim; Kim; Lee; Nunes; Pain; Pennypacker; Quimby; Lidman; Ellis; Irwin; McMahon; Ruiz-Lapuente; Walton; Schaefer; Boyle; Filippenko; Matheson; Fruchter; et al. (1999). 2053:

Projections into the future can differ radically for different models of dark energy. For a cosmological constant, or any other model that predicts that the acceleration will continue indefinitely, the ultimate result will be that galaxies outside the

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Aprile, E.; Abe, K.; Agostini, F.; Maouloud, S. Ahmed; Althueser, L.; Andrieu, B.; Angelino, E.; Angevaare, J. R.; Antochi, V. C.; Martin, D. Antón; Arneodo, F. (22 July 2022). "Search for New Physics in Electronic Recoil Data from XENONnT".

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The first appearance of the term "dark energy" is in the article with another cosmologist and Turner's student at the time, Dragan Huterer, "Prospects for Probing the Dark Energy via Supernova Distance Measurements", which was posted to the

1957:). The theory is called "cosmological coupling" because the black holes couple to a cosmological requirement. Other astrophysicists are skeptical, with a variety of papers claiming that the theory fails to explain other observations. 4388: 2153:". On the other hand, dark energy might dissipate with time or even become attractive. Such uncertainties leave open the possibility of gravity eventually prevailing and lead to a universe that contracts in on itself in a " 1883:

We're also seeing some potentially interesting differences that could indicate that dark energy is evolving over time. Those may or may not go away with more data, so we're excited to start analyzing our three-year dataset

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in 1929 showed that the universe appears to be expanding and is not static. Einstein reportedly referred to his failure to predict the idea of a dynamic universe, in contrast to a static universe, as his greatest blunder.

745:. A cosmological constant would remain constant across time and space, while scalar fields can vary. Yet other possibilities are interacting dark energy, an observational effect, and cosmological coupling (see the section 6061:

Ishak, Mustapha; Richardson, James; Garred, David; Whittington, Delilah; Nwankwo, Anthony; Sussman, Roberto (2008). "Dark Energy or Apparent Acceleration Due to a Relativistic Cosmological Model More Complex than FLRW?".

847:(CDM) and 5% ordinary matter (baryons). These models were found to be successful at forming realistic galaxies and clusters, but some problems appeared in the late 1980s: in particular, the model required a value for the 1258:

A 2011 survey, the WiggleZ galaxy survey of more than 200,000 galaxies, provided further evidence towards the existence of dark energy, although the exact physics behind it remains unknown. The WiggleZ survey from the

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gave strong evidence that the matter density is around 30% of critical. The large difference between these two supports a smooth component of dark energy making up the difference. Much more precise measurements from

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L.; Garavini, G.; Gates, E. L.; Germany, L.; Goldhaber, G.; Goldman, B.; Goobar, A.; Groom, D. E.; et al. (27 October 2008). "Improved Cosmological Constraints from New, Old and Combined Supernova Datasets".

1319:), as measured from the cosmic microwave background spectrum, accounts for only about 30% of the critical density. This implies the existence of an additional form of energy to account for the remaining 70%. The 2120:

of galaxies of which the Milky Way is a part, would all remain virtually undisturbed as the rest of the universe recedes and disappears from view. In this scenario, the Local Group would ultimately suffer

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also eliminates the need for dark energy. There are many such theories, and research is ongoing. The measurement of the speed of gravity in the first gravitational wave measured by non-gravitational means

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In standard cosmology, there are three components of the universe: matter, radiation, and dark energy. This matter is anything whose energy density scales with the inverse cube of the scale factor, i.e.,

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would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event were less than 16 billion light years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event were more than 16 billion light years away.

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Ho, Shirley; Hirata; Padmanabhan, Nikhil; Seljak, Uros; Bahcall, Neta (2008). "Correlation of cosmic microwave background with large-scale structure: I. ISW Tomography and Cosmological Implications".

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in the very early universe. Inflation postulates that some repulsive force, qualitatively similar to dark energy, resulted in an enormous and exponential expansion of the universe slightly after the

1879:(DESI) to make the largest 3-D map of the universe as of 2024, have obtained an expansion history that has greater than 1% precision. From this level of detail, DESI Director Michael Levi stated: 2763:

These results are robust – data from any one method can be removed without compromising the constraints – and they are not substantially weakened by dropping the assumption of spatial flatness.

803:, and it was later realized that Einstein's static universe would not be stable: local inhomogeneities would ultimately lead to either the runaway expansion or contraction of the universe. The 1204:. It is relatively easy to measure redshift, but finding the distance to an object is more difficult. Usually, astronomers use standard candles: objects for which the intrinsic brightness, or 1910:

paper. Another study questioning the essential assumption that the luminosity of Type Ia supernovae does not vary with stellar population age was also swiftly rebutted by other cosmologists.

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The nature of dark energy is more hypothetical than that of dark matter, and many things about it remain in the realm of speculation. Dark energy is thought to be very homogeneous and not

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up to half of the age of the universe (7 billion years) and constrain its inhomogeneity to 1 part in 10. This provides a confirmation to cosmic acceleration independent of supernovae.

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Giannantonio, Tommaso; Scranton, Ryan; Crittenden; Nichol; Boughn; Myers; Richards (2008). "Combined analysis of the integrated Sachs–Wolfe effect and cosmological implications".

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The density of dark energy might have varied in time during the history of the universe. Modern observational data allows us to estimate the present density of dark energy. Using

1728:. In the simplest scenarios, the quintessence field has a canonical kinetic term, is minimally coupled to gravity, and does not feature higher order operations in its Lagrangian. 776:. If considered as a "source term" in the field equation, it can be viewed as equivalent to the mass of empty space (which conceptually could be either positive or negative), or " 1391: 1196:

across cosmological distances. They allow researchers to measure the expansion history of the universe by looking at the relationship between the distance to an object and its

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Idicherian Lonappan, Anto; Kumar, Sumit; R, Ruchika; Ananda Sen, Anjan (21 February 2018). "Bayesian evidences for dark energy models in light of current observational data".

7351: 695:), much less than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within galaxies. However, it dominates the universe's mass–energy content because it is uniform across space. 8047: 7955: 1629:

The simplest explanation for dark energy is that it is an intrinsic, fundamental energy of space. This is the cosmological constant, usually represented by the Greek letter

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lower than preferred by observations, and the model under-predicted observations of large-scale galaxy clustering. These difficulties became stronger after the discovery of

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The final component is dark energy: it is an intrinsic property of space and has a constant energy density, regardless of the dimensions of the volume under consideration (

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Taken together, all the current data provide strong evidence for the existence of dark energy; they constrain the fraction of critical density contributed by dark energy,

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is decreasing with time, there can actually be cases where a galaxy that is receding from us faster than light does manage to emit a signal which reaches us eventually.

6475: 4125: 3645:, although the manner in which the term is treated there suggests it was already in general use. Cosmologist Saul Perlmutter has credited Turner with coining the term 1292:

The existence of dark energy, in whatever form, is needed to reconcile the measured geometry of space with the total amount of matter in the universe. Measurements of

3147: 1720:, referred to as quintessence field. Quintessence differs from the cosmological constant in that it can vary in space and time. In order for it not to clump and form 5284:

Krishnan, Chethan; Mohayaee, Roya; Colgáin, Eoin Ó; Sheikh-Jabbari, M. M.; Yin, Lu (16 September 2021). "Does Hubble Tension Signal a Breakdown in FLRW Cosmology?".

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O'Raifeartaigh, C.; O'Keeffe, M.; Nahm, W.; Mitton, S. (2017). 'Einstein's 1917 Static Model of the Universe: A Centennial Review'. Eur. Phys. J. (H) 42: 431–474.

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pass through them, producing cold spots and hot spots on the cosmic microwave background aligned with vast supervoids and superclusters. This so-called late-time

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asserts that there is a huge disagreement between the observed values of vacuum energy density and the theoretical large value of zero-point energy obtained by

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are required to understand how the expansion rate changes over time and space. In general relativity, the evolution of the expansion rate is estimated from the

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Sabulsky, D. O.; Dutta, I.; Hinds, E. A.; Elder, B.; Burrage, C.; Copeland, E. J. (2019). "Experiment to Detect Dark Energy Forces Using Atom Interferometry".

2017:, a suppression of gravitational attraction outside said galaxy. The suppression is in lieu of dark energy. This is analogous to the central phenomenology of 1698:

that no such state exists. This conjecture would not rule out other models of dark energy, such as quintessence, that could be compatible with string theory.

1806:, in which the energy density of quintessence actually increases with time, and k-essence (short for kinetic quintessence) which has a non-standard form of 1568:

measures it directly. For these reasons, this method has been widely used to examine the accelerated cosmic expansion and study properties of dark energy.

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universe that is the basic assumption of modern cosmology), then one finds that black holes gain mass as the universe expands. The rate is measured to be

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Cai, Yi-Fu; Saridakis, Emmanuel N.; Setare, Mohammed R.; Xia, Jun-Qing (22 April 2010). "Quintom Cosmology – theoretical implications and observations".

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Deur, Alexandre (2019). "An explanation for dark matter and dark energy consistent with the Standard Model of particle physics and General Relativity".

2845:; Alves, M. I. R.; et al. (Planck Collaboration) (22 March 2013). "Planck 2013 results. I. Overview of products and scientific results – Table 9". 8475: 7506: 6692: 5491: 4045: 540: 4021: 8132: 8112: 4152: 7306: 3405: 6869:

Ghodla, Sohan; Easther, Richard; Briel, M. M.; Eldridge, J. J. (20 July 2023). "Observational implications of cosmologically coupled black holes".

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Lombriser, Lucas; Lima, Nelson (2017). "Challenges to Self-Acceleration in Modified Gravity from Gravitational Waves and Large-Scale Structure".

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observations of the cosmic microwave background gave a more accurate estimate of 68.3% dark energy, 26.8% dark matter, and 4.9% ordinary matter.

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Yi, Zelong; Zhang, Tongjie (2007). "Constraints on holographic dark energy models using the differential ages of passively evolving galaxies".

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in the cosmic microwave background, showing that the total (matter+energy) density is close to 100% of critical density. Then in 2001, the

610: 3877: 3649: 3078: 2094:), the current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light years, meaning that a signal from an event happening 881:, and the Lambda-CDM model then became the leading model. Soon after, dark energy was supported by independent observations: in 2000, the 8027: 7240: 2087: 2071: 1737: 5231:

Caldwell, R. R. (2002). "A phantom menace? Cosmological consequences of a dark energy component with super-negative equation of state".

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Marcondes, Rafael J. F. (5 October 2016). "Interacting dark energy models in Cosmology and large-scale structure observational tests".

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Helbig, Phillip (2020). "Sonne und Mond, or, the good, the bad, and the ugly: comments on the debate between MOND and LambdaCDM".

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Wan, Haoyi; Yi, Zelong; Zhang, Tongjie; Zhou, Jie (2007). "Constraints on the DGP Universe Using Observational Hubble parameter".

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and energy in the universe would cause the universe's expansion to slow over time. Since the discovery of accelerating expansion,

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theories require a cosmological constant that is exactly zero. Also, it is unknown whether there is a metastable vacuum state in

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brings more information and is appealing for computation: It can minimize many common issues and systematic effects. Analyses of

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Colin, Jacques; Mohayaee, Roya; Rameez, Mohamed; Sakar, Subir (22 July 2019). "Evidence for anisotropy of cosmic acceleration".

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However, because of the accelerating expansion, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological

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is halved, but the density of dark energy is nearly unchanged (it is exactly constant in the case of a cosmological constant).

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would never have had time to form, and life, at least as we know it, would never have had a chance to exist. Proponents of the

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estimated a universe made up of 72.8% dark energy, 22.7% dark matter, and 4.5% ordinary matter. Work done in 2013 based on the

1212:. Type Ia supernovae are the best-known standard candles across cosmological distances because of their extreme and consistent 952:

As of 2013, the Lambda-CDM model is consistent with a series of increasingly rigorous cosmological observations, including the

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and a mixed cold/hot dark matter model. The first direct evidence for dark energy came from supernova observations in 1998 of

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Estimated division of total energy in the universe into matter, dark matter and dark energy based on five years of WMAP data.

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Perlmutter, S.; Turner, M.; White, M. (1999). "Constraining Dark Energy with Type Ia Supernovae and Large-Scale Structure".

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Recent observations of supernovae are consistent with a universe made up 71.3% of dark energy and 27.4% of a combination of

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The evidence for dark energy is heavily dependent on the theory of general relativity. Therefore, it is conceivable that a

1953:. This particular rate means that the energy density of black holes remains constant over time, mimicking dark energy (see 1876: 1795:

has been proved that this scenario requires models with at least two types of quintessence. This scenario is the so-called

1320: 344: 2105:, to the point where the wavelength becomes too large to detect in practice and the galaxies appear to vanish completely ( 2101:

As galaxies approach the point of crossing this cosmological event horizon, the light from them will become more and more

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have constant luminosity, which means that they can be used as accurate distance measures. Comparing this distance to the

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Sami, M.; Myrzakulov, R. (2015). "Late time cosmic acceleration: ABCD of dark energy and modified theories of gravity".

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Simon, Joan; Verde, Licia; Jimenez, Raul (2005). "Constraints on the redshift dependence of the dark energy potential".

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Frieman, Joshua A.; Turner, Michael S.; Huterer, Dragan (1 January 2008). "Dark Energy and the Accelerating Universe".

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Nearly all inflation models predict that the total (matter+energy) density of the universe should be very close to the

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models of dark energy, the observed acceleration of the scale factor is caused by the potential energy of a dynamical

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Independently of its actual nature, dark energy would need to have a strong negative pressure to explain the observed

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spacecraft in 1992, and several modified CDM models came under active study through the mid-1990s: these included the

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in 2003–2010 have continued to support the standard model and give more accurate measurements of the key parameters.

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of cosmology is correct, dark energy dominates the universe, contributing 68% of the total energy in the present-day

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too large. This would need to be almost, but not exactly, cancelled by an equally large term of the opposite sign.

843:. During the 1980s, most cosmological research focused on models with critical density in matter only, usually 95% 603: 3854: 2216: 8270: 8260: 8245: 8182: 2109: 186: 8037: 6325: 4685:

Ma, Cong; Zhang, Tongjie (2011). "Power of observational Hubble parameter data: a figure of merit exploration".

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The exact nature of dark energy remains a mystery, and possible explanations abound. The main candidates are a

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that continually increases with time, eventually far exceeding the speed of light. This is not a violation of

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Krauss, Lawrence M.; Scherrer, Robert J. (2007). "The Return of a Static Universe and the End of Cosmology".

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Huterer, D.; Turner, M. (1999). "Prospects for probing the dark energy via supernova distance measurements".

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they wrote together with Martin White, where it is introduced in quotation marks as if it were a neologism.

2575: 2511: 1501:{\displaystyle H(z)=-{\frac {1}{1+z}}{\frac {dz}{dt}}\approx -{\frac {1}{1+z}}{\frac {\Delta z}{\Delta t}}.} 8743: 8441: 8275: 8192: 8022: 8017: 8002: 7812: 1859: 1668: 1541: 1340: 1308: 1264: 1135: 1065:, while radiation is anything whose energy density scales to the inverse fourth power of the scale factor ( 890: 840: 2074:

for a discussion of the subtleties of defining any notion of relative velocity in cosmology). Because the

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In 2004, when scientists fit the evolution of dark energy with the cosmological data, they found that the

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Since then, these observations have been corroborated by several independent sources. Measurements of the

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is a direct signal of dark energy in a flat universe. It was reported at high significance in 2008 by Ho

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Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics

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Carroll, Sean M. (1998). "Quintessence and the Rest of the World: Suppressing Long-Range Interactions".

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Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics

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within a galaxy due to General Relativity's field self-interaction. The increased binding requires, by

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of the Universe began when it did. If acceleration began earlier in the universe, structures such as

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in the energy-time formulation, has been often invoked as the main contribution to dark energy. The

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field self-interaction dramatically strengthens the binding of quarks, ultimately leading to their

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The theoretical need for a type of additional energy that is not matter or dark matter to form the

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Tsagas, Christos G. (2011). "Peculiar motions, accelerated expansion, and the cosmological axis".

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

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had possibly crossed the cosmological constant boundary (w = −1) from above to below. A

8607: 8542: 7940: 7892: 6060: 3712: 3456:"Observational evidence from supernovae for an accelerating universe and a cosmological constant" 2312: 1894: 1811: 1370:

data (OHD), also known as cosmic chronometers, has gained significant attention in recent years.

1255:), also suggests that the density of matter in the universe is only 30% of the critical density. 301: 181: 6265: 5434:"Do we have any hope of detecting scattering between dark energy and baryons through cosmology?" 3009:

Steinhardt, Paul J.; Turok, Neil (2006). "Why the cosmological constant is small and positive".

2075: 1200:, which gives how fast it is receding from us. The relationship is roughly linear, according to 828:

proposed in 1980 that a negative pressure field, similar in concept to dark energy, could drive

8761: 8711: 4099: 3884: 3646: 3070: 2170: 2042: 1753: 1713: 1707: 1151: 864: 738: 8598: 4277: 4261: 2194: 2009:

a suppression of gravity as large distance. Such suppression is a consequence of an increased

7925: 7822: 6683:"New evidence shows that the key assumption made in the discovery of dark energy is in error" 5125:

Steinhardt, Paul J.; Wang, Li-Min; Zlatev, Ivaylo (1999). "Cosmological tracking solutions".

4744: 4381:"Big Bang's afterglow shows universe is 80 million years older than scientists first thought" 2091: 1898: 1764: 1733: 1676: 1602: 1304: 1031:, which contains both the energy (or matter) density of a substance and its pressure. In the 1020: 1001: 985: 934: 800: 765: 730: 715: 506: 308: 250: 7263: 6581: 4067:"Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) three year results: implications for cosmology" 3987: 3746: 2933: 2870: 2070:, which is still constrained to be less than the speed of light for any massive object (see 8783: 8667: 8659: 8624: 8429: 8197: 7945: 7867: 7782: 7743: 7699: 7656: 7595: 7459: 7406: 7327: 7271: 7259: 7205: 7057: 7002: 6942: 6888: 6737: 6634: 6577: 6516: 6418: 6361: 6230: 6177: 6134: 6081: 6019: 5908: 5867: 5820: 5765: 5708: 5647: 5594: 5533: 5455: 5398: 5303: 5250: 5197: 5144: 5089: 5034: 4981: 4820: 4763: 4704: 4651: 4598: 4543: 4490: 4429: 4235: 4171: 4091: 3983: 3931: 3830: 3742: 3677: 3620: 3546: 3477: 3371: 3290: 3192: 3028: 2929: 2866: 2807: 2341: 1672: 1013: 882: 519: 491: 313: 4298: 3372:"Volume 7: The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918-1921 (English translation supplement) page 31" 2125:, just as was hypothesized for the flat, matter-dominated universe before measurements of 957:

present for at least 9 billion years and during the period preceding cosmic acceleration.

8: 8702: 8678: 8235: 4052:. Perlmutter got half the prize, and the other half was shared between Schmidt and Riess. 2264: 2066:

because the notion of "velocity" used here is different from that of velocity in a local

2014: 1772: 1680: 1273: 1049: 804: 734: 652: 411: 381: 328: 284: 176: 66: 7703: 7660: 7599: 7463: 7410: 7209: 7061: 7006: 6946: 6892: 6741: 6638: 6520: 6422: 6365: 6234: 6181: 6138: 6085: 6023: 5912: 5871: 5824: 5769: 5712: 5651: 5598: 5537: 5459: 5402: 5307: 5254: 5201: 5148: 5093: 5038: 4985: 4824: 4767: 4708: 4655: 4602: 4547: 4494: 4433: 4239: 4175: 4095: 3935: 3834: 3681: 3624: 3551: 3482: 3295: 3197: 3032: 2811: 451: 8690: 7950: 7910: 7672: 7646: 7619: 7585: 7475: 7449: 7422: 7396: 7275: 7249: 7195: 7073: 7047: 7020: 7015: 6992: 6978: 6958: 6932: 6904: 6878: 6755: 6727: 6660: 6624: 6593: 6567: 6540: 6506: 6469: 6439: 6408: 6396: 6377: 6351: 6246: 6220: 6150: 6124: 6097: 6071: 6043: 6009: 5836: 5810: 5783: 5755: 5724: 5698: 5671: 5637: 5610: 5584: 5557: 5523: 5445: 5414: 5388: 5359: 5327: 5293: 5266: 5240: 5213: 5187: 5160: 5134: 5058: 5024: 4997: 4971: 4836: 4810: 4781: 4753: 4720: 4694: 4667: 4641: 4614: 4588: 4559: 4533: 4506: 4480: 4453: 4419: 4251: 4225: 4195: 4161: 4117: 4081: 3999: 3974:

Paál, G.; et al. (1992). "Inflation and compactification from galaxy redshifts?".

3955: 3921: 3846: 3820: 3758: 3732: 3710: 3693: 3667: 3636: 3610: 3566: 3536: 3497: 3467: 3351: 3315: 3280: 3212: 3182: 3142: 3052: 3018: 2945: 2919: 2882: 2856: 2823: 2797: 2335: 2250: 2173:(10) years. While none of these are supported by observations, they are not ruled out. 2063: 2018: 1847: 1725: 1651: 1209: 1205: 1178: 993: 970: 825: 773: 698:

The first observational evidence for dark energy's existence came from measurements of

624: 471: 441: 406: 376: 323: 267: 36: 6774: 6189: 5575:

Chevallier, M; Polarski, D (2001). "Accelerating Universes with Scaling Dark Matter".

5262: 4740:"Constraints on the dark side of the universe and observational Hubble parameter data" 4410:

Crittenden; Neil Turok (1996). "Looking for $ \Lambda$ with the Rees-Sciama Effect".

3842: 8496: 8395: 8280: 7802: 7797: 7676: 7611: 7576: 7479: 7217: 7077: 7024: 6962: 6908: 6759: 6678: 6664: 6652: 6597: 6544: 6532: 6444: 6381: 6211:

Wiltshire, D. (2008). "Cosmological equivalence principle and the weak-field limit".

6193: 6101: 6035: 5974: 5940: 5840: 5778: 5743: 5728: 5663: 5561: 5549: 5418: 5331: 5319: 5217: 5107: 5050: 5001: 4959: 4902: 4801: 4724: 4716: 4671: 4457: 4445: 4255: 4187: 4003: 3947: 3762: 3697: 3570: 3320: 3216: 3044: 2949: 2886: 2827: 2788: 2307: 2287: 2186: 2026: 1863: 1830: 1694:

with a positive cosmological constant, and it has been conjectured by Ulf Danielsson

1328: 1139: 953: 910: 718:. Prior to this observation, scientists thought that the gravitational attraction of 703: 501: 8453: 7279: 6250: 6154: 6000:

Wiltshire, David L. (2007). "Exact Solution to the Averaging Problem in Cosmology".

5675: 5614: 5164: 5062: 4840: 4785: 4563: 4510: 4350: 4199: 3959: 3640: 3502: 3056: 1263:

scanned the galaxies to determine their redshift. Then, by exploiting the fact that

8730: 8562: 8354: 7930: 7877: 7807: 7787: 7664: 7623: 7603: 7467: 7426: 7414: 7267: 7213: 7069: 7065: 7010: 6950: 6896: 6745: 6642: 6585: 6528: 6524: 6434: 6426: 6369: 6238: 6185: 6142: 6089: 6047: 6027: 5966: 5916: 5875: 5832: 5828: 5787: 5773: 5720: 5716: 5655: 5628:

Linder, Eric V. (3 March 2003). "Exploring the Expansion History of the Universe".

5602: 5545: 5541: 5463: 5406: 5311: 5270: 5258: 5205: 5152: 5097: 5042: 4989: 4828: 4771: 4712: 4663: 4659: 4618: 4606: 4551: 4498: 4437: 4273: 4243: 4179: 4121: 4109: 3991: 3939: 3850: 3838: 3750: 3685: 3628: 3556: 3487: 3310: 3300: 3202: 3036: 2937: 2874: 2815: 1796: 1654:

predicts that this energy will have a gravitational effect. It is sometimes called

1634: 1300: 1268: 1186: 1163: 1096:

The evidence for dark energy is indirect but comes from three independent sources:

860: 844: 829: 742: 648: 584: 386: 222: 91: 6589: 6168:

Clifton, Timothy; Ferreira, Pedro (April 2009). "Does Dark Energy Really Exist?".

6031: 5935:

Clowe, Douglas; Simard, Luc, "First Results from the ESO Distant Cluster Survey",

5659: 5209: 4330: 2941: 2878: 2737: is constant. This implies that the Universe began accelerating at redshift 925:

Diagram representing the accelerated expansion of the universe due to dark energy.

396: 371: 8633: 8410: 8295: 7792: 7567: 7510: 7499: 7334: 6329: 5965:, Eso Astrophysics Symposia, Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, pp. 69–74, 4931: 4337: 4049: 3754: 3653: 3596: 3520: 3264: 2059: 1971: 1757: 1367: 1201: 1193: 1159: 875: 848: 784: 737:(dynamic quantities having energy densities that vary in time and space) such as 711: 511: 446: 431: 416: 401: 391: 255: 152: 7668: 5046: 1185:, as well as improved measurements of supernovae, have been consistent with the 8578: 8349: 7935: 7418: 6750: 6715: 6647: 6612: 6373: 6242: 6093: 5315: 5156: 4832: 4555: 4502: 4441: 3972:

The first paper, using observed data, which claimed a positive Lambda term was

3689: 3632: 3131: 2901: 2842: 2819: 2278: 2222: 2198: 2190: 2142: 2133: 2010: 1826: 1815: 1807: 1803: 1745: 788: 660: 496: 456: 7471: 6954: 6900: 6146: 5606: 5410: 4993: 4610: 3207: 3170: 2197:

hypothesis, that is, a hypothesis that adds no empirical content and hence is

2132:

There are other, more speculative ideas about the future of the universe. The

1104:, which suggest the universe has expanded more in the latter half of its life. 1088:). Thus, unlike ordinary matter, it is not diluted by the expansion of space. 8777: 8550: 8518: 8405: 8385: 8177: 8127: 7965: 6656: 5323: 5102: 5077: 5054: 2411:

The evolution of the scale factor is controlled by the dominant energy form:

2322: 2182: 2146: 2082: 2030: 1792: 1749: 1691: 1687: 1656: 1284: 1167: 981: 793: 777: 710:(which measures the speed at which the supernova is receding) shows that the 481: 466: 366: 7607: 5921: 5896: 5468: 5433: 3040: 7615: 7514: 7128: 6829: 6536: 6448: 6197: 6039: 5880: 5855: 5801:

Wetterich, C. (2004). "Phenomenological parameterization of quintessence".

5689:

Barboza, E.M.; Alcaniz, J.S. (2008). "A parametric model for dark energy".

5667: 5553: 4449: 4269: 4191: 4183: 3951: 3943: 3324: 3048: 2236: 2158: 1989: 1985:) ruled out many modified gravity theories as explanations to dark energy. 1950: 1781: 1741: 1717: 906: 809: 486: 461: 436: 421: 277: 6293:"Is Einstein's Greatest Work All Wrong – Because He Didn't Go Far Enough?" 5111: 4776: 4739: 3450: 1850:

model of dark energy, but further experiments disproved this possibility.

1114:

Measurements of large-scale wave patterns of mass density in the universe.

8650: 8344: 8336: 7920: 7857: 7766: 7726: 7401: 7387:

Loeb, Abraham (2002). "The Long-Term Future of Extragalactic Astronomy".

5815: 5760: 5642: 5245: 5139: 5029: 4815: 4593: 4424: 4086: 3909: 3737: 3672: 3615: 3589: 3541: 3472: 3285: 3187: 3023: 2297: 2202: 2117: 2055: 2047: 1935: 1923: 1316: 1307:

to be flat, the mass–energy density of the universe must be equal to the

1220: 733:(representing a constant energy density filling space homogeneously) and 692: 663:

matter contribute 26% and 5%, respectively, and other components such as

656: 234: 20: 5960: 5897:"The effects of a varying cosmological constant on the particle horizon" 5379:

Exirifard, Q. (2011). "Phenomenological covariant approach to gravity".

3305: 8722: 8719: 8375: 8212: 8062: 7915: 7872: 7590: 7571: 7157:"What Astronomers Wish Everyone Knew About Dark Matter And Dark Energy" 5970: 5345: 3995: 3825: 3808: 3451: 2904:; Alves, M. I. R.; et al. (Planck Collaboration) (31 March 2013). 2166: 2154: 1296: 1213: 868: 852: 476: 8400: 7292: 6430: 5589: 2272: 2185:

identifies dark energy as an example of an "auxiliary hypothesis", an

1913: 1584:

The equation of state of Dark Energy for 4 common models by Redshift.

8739: 8589: 8534: 8359: 8316: 8107: 6322: 5484:"A new dark matter experiment quashed earlier hints of new particles" 5432:

Vagnozzi, Sunny; Visinelli, Luca; Mena, Olga; Mota, David F. (2020).

5283: 4212: 3778:"Astronomers Report Evidence of 'Dark Energy' Splitting the Universe" 2758: 2189:

postulate that is added to a theory in response to observations that

2113: 1931: 1537: 1366:

A new approach to test evidence of dark energy through observational

1143: 821: 699: 628: 426: 4523: 2205:. However, his opinion is not accepted by a majority of physicists. 8698: 8641: 8067: 7651: 7200: 7096: 7052: 6997: 6883: 6732: 6687: 6629: 6572: 6511: 6413: 6397:"Marginal evidence for cosmic acceleration from Type Ia supernovae" 5528: 5450: 5364: 5298: 4976: 4247: 4113: 3561: 3525:"Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 high redshift supernovae" 3524: 3519: 3492: 3455: 2971:"First Planck results: the Universe is still weird and interesting" 2802: 2785: 2162: 2102: 1982: 1777: 1382: 1197: 1128: 1101: 833: 707: 664: 640: 159: 61: 54: 7454: 7254: 6937: 6356: 6225: 6129: 6076: 6014: 5703: 5393: 5192: 4758: 4699: 4646: 4538: 4485: 4230: 4166: 3926: 3356: 2924: 2861: 2157:", or that there may even be a dark energy cycle, which implies a 1996: 945:

leads to the Lambda-CDM model, which has been referred to as the "

8300: 8172: 5078:"Cosmological consequences of a rolling homogeneous scalar field" 2150: 1819: 1724:

like matter, the field must be very light so that it has a large

1000:

force. Hence, the vacuum energy is expected to contribute to the

997: 974: 966: 726:

have been discovered that support the existence of dark energy.

672: 7092:"Quest to settle riddle over Einstein's theory may soon be over" 4150:

Durrer, R. (2011). "What do we really know about dark energy?".

1760:

theory predicts that scalar fields should acquire large masses.

754: 8157: 8032: 6464:"The universe is expanding at an accelerating rate – or is it?" 3878:"Cosmology: Part III Mathematical Tripos, Cambridge University" 2022: 1825:

A group of researchers argued in 2021 that observations of the

1768: 1661: 1637:). Since energy and mass are related according to the equation 1622: 1618: 1344: 1312: 1248: 1244: 1224: 1192:

Supernovae are useful for cosmology because they are excellent

719: 668: 636: 7735: 4065:

Spergel, D. N.; et al. (WMAP collaboration) (June 2007).

3137:"Cosmos Controversy: The Universe Is Expanding, but How Fast?" 2899: 2840: 1544:(BAO) are based on integrals of the Hubble parameter, whereas 921: 8321: 8207: 8202: 8052: 8007: 7852: 7847: 7720: 1843: 1613: 1239:, which governs the formation of structures in the universe ( 1150:

followed by suggesting that the expansion of the universe is

7560: 6395:

Nielsen, J. T.; Guffanti, A.; Sarkar, S. (21 October 2016).

5744:"Understanding the origin of CMB constraints on Dark Energy" 3350:

Harvey, Alex (2012). "How Einstein Discovered Dark Energy".

2036: 1035:, it can be shown that a strong constant negative pressure ( 44: 8167: 8162: 8087: 8042: 8012: 2487:{\displaystyle \;a(t)\propto t^{{\frac {2}{3}}(1+w)^{-1}}~} 1926:(which describes rotating black holes) to asymptote to the 1240: 899: 889:

cosmic microwave background experiments observed the first

6868: 3809:"The quantum vacuum and the cosmological constant problem" 2995:

Sean Carroll, Ph.D., Caltech, 2007, The Teaching Company,

2230: 2149:

to tear apart atoms themselves, ending the universe in a "

1334: 1127:

A Type Ia supernova (bright spot on the bottom-left) near

1123: 643:

on the largest scales. Its primary effect is to drive the

8509: 7531:. Vol. End of the Universe. Discovery Channel. 2014. 7328:

Is the universe expanding faster than the speed of light?

6977:

Joyce, Austin; Lombriser, Lucas; Schmidt, Fabian (2016).

6805:"Wait... Did We Finally Find the Source of Dark Energy?!" 6468:

University of Oxford – News & Events – Science Blog (

5512: 5431: 4871: 4470: 2329:

Quintessence: The Search for Missing Mass in the Universe

787:

as a mechanism to obtain a solution to the gravitational

6557: 4853:

by Ehsan Sadri Astrophysics MSc, Azad University, Tehran

1311:. The total amount of matter in the universe (including 796:

which are distributed all over the interstellar space'.

16:

Energy driving the accelerated expansion of the universe

7293:

Krauss, Lawrence M.; Scherrer, Robert J. (March 2008).

6496: 2997:

Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe

1960: 1922:

in February 2023. The idea is that if one requires the

1829:

may imply that only quintessence models with a nonzero

1580: 7124:"Theoretical battle: Dark energy vs. modified gravity" 6834:"Ask Ethan: Can black holes really cause dark energy?" 6167: 5939:, Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, pp. 69–74, 4284:, of 0.274+0.016–0.016(stat)+0.013–0.012(sys) with an 949:" because of its precise agreement with observations. 8483: 7543:"'Cyclic universe' can explain cosmological constant" 6976: 6394: 5177: 3912:(2011). "What do we really know about Dark Energy?". 3657: 2653: 2578: 2514: 2422: 1660:

because it is the energy density of empty space – of

1394: 1361: 7723:, a mission to map the geometry of the dark universe 7237: 5124: 4927:"Dark energy may be incompatible with string theory" 4409: 2212: 1577:

alternative ways to explain the observational data.

7637:Merritt, David (2017). "Cosmology and convention". 7574:(25 April 2002). "A Cyclic Model of the Universe". 7566: 6849:"No, black holes are not the source of dark energy" 6115:Mattsson, Teppo (2010). "Dark energy as a mirage". 2365:The Universe has gone through three distinct eras: 2193:it. He argues that the dark energy hypothesis is a 2046:the volume of the universe doubles, the density of 2031:

suppresses the Strong Nuclear Force outside hadrons

1914:

As a general relativistic effect due to black holes

759: 5574: 4957: 3135: 2692: 2618: 2554: 2486: 1500: 969:, and is not known to interact through any of the 7502:. Science Friday, 3 April 2009. According to the 6677: 6323:'Accelerating universe' could be just an illusion 5962:First Results from the ESO Distant Cluster Survey 5748:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 5438:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4798: 4357:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 4340:, Swinburne University of Technology, 19 May 2011 4153:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 3973: 3966: 2965: 2963: 2361:Taken from Frieman, Turner, & Huterer (2008): 1918:This theory was formulated by researchers of the 8775: 4958:Danielsson, Ulf; Van Riet, Thomas (April 2018). 2631:and for the dark energy-dominated era, assuming 916: 783:The cosmological constant was first proposed by 7349: 6114: 4960:"What if string theory has no de Sitter vacua?" 4373: 4288:w of −0.969+0.059–0.063(stat)+0.063–0.066(sys). 3806: 3008: 2893: 1997:Non-linearities of General Relativity equations 909:'s "dark matter" from the 1930s, was coined by 7493:Using Tiny Particles To Answer Giant Questions 7439: 7350:Lineweaver, Charles; Davis, Tamara M. (2005). 6922: 5688: 5277: 4631: 4064: 2960: 2834: 1853: 1279: 996:implies that the vacuum energy should exert a 8469: 7751: 7037: 6984:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 6775:"Has Dark Energy Been Debunked? Probably Not" 6671: 6610: 5853: 3600: 3515: 3513: 2503: ). During the radiation-dominated era, 1870: 1381:), is measured as a function of cosmological 1111:(absence of any detectable global curvature). 755:History of discovery and previous speculation 604: 6707: 5075: 4920: 4918: 4738:Zhang, Tongjie; Ma, Cong; Lan, Tian (2010). 4206: 3349: 3168: 1846:detector in Italy may have been caused by a 1100:Distance measurements and their relation to 1004:, which in turn impinges on the accelerated 747: 7241:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 5958: 5741: 5008: 4864:"Planck reveals an almost perfect universe" 4074:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 3171:"The cosmological constant and dark energy" 3124: 2176: 2090:). Assuming the dark energy is constant (a 1888: 816: 8476: 8462: 7758: 7744: 7233: 7231: 7229: 7227: 4896: 4737: 4149: 3908: 3510: 3259: 3257: 2654: 2579: 2515: 2423: 1893:Some alternatives to dark energy, such as 1836: 1571: 1033:Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric 855:in the cosmic microwave background by the 768:" is a constant term that can be added to 748:Dark energy § Theories of dark energy 723: 611: 597: 43: 7650: 7589: 7453: 7400: 7253: 7199: 7051: 7014: 6996: 6936: 6925:International Journal of Modern Physics D 6882: 6749: 6731: 6646: 6628: 6571: 6510: 6461: 6438: 6412: 6355: 6224: 6210: 6128: 6075: 6013: 5999: 5920: 5879: 5814: 5800: 5777: 5759: 5702: 5641: 5588: 5577:International Journal of Modern Physics D 5527: 5467: 5449: 5392: 5378: 5363: 5357: 5297: 5244: 5191: 5138: 5101: 5076:Ratra, Bharat; Peebles, P. J. E. (1988). 5028: 4975: 4964:International Journal of Modern Physics D 4924: 4915: 4814: 4775: 4757: 4698: 4645: 4592: 4537: 4484: 4423: 4229: 4165: 4103: 4085: 3925: 3824: 3736: 3671: 3614: 3560: 3550: 3540: 3501: 3491: 3481: 3471: 3355: 3314: 3304: 3294: 3284: 3206: 3196: 3186: 3181:(2). American Physical Society: 559–606. 3169:Peebles, P. J. E.; Ratra, Bharat (2003). 3022: 2989: 2923: 2860: 2801: 2678: 2037:Implications for the fate of the universe 1954: 1511:The reliance on a differential quantity, 7345: 7343: 6490: 6455: 6266:"Dark questions remain over dark energy" 5854:Oztas, A.; Dil, E.; Smith, M.L. (2018). 5230: 3446: 3444: 3436:My World Line: An Informal Autobiography 3343: 2693:{\displaystyle \;a(t)\propto e^{H\,t}~.} 1612: 1596: 1579: 1283: 1230: 1122: 1091: 920: 7636: 7224: 7179: 6321:Wolchover, Natalie (27 September 2011) 5014: 4897:Wess, Julius; Bagger, Jonathan (1992). 4684: 4576: 4326: 4324: 4060: 4058: 3775: 3263: 3254: 3229: 3162: 3130: 1802:Some special cases of quintessence are 1335:Late-time integrated Sachs–Wolfe effect 1299:indicate that the universe is close to 1170:for their leadership in the discovery. 1043: 8776: 7689: 7272:10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145243 7154: 6828: 6611:Rubin, D.; Heitlauf, J. (6 May 2020). 6388: 6341: 6290: 5627: 4143: 3902: 3099: 2619:{\displaystyle \;a(t)\propto t^{2/3}~} 2555:{\displaystyle \;a(t)\propto t^{1/2}~} 2303:De Sitter invariant special relativity 2007:accelerating expansion of the universe 1738:variation of the fundamental constants 645:accelerating expansion of the universe 8457: 7739: 7729:by Roberto Trotta and Richard Bower, 7521: 7340: 6846: 6462:Gillespie, Stuart (21 October 2016). 5894: 4939:from the original on 15 November 2020 4351:"Content of the Universe – Pie Chart" 3857:from the original on 30 November 2010 3723:and W from the first year data set". 3441: 2709:and the equation-of-state parameter: 1763:The coincidence problem asks why the 724:several independent lines of evidence 671:are nearly negligible. Dark energy's 8436: 7386: 7185: 7136:from the original on 28 October 2017 7104:from the original on 28 October 2017 6772: 6713: 6695:from the original on 13 January 2020 6303:from the original on 28 January 2013 6272:from the original on 15 January 2013 6263: 5959:Clowe, Douglas; Simard, Luc (2002), 4925:Wolchover, Natalie (9 August 2018). 4878:from the original on 6 December 2013 4355:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 4321: 4260:. They find a best-fit value of the 4055: 3807:Rugh, S.E.; Zinkernagel, H. (2002). 3704: 2293:Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument 1961:Other mechanism driving acceleration 1877:Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument 1814:. They can have unusual properties: 1339:Accelerated cosmic expansion causes 1321:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 7352:"Misconceptions about the Big Bang" 5494:from the original on 26 August 2022 4856: 4361:from the original on 18 August 2018 4299:"New method 'confirms dark energy'" 4010: 3875: 1965: 1349:Integrated Sachs–Wolfe effect (ISW) 1261:Australian Astronomical Observatory 1183:large-scale structure of the cosmos 929:High-precision measurements of the 13: 7442:General Relativity and Gravitation 7309:from the original on 19 March 2011 7167:from the original on 11 April 2018 7016:10.1146/annurev-nucl-102115-044553 6979:"Dark Energy vs. Modified Gravity" 6714:Kang, Yijung; et al. (2020). 5381:General Relativity and Gravitation 4024:from the original on 1 August 2012 3376:einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu 1978:modification to general relativity 1486: 1478: 1362:Observational Hubble constant data 1016:; the problem remains unresolved. 339:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 14: 8830: 7714: 6785:from the original on 2 March 2020 6478:from the original on 26 July 2017 6190:10.1038/scientificamerican0409-48 4309:from the original on 15 June 2018 4131:from the original on 6 April 2020 4018:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011" 3788:from the original on 26 June 2015 3150:from the original on 4 April 2019 2567:during the matter-dominated era, 1928:Friedmann-Robertson-Walker metric 554:Timeline of cosmological theories 319:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 8435: 8424: 8423: 7831: 7683: 7630: 7535: 7486: 7433: 7380: 7321: 7286: 7161:Forbes (Starts With A Bang blog) 6871:The Open Journal of Astrophysics 6773:Gohd, Chelsea (9 January 2020). 6264:Gray, Stuart (8 December 2009). 5779:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16647.x 5742:Jassal, H.K; Bagla, J.S (2010). 3776:Overbye, Dennis (22 July 2003). 3100:Ferris, Timothy (January 2015). 3081:from the original on 27 May 2013 2271: 2257: 2243: 2229: 2215: 2136:model of dark energy results in 1955:Dark_energy#Technical_definition 905:The term "dark energy", echoing 799:The mechanism was an example of 760:Einstein's cosmological constant 578: 567: 566: 7765: 7148: 7116: 7084: 7031: 6970: 6915: 6862: 6840: 6822: 6797: 6766: 6604: 6551: 6335: 6315: 6284: 6257: 6204: 6161: 6108: 6054: 5993: 5952: 5929: 5888: 5847: 5794: 5735: 5682: 5621: 5568: 5506: 5476: 5425: 5372: 5351: 5338: 5224: 5171: 5118: 5069: 4951: 4890: 4847: 4792: 4731: 4678: 4625: 4570: 4517: 4464: 4403: 4343: 4291: 4043:The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011 4036: 3883:. p. 21−22. Archived from 3869: 3800: 3769: 3577: 3428: 3398: 3389: 3364: 3232:"Moon findings muddy the water" 3223: 2977:from the original on 2 May 2019 2355: 2110:Future of an expanding universe 2041:Cosmologists estimate that the 1701: 1590:C: Barboza & Alcaniz Model, 334:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 187:Future of an expanding universe 8814:Unsolved problems in astronomy 8809:Physical cosmological concepts 8391:Galaxy formation and evolution 7218:10.1140/epjc/s10052-019-7393-0 7070:10.1016/j.physletb.2016.12.048 6529:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.061102 5833:10.1016/j.physletb.2004.05.008 5721:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.08.012 5546:10.1103/PhysRevLett.129.161805 4901:. Princeton University Press. 4899:Supersymmetry and Supergravity 4664:10.1016/j.physletb.2007.06.053 3976:Astrophysics and Space Science 3230:Cookson, Clive (3 June 2011). 3093: 3063: 3002: 2779: 2664: 2658: 2589: 2583: 2525: 2519: 2467: 2454: 2433: 2427: 1920:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa 1404: 1398: 549:History of the Big Bang theory 345:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 1: 8799:Dark concepts in astrophysics 7337:(see the last two paragraphs) 6032:10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.251101 5660:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.091301 5286:Classical and Quantum Gravity 5263:10.1016/S0370-2693(02)02589-3 5210:10.1016/j.physrep.2010.04.001 3843:10.1016/S1355-2198(02)00033-3 2772: 1609:Equation of state (cosmology) 1341:gravitational potential wells 1118: 1109:observationally flat universe 1010:cosmological constant problem 917:Change in expansion over time 541:Discovery of cosmic microwave 192:Ultimate fate of the universe 8819:Unsolved problems in physics 8679:CRISPR genome-editing method 7813:Self-interacting dark matter 6560:Astronomy & Astrophysics 6291:Merali, Zeeya (March 2012). 3273:Living Reviews in Relativity 3106:National Geographic Magazine 2906:"Planck 2013 Results Papers" 2159:cyclic model of the universe 1860:baryon acoustic oscillations 1542:baryon acoustic oscillations 1265:baryon acoustic oscillations 1136:High-Z Supernova Search Team 7: 7971:Navarro–Frenk–White profile 7961:Massive compact halo object 7956:Mass dimension one fermions 7669:10.1016/j.shpsb.2016.12.002 6590:10.1051/0004-6361/201936373 5047:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.3067 4286:equation of state parameter 3410:Science Mission Directorate 3269:"The cosmological constant" 2942:10.1051/0004-6361/201321529 2879:10.1051/0004-6361/201321529 2208: 2088:Uses of the proper distance 2072:Uses of the proper distance 2068:inertial frame of reference 1854:Variable dark energy models 1818:, for example, can cause a 1294:cosmic microwave background 1280:Cosmic microwave background 1175:cosmic microwave background 1148:Supernova Cosmology Project 947:standard model of cosmology 309:Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 10: 8835: 8753:James Webb Space Telescope 7419:10.1103/PhysRevD.65.047301 6374:10.1103/PhysRevD.84.063503 6243:10.1103/PhysRevD.78.084032 6094:10.1103/PhysRevD.78.123531 5157:10.1103/PhysRevD.59.123504 4833:10.1103/PhysRevD.71.123001 4717:10.1088/0004-637X/730/2/74 4556:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.123520 4503:10.1103/PhysRevD.78.043519 4442:10.1103/PhysRevLett.76.575 3755:10.1051/0004-6361:20054185 3725:Astronomy and Astrophysics 3690:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.670 3633:10.1103/PhysRevD.60.081301 3406:"Dark Energy, Dark Matter" 3102:"Dark Matter(Dark Energy)" 2911:Astronomy and Astrophysics 2848:Astronomy and Astrophysics 2820:10.1103/PhysRevD.97.043524 2161:in which every iteration ( 1969: 1871:Possibly decreasing levels 1705: 1617:Estimated distribution of 1606: 1600: 1253:galaxy groups and clusters 1138:published observations of 1047: 895:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey 72:Chronology of the universe 18: 8733:developed at record speed 8494: 8488:Breakthroughs of the Year 8419: 8368: 8334: 8309: 8221: 7993: 7984: 7901: 7840: 7829: 7773: 7727:"Surveying the dark side" 7472:10.1007/s10714-007-0472-9 6955:10.1142/S0218271816300317 6901:10.21105/astro.2306.08199 6720:The Astrophysical Journal 6617:The Astrophysical Journal 6328:24 September 2020 at the 6268:. ABC Science Australia. 6147:10.1007/s10714-009-0873-z 5937:ESO ASTROPHYSICS SYMPOSIA 5607:10.1142/S0218271801000822 5411:10.1007/s10714-010-1073-6 4994:10.1142/S0218271818300070 4611:10.1142/S0217732307020889 4217:The Astrophysical Journal 3586:ArXiv.org e-print archive 3208:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559 3175:Reviews of Modern Physics 2318:Joint Dark Energy Mission 1778:matter–radiation equality 1025:expansion of the universe 1006:expansion of the universe 960: 935:curvature of the universe 931:expansion of the universe 165:Expansion of the universe 7976:Scalar field dark matter 7818:Scalar field dark matter 7529:How the Universe Works 3 7333:23 November 2003 at the 6751:10.3847/1538-4357/ab5afc 6648:10.3847/1538-4357/ab7a16 5901:Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc 5860:Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc 5316:10.1088/1361-6382/ac1a81 5103:10.1103/PhysRevD.37.3406 4580:Modern Physics Letters A 2348: 2201:in the sense defined by 2177:In philosophy of science 1889:Observational skepticism 1748:of particle physics and 1633:(Lambda, hence the name 1343:and hills to flatten as 817:Inflationary dark energy 770:Einstein field equations 329:Planck space observatory 115:Gravitational wave (GWB) 19:Not to be confused with 8608:Human genetic variation 8543:Whole genome sequencing 7608:10.1126/science.1070462 7295:"The End of Cosmology?" 7264:2008ARA&A..46..385F 6582:2019A&A...631L..13C 6499:Physical Review Letters 6002:Physical Review Letters 5630:Physical Review Letters 5516:Physical Review Letters 5017:Physical Review Letters 4970:(12): 1830007–1830298. 4412:Physical Review Letters 3988:1992Ap&SS.191..107P 3747:2006A&A...447...31A 3713:Supernova Legacy Survey 3660:Physical Review Letters 3041:10.1126/science.1126231 2934:2014A&A...571A...1P 2871:2014A&A...571A...1P 2397:Dark-energy-dominated, 2313:Inhomogeneous cosmology 1895:inhomogeneous cosmology 1837:Interacting dark energy 1812:negative kinetic energy 1572:Theories of dark energy 990:mass–energy equivalence 182:Inhomogeneous cosmology 8712:Single-cell sequencing 8616:Cellular reprogramming 7841:Hypothetical particles 7823:Primordial black holes 7155:Siegel, Ethan (2018). 4184:10.1098/rsta.2011.0285 4048:4 October 2011 at the 3944:10.1098/rsta.2011.0285 3652:11 August 2006 at the 2765: 2694: 2620: 2556: 2488: 2060:line-of-sight velocity 1886: 1875:Researchers using the 1754:cosmological inflation 1708:Quintessence (physics) 1673:quantum field theories 1626: 1593: 1502: 1289: 1156:Nobel Prize in Physics 1131: 926: 635:is a proposed form of 8794:Concepts in astronomy 8527:Accelerating universe 7926:Dark globular cluster 6836:. Starts with a Bang. 5922:10.1093/mnras/sty2375 5469:10.1093/mnras/staa311 4935:. Simons Foundation. 4745:Advances in Astronomy 4687:Astrophysical Journal 4268:of 0.713+0.027–0.029( 3529:Astrophysical Journal 3434:Gamow, George (1970) 2695: 2621: 2557: 2489: 2369:Radiation-dominated, 2363: 2112:). Planet Earth, the 2092:cosmological constant 1930:(which describes the 1899:equivalence principle 1881: 1744:are predicted by the 1734:equivalence principle 1677:cosmological constant 1650:Einstein's theory of 1616: 1607:Further information: 1603:Cosmological constant 1597:Cosmological constant 1583: 1503: 1373:The Hubble constant, 1305:shape of the universe 1287: 1237:large-scale structure 1231:Large-scale structure 1179:gravitational lensing 1126: 1092:Evidence of existence 1002:cosmological constant 986:uncertainty principle 937:and the cosmological 924: 865:accelerated expansion 766:cosmological constant 731:cosmological constant 273:Large-scale structure 251:Shape of the universe 8660:Cancer immunotherapy 8625:Ardipithecus ramidus 7946:Dwarf galaxy problem 7868:Minicharged particle 7783:Baryonic dark matter 7721:Euclid ESA Satellite 7132:. 25 February 2017. 7100:. 10 February 2017. 6832:(17 February 2023). 5881:10.1093/mnras/sty221 4278:total matter density 4020:. Nobel Foundation. 3595:22 June 2017 at the 3460:Astronomical Journal 3134:(20 February 2017). 2733:assuming that 2651: 2576: 2512: 2499:(for constant 2420: 2342:Quantum vacuum state 2019:Strong Nuclear Force 1784:of the dark energy. 1667:A major outstanding 1392: 1044:Technical definition 1029:stress–energy tensor 1014:quantum field theory 712:universe's expansion 647:. Assuming that the 585:Astronomy portal 543:background radiation 520:List of cosmologists 8703:neutron star merger 8691:gravitational waves 8599:Poincaré conjecture 7704:2020Obs...140..225H 7661:2017SHPMP..57...41M 7600:2002Sci...296.1436S 7584:(5572): 1436–1439. 7464:2007GReGr..39.1545K 7411:2002PhRvD..65d7301L 7359:Scientific American 7299:Scientific American 7210:2019EPJC...79..883D 7062:2017PhLB..765..382L 7007:2016ARNPS..66...95J 6967:for a recent review 6947:2016IJMPD..2530031S 6893:2023OJAp....6E..25G 6847:Rodriguez, Carl L. 6742:2020ApJ...889....8K 6639:2020ApJ...894...68R 6521:2019PhRvL.123f1102S 6423:2016NatSR...635596N 6366:2011PhRvD..84f3503T 6235:2008PhRvD..78h4032W 6182:2009SciAm.300d..48C 6170:Scientific American 6139:2010GReGr..42..567M 6086:2008PhRvD..78l3531I 6024:2007PhRvL..99y1101W 5913:2018MNRAS.481.2228O 5872:2018MNRAS.476..451O 5825:2004PhLB..594...17W 5770:2010MNRAS.405.2639J 5713:2008PhLB..666..415B 5652:2003PhRvL..90i1301L 5599:2001IJMPD..10..213C 5538:2022PhRvL.129p1805A 5460:2020MNRAS.493.1139V 5403:2011GReGr..43...93E 5308:2021CQGra..38r4001K 5255:2002PhLB..545...23C 5202:2010PhR...493....1C 5149:1999PhRvD..59l3504S 5094:1988PhRvD..37.3406R 5039:1998PhRvL..81.3067C 4986:2018IJMPD..2730007D 4825:2005PhRvD..71l3001S 4777:10.1155/2010/184284 4768:2010AdAst2010E..81Z 4709:2011ApJ...730...74M 4656:2007PhLB..651..352W 4603:2007MPLA...22...41Y 4548:2008PhRvD..77l3520G 4495:2008PhRvD..78d3519H 4434:1996PhRvL..76..575C 4385:The Washington Post 4336:25 May 2011 at the 4331:Dark energy is real 4262:dark energy density 4240:2008ApJ...686..749K 4176:2011RSPTA.369.5102D 4160:(1957): 5102–5114. 4096:2007ApJS..170..377S 3936:2011RSPTA.369.5102D 3920:(1957): 5102–5114. 3835:2002SHPMP..33..663R 3682:1999PhRvL..83..670P 3625:1999PhRvD..60h1301H 3552:1999ApJ...517..565P 3483:1998AJ....116.1009R 3306:10.12942/lrr-2001-1 3296:2001LRR.....4....1C 3242:on 22 November 2016 3198:2003RvMP...75..559P 3033:2006Sci...312.1180S 3017:(5777): 1180–1183. 2812:2018PhRvD..97d3524L 2265:Solar System portal 2181:The astrophysicist 2127:cosmic acceleration 2015:energy conservation 1773:anthropic principle 1681:orders of magnitude 1325:seven-year analysis 1274:cosmic acceleration 1050:Friedmann equations 661:ordinary (baryonic) 653:observable universe 285:Structure formation 177:Friedmann equations 67:Age of the universe 31:Part of a series on 8744:protein structures 7951:Halo mass function 7911:Cuspy halo problem 7509:6 May 2018 at the 7498:6 May 2018 at the 6681:(6 January 2020). 6401:Scientific Reports 5971:10.1007/10856495_8 5895:Oztas, A. (2018). 3996:10.1007/BF00644200 3890:on 2 February 2017 3782:The New York Times 3416:on 5 November 2020 3331:on 13 October 2006 3143:The New York Times 2690: 2616: 2552: 2484: 2382:Matter-dominated, 2336:Dark Energy Survey 2251:Outer space portal 2165:then eventually a 2064:special relativity 1740:in space or time. 1726:Compton wavelength 1652:general relativity 1627: 1594: 1592:D: Wetterich Model 1498: 1323:(WMAP) spacecraft 1290: 1210:apparent magnitude 1206:absolute magnitude 1132: 994:general relativity 971:fundamental forces 927: 826:Alexei Starobinsky 774:general relativity 704:Type Ia supernovae 625:physical cosmology 324:Dark Energy Survey 268:Large quasar group 37:Physical cosmology 8771: 8770: 8731:COVID-19 vaccines 8687:First observation 8555:Molecular circuit 8451: 8450: 8396:Illustris project 8330: 8329: 7803:Mixed dark matter 7798:Light dark matter 7568:Steinhardt, P. J. 7448:(10): 1545–1550. 7389:Physical Review D 7040:Physics Letters B 6679:Yonsei University 6431:10.1038/srep35596 6344:Physical Review D 6297:Discover magazine 6213:Physical Review D 6064:Physical Review D 5803:Physics Letters B 5691:Physics Letters B 5233:Physics Letters B 5088:(12): 3406–3427. 5023:(15): 3067–3070. 4874:. 21 March 2013. 4802:Physical Review D 4634:Physics Letters B 4526:Physical Review D 4473:Physical Review D 3876:Baumann, Daniel. 3603:Physical Review D 3599:and published in 2973:. 21 March 2013. 2956:on 23 March 2013. 2789:Physical Review D 2686: 2615: 2551: 2483: 2452: 2308:Illustris project 2288:Conformal gravity 1864:equation of state 1831:coupling constant 1789:equation of state 1679:, about 120 1671:is that the same 1588:B: Jassal Model, 1493: 1473: 1449: 1429: 1355:and Giannantonio 1329:Planck spacecraft 954:Planck spacecraft 939:equation of state 911:Michael S. Turner 639:that affects the 621: 620: 292: 291: 134: 133: 8826: 8804:Energy (physics) 8764: 8756: 8747: 8734: 8725: 8714: 8706: 8693: 8681: 8673: 8662: 8654: 8645: 8636: 8628: 8618: 8610: 8602: 8593: 8584: 8573: 8565: 8563:RNA interference 8557: 8545: 8537: 8529: 8521: 8513: 8478: 8471: 8464: 8455: 8454: 8439: 8438: 8427: 8426: 7991: 7990: 7931:Dark matter halo 7878:Sterile neutrino 7835: 7834: 7808:Warm dark matter 7788:Cold dark matter 7760: 7753: 7746: 7737: 7736: 7708: 7707: 7687: 7681: 7680: 7654: 7634: 7628: 7627: 7593: 7564: 7558: 7557: 7555: 7553: 7539: 7533: 7532: 7525: 7519: 7490: 7484: 7483: 7457: 7437: 7431: 7430: 7404: 7402:astro-ph/0107568 7384: 7378: 7377: 7375: 7373: 7367: 7361:. Archived from 7356: 7347: 7338: 7325: 7319: 7318: 7316: 7314: 7290: 7284: 7283: 7257: 7235: 7222: 7221: 7203: 7183: 7177: 7176: 7174: 7172: 7152: 7146: 7145: 7143: 7141: 7120: 7114: 7113: 7111: 7109: 7088: 7082: 7081: 7055: 7035: 7029: 7028: 7018: 7000: 6974: 6968: 6966: 6940: 6919: 6913: 6912: 6886: 6866: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6855: 6844: 6838: 6837: 6826: 6820: 6819: 6817: 6815: 6801: 6795: 6794: 6792: 6790: 6770: 6764: 6763: 6753: 6735: 6711: 6705: 6704: 6702: 6700: 6675: 6669: 6668: 6650: 6632: 6608: 6602: 6601: 6575: 6555: 6549: 6548: 6514: 6494: 6488: 6487: 6485: 6483: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6442: 6416: 6392: 6386: 6385: 6359: 6339: 6333: 6319: 6313: 6312: 6310: 6308: 6288: 6282: 6281: 6279: 6277: 6261: 6255: 6254: 6228: 6208: 6202: 6201: 6165: 6159: 6158: 6132: 6112: 6106: 6105: 6079: 6058: 6052: 6051: 6017: 5997: 5991: 5990: 5989: 5987: 5956: 5950: 5933: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5907:(2): 2228–2234. 5892: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5851: 5845: 5844: 5818: 5816:astro-ph/0403289 5798: 5792: 5791: 5781: 5763: 5761:astro-ph/0601389 5754:(4): 2639–2650. 5739: 5733: 5732: 5706: 5686: 5680: 5679: 5645: 5643:astro-ph/0208512 5625: 5619: 5618: 5592: 5572: 5566: 5565: 5531: 5510: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5499: 5490:. 22 July 2022. 5480: 5474: 5473: 5471: 5453: 5444:(1): 1139–1152. 5429: 5423: 5422: 5396: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5367: 5355: 5349: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5301: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5248: 5246:astro-ph/9908168 5228: 5222: 5221: 5195: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5142: 5140:astro-ph/9812313 5122: 5116: 5115: 5105: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5032: 5030:astro-ph/9806099 5012: 5006: 5005: 4979: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4922: 4913: 4912: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4885: 4883: 4860: 4854: 4851: 4845: 4844: 4818: 4816:astro-ph/0412269 4796: 4790: 4789: 4779: 4761: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4702: 4682: 4676: 4675: 4649: 4640:(5): 1368–1379. 4629: 4623: 4622: 4596: 4594:astro-ph/0605596 4574: 4568: 4567: 4541: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4488: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4427: 4425:astro-ph/9510072 4407: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4391:on 22 March 2013 4387:. Archived from 4377: 4371: 4370: 4368: 4366: 4347: 4341: 4328: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4295: 4289: 4259: 4233: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4169: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4130: 4107: 4089: 4087:astro-ph/0603449 4071: 4062: 4053: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4014: 4008: 4007: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3929: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3889: 3882: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3828: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3740: 3738:astro-ph/0510447 3711:Astier, Pierre ( 3708: 3702: 3701: 3675: 3673:astro-ph/9901052 3644: 3618: 3616:astro-ph/9808133 3581: 3575: 3574: 3564: 3554: 3544: 3542:astro-ph/9812133 3517: 3508: 3507: 3505: 3495: 3485: 3475: 3473:astro-ph/9805201 3466:(3): 1009–1038. 3448: 3439: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3423: 3421: 3412:. Archived from 3402: 3396: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3327:. Archived from 3318: 3308: 3298: 3288: 3286:astro-ph/0004075 3261: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3238:. Archived from 3227: 3221: 3220: 3210: 3200: 3190: 3188:astro-ph/0207347 3166: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3139: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3108:. Archived from 3097: 3091: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3026: 3024:astro-ph/0605173 3006: 3000: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2967: 2958: 2957: 2952:. Archived from 2927: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2864: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2805: 2783: 2766: 2762: 2756: 2747: 2745: 2736: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2708: 2699: 2697: 2696: 2691: 2684: 2683: 2682: 2642:asymptotically 2641: 2639: 2625: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2613: 2612: 2611: 2607: 2561: 2559: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2548: 2547: 2543: 2502: 2493: 2491: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2480: 2479: 2478: 2477: 2453: 2445: 2407: 2405: 2393: 2391: 2379: 2377: 2359: 2281: 2276: 2275: 2267: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2253: 2248: 2247: 2246: 2239: 2234: 2233: 2225: 2220: 2219: 2169:) takes about a 2076:Hubble parameter 1966:Modified gravity 1944: 1797:Quintom scenario 1649: 1647: 1635:Lambda-CDM model 1632: 1567: 1566: 1564: 1563: 1557: 1554: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1530: 1524: 1521: 1507: 1505: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1492: 1484: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1458: 1450: 1448: 1440: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1414: 1309:critical density 1194:standard candles 1187:Lambda-CDM model 1164:Brian P. Schmidt 1087: 1074: 1064: 861:Lambda-CDM model 845:cold dark matter 841:critical density 830:cosmic inflation 690: 688: 682: 680: 649:lambda-CDM model 613: 606: 599: 583: 582: 581: 570: 569: 263:Galaxy formation 223:Lambda-CDM model 212: 211: 204:Components 86: 85: 47: 28: 27: 8834: 8833: 8829: 8828: 8827: 8825: 8824: 8823: 8789:1998 neologisms 8774: 8773: 8772: 8767: 8759: 8750: 8737: 8728: 8717: 8709: 8696: 8684: 8676: 8665: 8657: 8648: 8639: 8634:quantum machine 8631: 8621: 8613: 8605: 8596: 8587: 8576: 8568: 8560: 8548: 8540: 8532: 8524: 8519:Dolly the sheep 8516: 8507: 8500: 8490: 8482: 8452: 8447: 8415: 8411:UniverseMachine 8364: 8326: 8305: 8223: 8217: 7995: 7986: 7980: 7903: 7897: 7836: 7832: 7827: 7793:Hot dark matter 7775: 7769: 7764: 7731:Astron.Geophys. 7717: 7712: 7711: 7692:The Observatory 7688: 7684: 7635: 7631: 7565: 7561: 7551: 7549: 7541: 7540: 7536: 7527: 7526: 7522: 7511:Wayback Machine 7500:Wayback Machine 7491: 7487: 7438: 7434: 7385: 7381: 7371: 7369: 7368:on 19 July 2011 7365: 7354: 7348: 7341: 7335:Wayback Machine 7326: 7322: 7312: 7310: 7291: 7287: 7236: 7225: 7188:Eur. Phys. J. C 7184: 7180: 7170: 7168: 7153: 7149: 7139: 7137: 7122: 7121: 7117: 7107: 7105: 7090: 7089: 7085: 7036: 7032: 6975: 6971: 6931:(12): 1630031. 6920: 6916: 6867: 6863: 6853: 6851: 6845: 6841: 6827: 6823: 6813: 6811: 6803: 6802: 6798: 6788: 6786: 6771: 6767: 6712: 6708: 6698: 6696: 6676: 6672: 6609: 6605: 6556: 6552: 6495: 6491: 6481: 6479: 6460: 6456: 6393: 6389: 6340: 6336: 6330:Wayback Machine 6320: 6316: 6306: 6304: 6289: 6285: 6275: 6273: 6262: 6258: 6209: 6205: 6166: 6162: 6113: 6109: 6059: 6055: 5998: 5994: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5957: 5953: 5947: 5934: 5930: 5893: 5889: 5852: 5848: 5799: 5795: 5740: 5736: 5687: 5683: 5626: 5622: 5573: 5569: 5511: 5507: 5497: 5495: 5482: 5481: 5477: 5430: 5426: 5377: 5373: 5356: 5352: 5343: 5339: 5282: 5278: 5229: 5225: 5180:Physics Reports 5176: 5172: 5123: 5119: 5074: 5070: 5013: 5009: 4956: 4952: 4942: 4940: 4932:Quanta Magazine 4923: 4916: 4909: 4895: 4891: 4881: 4879: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4852: 4848: 4797: 4793: 4736: 4732: 4683: 4679: 4630: 4626: 4575: 4571: 4522: 4518: 4469: 4465: 4408: 4404: 4394: 4392: 4379: 4378: 4374: 4364: 4362: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4338:Wayback Machine 4329: 4322: 4312: 4310: 4305:. 19 May 2011. 4297: 4296: 4292: 4283: 4267: 4211: 4207: 4148: 4144: 4134: 4132: 4128: 4105:10.1.1.472.2550 4069: 4063: 4056: 4050:Wayback Machine 4041: 4037: 4027: 4025: 4016: 4015: 4011: 3971: 3967: 3907: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3887: 3880: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3858: 3805: 3801: 3791: 3789: 3774: 3770: 3722: 3718: 3709: 3705: 3654:Wayback Machine 3597:Wayback Machine 3582: 3578: 3518: 3511: 3449: 3442: 3433: 3429: 3419: 3417: 3404: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3390: 3380: 3378: 3370: 3369: 3365: 3348: 3344: 3334: 3332: 3262: 3255: 3245: 3243: 3236:Financial Times 3228: 3224: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3132:Overbye, Dennis 3129: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3112:on 10 June 2015 3098: 3094: 3084: 3082: 3069: 3068: 3064: 3007: 3003: 2994: 2990: 2980: 2978: 2969: 2968: 2961: 2900:Ade, P. A. R.; 2898: 2894: 2841:Ade, P. A. R.; 2839: 2835: 2784: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2769: 2751: 2749: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2723: 2717: 2715: 2706: 2674: 2670: 2652: 2649: 2648: 2634: 2632: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2513: 2510: 2509: 2500: 2470: 2466: 2444: 2443: 2439: 2421: 2418: 2417: 2400: 2398: 2385: 2383: 2372: 2370: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2277: 2270: 2263: 2258: 2256: 2249: 2244: 2242: 2235: 2228: 2221: 2214: 2211: 2195:conventionalist 2179: 2039: 2029:. This in turn 1999: 1988:Astrophysicist 1974: 1972:Massive gravity 1968: 1963: 1939: 1916: 1891: 1873: 1856: 1839: 1758:renormalization 1710: 1704: 1675:predict a huge 1639: 1638: 1630: 1625:in the universe 1611: 1605: 1599: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1574: 1558: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1546: 1545: 1525: 1522: 1516: 1515: 1513: 1512: 1485: 1477: 1475: 1462: 1457: 1441: 1433: 1431: 1418: 1413: 1393: 1390: 1389: 1368:Hubble constant 1364: 1337: 1282: 1233: 1225:baryonic matter 1160:Saul Perlmutter 1158:was awarded to 1146:. In 1999, the 1121: 1094: 1079: 1066: 1056: 1052: 1046: 1008:. However, the 963: 919: 849:Hubble constant 819: 794:negative masses 762: 757: 686: 684: 678: 676: 617: 579: 577: 559: 558: 545: 542: 535: 533:Subject history 525: 524: 516: 361: 353: 352: 349: 346: 304: 294: 293: 256:Galaxy filament 209: 197: 196: 148: 143:Expansion 136: 135: 120:Microwave (CMB) 99:Nucleosynthesis 83: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8832: 8822: 8821: 8816: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8769: 8768: 8766: 8765: 8757: 8748: 8735: 8726: 8715: 8707: 8694: 8682: 8674: 8663: 8655: 8646: 8644:clinical trial 8637: 8629: 8619: 8611: 8603: 8594: 8585: 8574: 8566: 8558: 8546: 8538: 8530: 8522: 8514: 8504: 8502: 8492: 8491: 8481: 8480: 8473: 8466: 8458: 8449: 8448: 8446: 8445: 8433: 8420: 8417: 8416: 8414: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8401:Imaginary mass 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8378: 8372: 8370: 8366: 8365: 8363: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8350:HVC 127-41-330 8347: 8341: 8339: 8332: 8331: 8328: 8327: 8325: 8324: 8319: 8313: 8311: 8310:Other projects 8307: 8306: 8304: 8303: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8227: 8225: 8219: 8218: 8216: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8135: 8130: 8125: 8120: 8115: 8110: 8105: 8100: 8095: 8090: 8085: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8065: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 7999: 7997: 7988: 7982: 7981: 7979: 7978: 7973: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7936:Dark radiation 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7907: 7905: 7899: 7898: 7896: 7895: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7855: 7850: 7844: 7842: 7838: 7837: 7830: 7828: 7826: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7779: 7777: 7771: 7770: 7763: 7762: 7755: 7748: 7740: 7734: 7733: 7724: 7716: 7715:External links 7713: 7710: 7709: 7682: 7629: 7591:hep-th/0111030 7559: 7534: 7520: 7485: 7432: 7379: 7339: 7320: 7285: 7248:(1): 385–432. 7223: 7178: 7147: 7115: 7083: 7030: 6969: 6914: 6861: 6839: 6821: 6796: 6765: 6706: 6670: 6603: 6550: 6489: 6454: 6387: 6334: 6314: 6283: 6256: 6203: 6160: 6123:(3): 567–599. 6117:Gen. Rel. Grav 6107: 6070:(12): 123531. 6053: 6008:(25): 251101. 5992: 5979: 5951: 5945: 5928: 5887: 5866:(1): 451–458. 5846: 5809:(1–2): 17–22. 5793: 5734: 5697:(5): 415–419. 5681: 5620: 5583:(2): 213–224. 5567: 5522:(16): 161805. 5505: 5475: 5424: 5371: 5350: 5337: 5292:(18): 184001. 5276: 5239:(1–2): 23–29. 5223: 5170: 5133:(12): 123504. 5117: 5068: 5007: 4950: 4914: 4908:978-0691025308 4907: 4889: 4855: 4846: 4809:(12): 123001. 4791: 4730: 4677: 4624: 4569: 4532:(12): 123520. 4516: 4463: 4418:(4): 575–578. 4402: 4372: 4342: 4320: 4290: 4281: 4272:)+0.036–0.039( 4265: 4248:10.1086/589937 4224:(2): 749–778. 4205: 4142: 4114:10.1086/513700 4080:(2): 377–408. 4054: 4035: 4009: 3982:(1): 107–124. 3965: 3901: 3868: 3826:hep-th/0012253 3819:(4): 663–705. 3799: 3768: 3720: 3716: 3703: 3666:(4): 670–673. 3576: 3562:10.1086/307221 3535:(2): 565–586. 3521:Perlmutter, S. 3509: 3493:10.1086/300499 3452:Riess, Adam G. 3440: 3427: 3397: 3388: 3363: 3342: 3253: 3222: 3161: 3123: 3092: 3062: 3001: 2988: 2959: 2892: 2833: 2777: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2768: 2767: 2731: 2730: 2729: 2728: 2703: 2702: 2701: 2700: 2689: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2666: 2663: 2660: 2657: 2629: 2628: 2627: 2626: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2582: 2565: 2564: 2563: 2562: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2527: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2494: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2456: 2451: 2448: 2442: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2409: 2408: 2395: 2380: 2353: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2344: 2339: 2332: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2282: 2279:Science portal 2268: 2254: 2240: 2226: 2223:Physics portal 2210: 2207: 2178: 2175: 2147:nuclear forces 2134:phantom energy 2038: 2035: 2011:binding energy 1998: 1995: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1915: 1912: 1890: 1887: 1872: 1869: 1855: 1852: 1838: 1835: 1827:Hubble tension 1816:phantom energy 1808:kinetic energy 1804:phantom energy 1746:Standard Model 1706:Main article: 1703: 1700: 1688:supersymmetric 1601:Main article: 1598: 1595: 1586:A: CPL Model, 1573: 1570: 1509: 1508: 1497: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1480: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1461: 1456: 1453: 1447: 1444: 1439: 1436: 1427: 1424: 1421: 1417: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1363: 1360: 1336: 1333: 1281: 1278: 1235:The theory of 1232: 1229: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1115: 1112: 1105: 1093: 1090: 1045: 1042: 992:postulated by 962: 959: 918: 915: 818: 815: 789:field equation 761: 758: 756: 753: 619: 618: 616: 615: 608: 601: 593: 590: 589: 588: 587: 575: 561: 560: 557: 556: 551: 546: 539: 536: 531: 530: 527: 526: 523: 522: 515: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 363: 362: 359: 358: 355: 354: 351: 350: 343: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 305: 300: 299: 296: 295: 290: 289: 288: 287: 275: 270: 265: 253: 245: 244: 240: 239: 238: 237: 225: 217: 216: 210: 203: 202: 199: 198: 195: 194: 189: 184: 179: 167: 162: 149: 142: 141: 138: 137: 132: 131: 130: 129: 127:Neutrino (CNB) 117: 109: 108: 104: 103: 102: 101: 84: 82:Early universe 81: 80: 77: 76: 75: 74: 69: 64: 49: 48: 40: 39: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8831: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8781: 8779: 8763: 8758: 8754: 8749: 8745: 8741: 8736: 8732: 8727: 8724: 8721: 8716: 8713: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8695: 8692: 8688: 8683: 8680: 8675: 8672: 8671:comet mission 8670: 8664: 8661: 8656: 8652: 8647: 8643: 8638: 8635: 8630: 8627: 8626: 8620: 8617: 8612: 8609: 8604: 8600: 8595: 8591: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8575: 8572: 8567: 8564: 8559: 8556: 8552: 8547: 8544: 8539: 8536: 8531: 8528: 8523: 8520: 8515: 8512:understanding 8511: 8506: 8505: 8503: 8499: 8498: 8493: 8489: 8487: 8479: 8474: 8472: 8467: 8465: 8460: 8459: 8456: 8444: 8443: 8434: 8432: 8431: 8422: 8421: 8418: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8406:Negative mass 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8386:Exotic matter 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8373: 8371: 8367: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8355:Smith's Cloud 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8342: 8340: 8338: 8337:dark galaxies 8333: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8314: 8312: 8308: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8228: 8226: 8220: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8124: 8121: 8119: 8116: 8114: 8111: 8109: 8106: 8104: 8101: 8099: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8089: 8086: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8069: 8066: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 8000: 7998: 7992: 7989: 7983: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7967: 7966:Mirror matter 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7908: 7906: 7900: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7843: 7839: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7780: 7778: 7772: 7768: 7761: 7756: 7754: 7749: 7747: 7742: 7741: 7738: 7732: 7728: 7725: 7722: 7719: 7718: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7693: 7686: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7662: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7644: 7640: 7633: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7583: 7579: 7578: 7573: 7569: 7563: 7548: 7547:New Scientist 7544: 7538: 7530: 7524: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7494: 7489: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7436: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7395:(4): 047301. 7394: 7390: 7383: 7364: 7360: 7353: 7346: 7344: 7336: 7332: 7329: 7324: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7296: 7289: 7281: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7242: 7234: 7232: 7230: 7228: 7219: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7182: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7151: 7135: 7131: 7130: 7125: 7119: 7103: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7087: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7034: 7026: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7008: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6985: 6980: 6973: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6918: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6876: 6872: 6865: 6850: 6843: 6835: 6831: 6830:Siegel, Ethan 6825: 6810: 6806: 6800: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6769: 6761: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6710: 6694: 6690: 6689: 6684: 6680: 6674: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6607: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6554: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6505:(6): 061102. 6504: 6500: 6493: 6477: 6473: 6471: 6465: 6458: 6450: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6391: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6350:(6): 063503. 6349: 6345: 6338: 6331: 6327: 6324: 6318: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6287: 6271: 6267: 6260: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6219:(8): 084032. 6218: 6214: 6207: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6164: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6111: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6057: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5996: 5982: 5980:3-540-43769-X 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5963: 5955: 5948: 5946:3-540-43769-X 5942: 5938: 5932: 5923: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5891: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5850: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5797: 5789: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5738: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5685: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5636:(9): 091301. 5635: 5631: 5624: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5591: 5590:gr-qc/0009008 5586: 5582: 5578: 5571: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5509: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5479: 5470: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5387:(1): 93–106. 5386: 5382: 5375: 5366: 5361: 5354: 5347: 5341: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5280: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5121: 5113: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5072: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4938: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4921: 4919: 4910: 4904: 4900: 4893: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4859: 4850: 4842: 4838: 4834: 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4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3905: 3886: 3879: 3872: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3803: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3772: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3714: 3707: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3655: 3651: 3648: 3647:in an article 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3609:(8): 081301. 3608: 3604: 3598: 3594: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3516: 3514: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3447: 3445: 3437: 3431: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3401: 3392: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3358: 3353: 3346: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3265:Carroll, Sean 3260: 3258: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3226: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3165: 3149: 3145: 3144: 3138: 3133: 3127: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3096: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3071:"Dark Energy" 3066: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3005: 2998: 2992: 2976: 2972: 2966: 2964: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2849: 2844: 2837: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2796:(4): 043524. 2795: 2791: 2790: 2782: 2778: 2764: 2760: 2754: 2743: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2712: 2711: 2710: 2707:0.76 ± 0.02 , 2687: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2661: 2655: 2647: 2646: 2645: 2644: 2643: 2637: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2586: 2580: 2572: 2571: 2570: 2569: 2568: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2522: 2516: 2508: 2507: 2506: 2505: 2504: 2474: 2471: 2463: 2460: 2457: 2449: 2446: 2440: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2416: 2415: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2404: 2396: 2389: 2381: 2375: 2368: 2367: 2366: 2358: 2354: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2324: 2323:Negative mass 2321: 2319: 2316: 2314: 2311: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2301: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2285: 2280: 2274: 2269: 2266: 2255: 2252: 2241: 2238: 2232: 2227: 2224: 2218: 2213: 2206: 2204: 2200: 2199:unfalsifiable 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2183:David Merritt 2174: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2108: 2104: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2083:event horizon 2079: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2051: 2049: 2044: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2005:explains the 2004: 1994: 1991: 1986: 1984: 1979: 1973: 1958: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1911: 1907: 1905: 1904:Hubble bubble 1900: 1896: 1885: 1880: 1878: 1868: 1865: 1861: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1834: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1798: 1794: 1793:no-go theorem 1790: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1761: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1750:string theory 1747: 1743: 1742:Scalar fields 1739: 1735: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1709: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1692:string theory 1689: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1657:vacuum energy 1653: 1646: 1642: 1636: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1604: 1582: 1578: 1569: 1562: 1553: 1543: 1539: 1529: 1520: 1495: 1489: 1481: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1451: 1445: 1442: 1437: 1434: 1425: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1410: 1407: 1401: 1395: 1388: 1387: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1369: 1359: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1295: 1286: 1277: 1275: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1169: 1168:Adam G. Riess 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1134:In 1998, the 1130: 1125: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1103: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1089: 1086: 1083: ∝ 1082: 1076: 1073: 1070: ∝ 1069: 1063: 1060: ∝ 1059: 1051: 1041: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 998:gravitational 995: 991: 987: 983: 982:vacuum energy 978: 976: 972: 968: 958: 955: 950: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 923: 914: 912: 908: 903: 901: 896: 892: 891:acoustic peak 888: 884: 880: 877: 873: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 837: 835: 831: 827: 823: 814: 811: 806: 802: 797: 795: 790: 786: 781: 779: 778:vacuum energy 775: 771: 767: 752: 750: 749: 744: 740: 736: 735:scalar fields 732: 727: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 696: 694: 675:is very low: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 614: 609: 607: 602: 600: 595: 594: 592: 591: 586: 576: 574: 565: 564: 563: 562: 555: 552: 550: 547: 544: 538: 537: 534: 529: 528: 521: 518: 517: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 364: 357: 356: 348: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 306: 303: 298: 297: 286: 283: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 257: 254: 252: 249: 248: 247: 246: 242: 241: 236: 233: 229: 226: 224: 221: 220: 219: 218: 214: 213: 207: 201: 200: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 154: 151: 150: 146: 140: 139: 128: 125: 121: 118: 116: 113: 112: 111: 110: 106: 105: 100: 97: 93: 90: 89: 88: 87: 79: 78: 73: 70: 68: 65: 63: 60: 56: 53: 52: 51: 50: 46: 42: 41: 38: 35: 34: 30: 29: 26: 22: 8723:made visible 8668: 8632:2010: First 8623: 8579: 8570: 8551:Nanocircuits 8495: 8485: 8440: 8428: 8380: 7730: 7695: 7691: 7685: 7642: 7638: 7632: 7581: 7575: 7562: 7552:18 September 7550:. Retrieved 7546: 7537: 7528: 7523: 7515:Brian Greene 7488: 7445: 7441: 7435: 7392: 7388: 7382: 7370:. Retrieved 7363:the original 7358: 7323: 7311:. Retrieved 7302: 7298: 7288: 7245: 7239: 7191: 7187: 7181: 7169:. Retrieved 7160: 7150: 7138:. Retrieved 7129:Ars Technica 7127: 7118: 7106:. Retrieved 7095: 7086: 7043: 7039: 7033: 6988: 6982: 6972: 6928: 6924: 6917: 6874: 6870: 6864: 6854:11 September 6852:. Retrieved 6842: 6824: 6812:. Retrieved 6808: 6799: 6787:. Retrieved 6778: 6768: 6723: 6719: 6709: 6697:. Retrieved 6686: 6673: 6620: 6616: 6606: 6563: 6559: 6553: 6502: 6498: 6492: 6480:. Retrieved 6467: 6457: 6404: 6400: 6390: 6347: 6343: 6337: 6317: 6305:. Retrieved 6296: 6286: 6274:. Retrieved 6259: 6216: 6212: 6206: 6176:(4): 48–55. 6173: 6169: 6163: 6120: 6116: 6110: 6067: 6063: 6056: 6005: 6001: 5995: 5984:, retrieved 5961: 5954: 5936: 5931: 5904: 5900: 5890: 5863: 5859: 5849: 5806: 5802: 5796: 5751: 5747: 5737: 5694: 5690: 5684: 5633: 5629: 5623: 5580: 5576: 5570: 5519: 5515: 5508: 5496:. Retrieved 5488:Science News 5487: 5478: 5441: 5437: 5427: 5384: 5380: 5374: 5353: 5340: 5289: 5285: 5279: 5236: 5232: 5226: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5130: 5126: 5120: 5085: 5081: 5071: 5020: 5016: 5010: 4967: 4963: 4953: 4941:. Retrieved 4930: 4898: 4892: 4880:. Retrieved 4867: 4858: 4849: 4806: 4800: 4794: 4749: 4743: 4733: 4690: 4686: 4680: 4637: 4633: 4627: 4587:(1): 41–54. 4584: 4578: 4572: 4529: 4525: 4519: 4476: 4472: 4466: 4415: 4411: 4405: 4393:. Retrieved 4389:the original 4384: 4375: 4363:. Retrieved 4354: 4345: 4311:. Retrieved 4302: 4293: 4221: 4215: 4208: 4157: 4151: 4145: 4133:. Retrieved 4077: 4073: 4038: 4026:. 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Retrieved 2954:the original 2915: 2909: 2895: 2852: 2846: 2836: 2793: 2787: 2781: 2752: 2741: 2732: 2718: 2704: 2635: 2630: 2566: 2498: 2410: 2402: 2387: 2373: 2364: 2357: 2334: 2327: 2237:Stars portal 2180: 2137: 2131: 2106: 2100: 2095: 2080: 2058:will have a 2052: 2043:acceleration 2040: 2000: 1990:Ethan Siegel 1987: 1975: 1951:scale factor 1946: 1941: 1917: 1908: 1892: 1882: 1874: 1857: 1840: 1833:are viable. 1824: 1801: 1786: 1782:energy scale 1765:acceleration 1762: 1730: 1714:quintessence 1711: 1702:Quintessence 1695: 1685: 1666: 1655: 1644: 1640: 1628: 1575: 1560: 1551: 1527: 1518: 1510: 1378: 1374: 1372: 1365: 1356: 1352: 1338: 1297:anisotropies 1291: 1257: 1234: 1218: 1202:Hubble's law 1191: 1172: 1152:accelerating 1133: 1095: 1084: 1080: 1077: 1071: 1067: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1036: 1021:acceleration 1018: 979: 964: 951: 946: 928: 907:Fritz Zwicky 904: 878: 871: 838: 820: 810:Edwin Hubble 798: 782: 763: 746: 739:quintessence 728: 716:accelerating 697: 681:10 g/cm 632: 622: 347:Probe (WMAP) 281: 278:Reionization 259: 231: 227: 205: 173: 156: 153:Hubble's law 144: 123: 95: 58: 25: 8784:Dark energy 8762:GLP-1 Drugs 8651:Higgs boson 8571:Dark energy 8381:Dark energy 8345:HE0450-2958 7987:experiments 7921:Dark galaxy 7904:and objects 7858:Dark photon 7776:dark matter 7767:Dark matter 7698:: 225–247. 7194:(10): 883. 7046:: 382–385. 6789:14 February 6470:WP:NEWSBLOG 5186:(1): 1–60. 4135:26 December 3590:August 1998 3246:21 November 3154:21 February 2902:Aghanim, N. 2843:Aghanim, N. 2298:Dark matter 2203:Karl Popper 2118:Local Group 2056:Local Group 2048:dark matter 2027:confinement 1936:homogeneous 1924:Kerr metric 1317:dark matter 1221:dark matter 1154:. The 2011 973:other than 943:FLRW metric 805:equilibrium 801:fine-tuning 693:mass-energy 689:10 J/m 657:dark matter 633:dark energy 302:Experiments 235:Dark matter 228:Dark energy 170:FLRW metric 107:Backgrounds 21:dark matter 8778:Categories 8720:black hole 8376:Antimatter 8335:Potential 8063:DAMA/LIBRA 7916:Dark fluid 7873:Neutralino 7652:1703.02389 7518:a chance." 7504:transcript 7372:6 November 7201:1709.02481 7140:27 October 7108:29 October 7053:1602.07670 6998:1601.06133 6884:2306.08199 6733:1912.04903 6630:1912.02191 6573:1808.04597 6512:1812.08244 6414:1506.01354 6332:, NBC News 6307:27 January 6276:27 January 5529:2207.11330 5451:1911.12374 5365:1610.01272 5346:dark fluid 5299:2105.09790 4977:1804.01120 4276:), of the 3910:Durrer, R. 3894:31 January 3861:29 October 2803:1707.00603 2773:References 2746:0.4 2721:≈ −1 ± 0.1 2167:Big Crunch 2155:Big Crunch 2143:electrical 2123:heat death 2116:, and the 2103:redshifted 2096:at present 2021:where the 2003:GRSI model 1970:See also: 1810:such as a 1756:) occurs: 1538:supernovae 1303:. For the 1267:have left 1214:luminosity 1181:, and the 1144:supernovae 1142:("one-A") 1119:Supernovae 1048:See also: 876:Perlmutter 853:anisotropy 700:supernovae 382:Copernicus 360:Scientists 215:Components 8653:discovery 8592:in action 8590:Evolution 8535:Stem cell 8360:VIRGOHI21 8317:MultiDark 8224:detection 8108:EDELWEISS 7996:detection 7941:Dark star 7677:119401938 7645:: 41–52. 7572:Turok, N. 7480:123442313 7455:0704.0221 7313:6 January 7255:0803.0982 7078:118486016 7025:118468001 6991:(1): 95. 6963:119256879 6938:1309.4188 6909:259165172 6779:Space.com 6760:209202868 6699:6 January 6665:208637339 6657:1538-4357 6623:(1): 68. 6598:208175643 6545:118935116 6482:10 August 6407:: 35596. 6382:119179171 6357:1107.4045 6226:0809.1183 6130:0711.4264 6102:118801032 6077:0708.2943 6015:0709.0732 5841:119354763 5729:118306372 5704:0805.1713 5562:251040527 5419:119169726 5394:0808.1962 5332:234790314 5324:0264-9381 5218:118866606 5193:0909.2776 5127:Phys. Rev 5082:Phys. Rev 5055:0031-9007 5002:119198922 4759:1010.1307 4725:119181595 4700:1007.3787 4693:(2): 74. 4672:119125999 4647:0706.2723 4539:0801.4380 4486:0801.0642 4458:119012700 4365:9 January 4256:119197696 4231:0804.4142 4167:1103.5331 4100:CiteSeerX 4028:4 October 4004:116951785 3927:1103.5331 3763:119344498 3698:119427069 3571:118910636 3357:1211.6338 3217:118961123 3085:4 January 2950:218716838 2925:1303.5062 2887:218716838 2862:1303.5062 2828:119249858 2668:∝ 2593:∝ 2529:∝ 2472:− 2437:∝ 2138:divergent 2114:Milky Way 1932:isotropic 1848:chameleon 1722:structure 1487:Δ 1479:Δ 1455:− 1452:≈ 1411:− 913:in 1998. 883:BOOMERanG 822:Alan Guth 665:neutrinos 629:astronomy 512:Zeldovich 412:Friedmann 387:de Sitter 314:BOOMERanG 243:Structure 208:Structure 92:Inflation 8718:2019: A 8699:GW170817 8642:HPTN 052 8430:Category 8222:Indirect 8078:DarkSide 8068:DAMA/NaI 7902:Theories 7774:Forms of 7616:11976408 7507:Archived 7496:Archived 7331:Archived 7307:Archived 7280:15117520 7171:11 April 7165:Archived 7134:Archived 7102:Archived 7097:phys.org 6783:Archived 6726:(1): 8. 6693:Archived 6688:Phys.org 6537:31491160 6476:Archived 6449:27767125 6326:Archived 6301:Archived 6270:Archived 6251:53709630 6198:19363920 6155:14226736 6040:18233512 5986:13 April 5676:16219710 5668:12689209 5615:16489484 5554:36306777 5498:3 August 5492:Archived 5165:40714104 5063:14539052 4937:Archived 4882:21 March 4876:Archived 4841:13215290 4786:62885316 4752:(1): 1. 4564:21763795 4511:38383124 4450:10061494 4395:22 March 4359:Archived 4334:Archived 4307:Archived 4303:BBC News 4200:17562830 4192:22084297 4126:Archived 4046:Archived 4022:Archived 3960:17562830 3952:22084297 3855:Archived 3792:5 August 3786:Archived 3650:Archived 3641:12777640 3593:Archived 3503:15640044 3325:28179856 3279:(1): 1. 3267:(2001). 3148:Archived 3079:Archived 3057:14178620 3049:16675662 2975:Archived 2748:and age 2209:See also 2171:trillion 2163:Big Bang 1983:GW170817 1945:, where 1769:galaxies 1383:redshift 1249:galaxies 1198:redshift 1129:NGC 4526 1102:redshift 834:Big Bang 785:Einstein 708:redshift 641:universe 573:Category 492:Suntzeff 452:Lemaître 402:Einstein 367:Aaronson 160:Redshift 62:Universe 55:Big Bang 8742:brings 8669:Rosetta 8501:journal 8497:Science 8486:Science 8442:Commons 8369:Related 8301:VERITAS 8276:IceCube 8236:ANTARES 8188:TREX-DM 8173:ROSEBUD 8163:PICASSO 7700:Bibcode 7657:Bibcode 7624:1346107 7596:Bibcode 7577:Science 7460:Bibcode 7427:1791226 7407:Bibcode 7260:Bibcode 7206:Bibcode 7058:Bibcode 7003:Bibcode 6943:Bibcode 6889:Bibcode 6814:4 April 6738:Bibcode 6635:Bibcode 6578:Bibcode 6566:: L13. 6517:Bibcode 6440:5073293 6419:Bibcode 6362:Bibcode 6231:Bibcode 6178:Bibcode 6135:Bibcode 6082:Bibcode 6048:1152275 6020:Bibcode 5909:Bibcode 5868:Bibcode 5821:Bibcode 5788:9144993 5766:Bibcode 5709:Bibcode 5648:Bibcode 5595:Bibcode 5534:Bibcode 5456:Bibcode 5399:Bibcode 5304:Bibcode 5271:9820570 5251:Bibcode 5198:Bibcode 5145:Bibcode 5112:9958635 5090:Bibcode 5035:Bibcode 4982:Bibcode 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