1536:
was about 1 neutron to 7 protons (allowing for some decay of neutrons into protons). Once it was cool enough, the neutrons quickly bound with an equal number of protons to form first deuterium, then helium-4. Helium-4 is very stable and is nearly the end of this chain if it runs for only a short time, since helium neither decays nor combines easily to form heavier nuclei (since there are no stable nuclei with mass numbers of 5 or 8, helium does not combine easily with either protons, or with itself). Once temperatures are lowered, out of every 16 nucleons (2 neutrons and 14 protons), 4 of these (25% of the total particles and total mass) combine quickly into one helium-4 nucleus. This produces one helium for every 12 hydrogens, resulting in a universe that is a little over 8% helium by number of atoms, and 25% helium by mass.
3496:
1825:
better observations, and in most cases trying to change BBN resulted in abundances that were more inconsistent with observations rather than less. The second reason for researching non-standard BBN, and largely the focus of non-standard BBN in the early 21st century, is to use BBN to place limits on unknown or speculative physics. For example, standard BBN assumes that no exotic hypothetical particles were involved in BBN. One can insert a hypothetical particle (such as a massive neutrino) and see what has to happen before BBN predicts abundances that are very different from observations. This has been done to put limits on the mass of a stable
1445:
binding energy of deuterium; therefore any deuterium that was formed was immediately destroyed (a situation known as the "deuterium bottleneck"). Hence, the formation of helium-4 was delayed until the universe became cool enough for deuterium to survive (at about T = 0.1 MeV); after which there was a sudden burst of element formation. However, very shortly thereafter, around twenty minutes after the Big Bang, the temperature and density became too low for any significant fusion to occur. At this point, the elemental abundances were nearly fixed, and the only changes were the result of the
1016:
temperature and density caused the reactions to become too slow, which occurred at about T = 0.7 MeV (time around 1 second) and is called the freeze out temperature. At freeze out, the neutron–proton ratio was about 1/6. However, free neutrons are unstable with a mean life of 880 sec; some neutrons decayed in the next few minutes before fusing into any nucleus, so the ratio of total neutrons to protons after nucleosynthesis ends is about 1/7. Almost all neutrons that fused instead of decaying ended up combined into helium-4, due to the fact that helium-4 has the highest
1544:. In addition, it provides an important test for the Big Bang theory. If the observed helium abundance is significantly different from 25%, then this would pose a serious challenge to the theory. This would particularly be the case if the early helium-4 abundance was much smaller than 25% because it is hard to destroy helium-4. For a few years during the mid-1990s, observations suggested that this might be the case, causing astrophysicists to talk about a Big Bang nucleosynthetic crisis, but further observations were consistent with the Big Bang theory.
1661:
but insufficient to carry the process further using helium-4 in the next fusion step. BBN did not convert all of the deuterium in the universe to helium-4 due to the expansion that cooled the universe and reduced the density, and so cut that conversion short before it could proceed any further. One consequence of this is that, unlike helium-4, the amount of deuterium is very sensitive to initial conditions. The denser the initial universe was, the more deuterium would be converted to helium-4 before time ran out, and the less deuterium would remain.
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559:
36:
3468:
1564:
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content, since the universe was highly radiation dominated until much later, and this dominant component controls the temperature/time relation. At this time there were about six protons for every neutron, but a small fraction of the neutrons decay before fusing in the next few hundred seconds, so at the end of nucleosynthesis there are about seven protons to every neutron, and almost all the neutrons are in Helium-4 nuclei.
3556:
3508:
571:
3544:
1424:
while "incomplete" reaction chains lead to small amounts of left-over H or He; the amount of these decreases with increasing baryon-photon ratio. That is, the larger the baryon-photon ratio the more reactions there will be and the more efficiently deuterium will be eventually transformed into helium-4. This result makes deuterium a very useful tool in measuring the baryon-to-photon ratio.
3520:
1677:. If one assumes that all of the universe consists of protons and neutrons, the density of the universe is such that much of the currently observed deuterium would have been burned into helium-4. The standard explanation now used for the abundance of deuterium is that the universe does not consist mostly of baryons, but that non-baryonic matter (also known as
782:, but less than 8% of the nuclei would be helium-4 nuclei. Other (trace) nuclei are usually expressed as number ratios to hydrogen. The first detailed calculations of the primordial isotopic abundances came in 1966 and have been refined over the years using updated estimates of the input nuclear reaction rates. The first systematic
763:
calculate element abundances after nucleosynthesis ends. Although the baryon per photon ratio is important in determining element abundances, the precise value makes little difference to the overall picture. Without major changes to the Big Bang theory itself, BBN will result in mass abundances of about 75% of hydrogen-1, about 25%
1660:
Deuterium is in some ways the opposite of helium-4, in that while helium-4 is very stable and difficult to destroy, deuterium is only marginally stable and easy to destroy. The temperatures, time, and densities were sufficient to combine a substantial fraction of the deuterium nuclei to form helium-4
1535:
Big Bang nucleosynthesis predicts a primordial abundance of about 25% helium-4 by mass, irrespective of the initial conditions of the universe. As long as the universe was hot enough for protons and neutrons to transform into each other easily, their ratio, determined solely by their relative masses,
1432:
Big Bang nucleosynthesis began roughly about 20 seconds after the big bang, when the universe had cooled sufficiently to allow deuterium nuclei to survive disruption by high-energy photons. (Note that the neutron–proton freeze-out time was earlier). This time is essentially independent of dark matter
1423:
along with some other low-probability reactions leading to Li or Be. (An important feature is that there are no stable nuclei with mass 5 or 8, which implies that reactions adding one baryon to He, or fusing two He, do not occur). Most fusion chains during BBN ultimately terminate in He (helium-4),
1020:
per nucleon among light elements. This predicts that about 8% of all atoms should be helium-4, leading to a mass fraction of helium-4 of about 25%, which is in line with observations. Small traces of deuterium and helium-3 remained as there was insufficient time and density for them to react and form
1723:
The theory of BBN gives a detailed mathematical description of the production of the light "elements" deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7. Specifically, the theory yields precise quantitative predictions for the mixture of these elements, that is, the primordial abundances at the end of the
1668:
During the 1970s, there were major efforts to find processes that could produce deuterium, but those revealed ways of producing isotopes other than deuterium. The problem was that while the concentration of deuterium in the universe is consistent with the Big Bang model as a whole, it is too high to
1824:
There have been, and continue to be, various reasons for researching non-standard BBN. The first, which is largely of historical interest, is to resolve inconsistencies between BBN predictions and observations. This has proved to be of limited usefulness in that the inconsistencies were resolved by
1520:
The predicted abundance of CNO isotopes produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is expected to be on the order of 10 that of H, making them essentially undetectable and negligible. Indeed, none of these primordial isotopes of the elements from beryllium to oxygen have yet been detected, although those
762:
The key parameter which allows one to calculate the effects of Big Bang nucleosynthesis is the baryon/photon number ratio, which is a small number of order 6 Ă— 10. This parameter corresponds to the baryon density and controls the rate at which nucleons collide and react; from this it is possible to
1539:
One analogy is to think of helium-4 as ash, and the amount of ash that one forms when one completely burns a piece of wood is insensitive to how one burns it. The resort to the BBN theory of the helium-4 abundance is necessary as there is far more helium-4 in the universe than can be explained by
1436:
One feature of BBN is that the physical laws and constants that govern the behavior of matter at these energies are very well understood, and hence BBN lacks some of the speculative uncertainties that characterize earlier periods in the life of the universe. Another feature is that the process of
1015:
At times much earlier than 1 sec, these reactions were fast and maintained the n/p ratio close to 1:1. As the temperature dropped, the equilibrium shifted in favour of protons due to their slightly lower mass, and the n/p ratio smoothly decreased. These reactions continued until the decreasing
1444:
are less stable than helium nuclei, and the protons and neutrons have a strong tendency to form helium-4. However, forming helium-4 requires the intermediate step of forming deuterium. Before nucleosynthesis began, the temperature was high enough for many photons to have energy greater than the
1688:
It is very hard to come up with another process that would produce deuterium other than by nuclear fusion. Such a process would require that the temperature be hot enough to produce deuterium, but not hot enough to produce helium-4, and that this process should immediately cool to non-nuclear
1817:: a non-standard BBN scenario assumes that the Big Bang occurred, but inserts additional physics in order to see how this affects elemental abundances. These pieces of additional physics include relaxing or removing the assumption of homogeneity, or inserting new particles such as massive
806:
The neutron–proton ratio was set by
Standard Model physics before the nucleosynthesis era, essentially within the first 1-second after the Big Bang. Neutrons can react with positrons or electron neutrinos to create protons and other products in one of the following reactions:
1692:
Producing deuterium by fission is also difficult. The problem here again is that deuterium is very unlikely due to nuclear processes, and that collisions between atomic nuclei are likely to result either in the fusion of the nuclei, or in the release of free neutrons or
1517:). However, this process is very slow and requires much higher densities, taking tens of thousands of years to convert a significant amount of helium to carbon in stars, and therefore it made a negligible contribution in the minutes following the Big Bang.
1664:
There are no known post-Big Bang processes which can produce significant amounts of deuterium. Hence observations about deuterium abundance suggest that the universe is not infinitely old, which is in accordance with the Big Bang theory.
771:, trace amounts (on the order of 10) of lithium, and negligible heavier elements. That the observed abundances in the universe are generally consistent with these abundance numbers is considered strong evidence for the Big Bang theory.
1521:
of beryllium and boron may be able to be detected in the future. So far, the only stable nuclides known experimentally to have been made during Big Bang nucleosynthesis are protium, deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7.
746:
The fusion of nuclei occurred between roughly 10 seconds to 20 minutes after the Big Bang; this corresponds to the temperature range when the universe was cool enough for deuterium to survive, but hot and dense enough for
2211:
Coc, Alain; Vangioni, Elisabeth (2014). "Revised Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis with long-lived negatively charged massive particles: Impact of new 6Li limits, primordial 9Be nucleosynthesis, and updated recombination rates".
1784:
The present measurement of helium-4 indicates good agreement, and yet better agreement for helium-3. But for lithium-7, there is a significant discrepancy between BBN and WMAP/Planck, and the abundance derived from
912:
1010:
1793:", is considered a problem for the original models, that have resulted in revised calculations of the standard BBN based on new nuclear data, and to various reevaluation proposals for primordial
2031:
2015:
1142:
1346:
1414:
1210:
1083:
1029:
The baryon–photon ratio, η, is the key parameter determining the abundances of light elements after nucleosynthesis ends. Baryons and light elements can fuse in the following main reactions:
1278:
1727:
In order to test these predictions, it is necessary to reconstruct the primordial abundances as faithfully as possible, for instance by observing astronomical objects in which very little
3120:, in which Alpher and Gamow suggested that the light elements were created by hydrogen ions capturing neutrons in the hot, dense early universe. Bethe's name was added for symmetry
1681:) makes up most of the mass of the universe. This explanation is also consistent with calculations that show that a universe made mostly of protons and neutrons would be far more
1781:
give an independent value for the baryon-to-photon ratio. Using this value, are the BBN predictions for the abundances of light elements in agreement with the observations?
1701:
was proposed as a source of deuterium. That theory failed to account for the abundance of deuterium, but led to explanations of the source of other light elements.
160:
1762:
of the baryon-to-photon ratio? Or more precisely, allowing for the finite precision of both the predictions and the observations, one asks: is there some
1437:
nucleosynthesis is determined by conditions at the start of this phase of the life of the universe, and proceeds independently of what happened before.
531:
1754:, it has one unique value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. For a long time, this meant that to test BBN theory against observations one had to ask: can
1902:
2803:
Malaney, Robert A.; Mathews, Grant J. (1993). "Probing the early universe: A review of primordial nucleosynthesis beyond the standard big bang".
2137:
2469:
1715:
Lithium-7 and lithium-6 produced in the Big Bang are on the order of: lithium-7 to be 10 of all primordial nuclides; and lithium-6 around 10.
2330:
2053:
794:
The creation of light elements during BBN was dependent on a number of parameters; among those was the neutron–proton ratio (calculable from
786:
study of how nuclear reaction rate uncertainties impact isotope predictions, over the relevant temperature range, was carried out in 1993.
601:
3007:
Burles, Scott; Kenneth M. Nollett; Michael S. Turner (2001). "What Is The BBN Prediction for the Baryon
Density and How Reliable Is It?".
2898:
3312:
2494:
A. Coc; et al. (2004). "Updated Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements".
1628:
2938:
Burles, Scott; Nollett, Kenneth M.; Turner, Michael S. (1999-03-19). "Big-Bang
Nucleosynthesis: Linking Inner Space and Outer Space".
2399:
2380:
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T. M. Bania, R. T. Rood & D. S. Balser (2002). "The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way".
1600:
1581:
813:
3581:
1735:) or by observing objects that are very far away, and thus can be seen in a very early stage of their evolution (such as distant
1689:
temperatures after no more than a few minutes. It would also be necessary for the deuterium to be swept away before it reoccurs.
2036:
Michael S. Smith, Lawrence H. Kawano and Robert A. Malaney, The
Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 85:219-247, 1993 April.
1607:
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2120:
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1742:
As noted above, in the standard picture of BBN, all of the light element abundances depend on the amount of ordinary matter (
3101:
3274:
1774:
335:
1813:
In addition to the standard BBN scenario there are numerous non-standard BBN scenarios. These should not be confused with
1614:
918:
3393:
2960:
Cyburt, Richard H.; Fields, Brian D.; Olive, Keith A.; Yeh, Tsung-Han (February 2016). "Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis: 2015".
1089:
3472:
3408:
2545:
K. A. Olive & E. A. Skillman (2004). "A Realistic
Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance".
1284:
1647:
1596:
1352:
1148:
1039:
544:
2233:
Bludman, S. A. (December 1998). "Baryonic Mass
Fraction in Rich Clusters and the Total Mass Density in the Cosmos".
1216:
1470:
594:
3495:
3279:
C. Pitrou, A. Coc, J.-P. Uzan, E. Vangioni, Precision big bang nucleosynthesis with improved Helium-4 predictions
2639:
J. M. O'Meara; et al. (2001). "The
Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619".
3403:
3305:
1489:
indicating the origins – including big bang nucleosynthesis – of the elements. All elements above 103 (
177:
1789:. The discrepancy is a factor of 2.4―4.3 below the theoretically predicted value. This discrepancy, called the "
2288:
1585:
539:
263:
253:
2415:
R. H. Cyburt, B. D. Fields & K. A. Olive (2008). "A Bitter Pill: The Primordial Lithium Problem Worsens".
3425:
1863:
182:
105:
3150:
These two 1948 papers of Gamow laid the foundation for our present understanding of big-bang nucleosynthesis
1790:
3199:
Alpher, R. A. (1948). "A Neutron-Capture Theory of the Formation and Relative Abundance of the Elements".
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587:
563:
110:
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329:
309:
117:
62:
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3397:
155:
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2020:
Robert V. Wagoner, William A. Fowler, and F. Hoyle, The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 148, April 1967.
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Elements heavier than lithium are thought to have been created later in the life of the Universe by
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3117:
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324:
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1858:
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1728:
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783:
721:
292:
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3234:(1948), 1577. This paper contains the first estimate of the present temperature of the universe
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2842:
1814:
1751:
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The initial conditions (neutron–proton ratio) were set in the first second after the Big Bang.
2875:
2235:
1698:
1505:. This deficit of larger atoms also limited the amounts of lithium-7 produced during BBN. In
497:
299:
241:
2714:
3247:
3208:
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3133:
3026:
2979:
2812:
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2710:
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2513:
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1989:
1938:
1514:
510:
482:
304:
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8:
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2189:
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658:
is thought by most cosmologists to have occurred from 10 seconds to 20 minutes after the
402:
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57:
3251:
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3167:
3137:
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2568:
2517:
2446:
2438:
2353:
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1993:
1942:
442:
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3187:
3087:
3079:
3071:
3042:
3016:
2995:
2969:
2939:
2783:
2749:
2726:
2700:
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2648:
2626:
2580:
2554:
2529:
2503:
2450:
2424:
2362:
2339:
2325:
2293:
2270:
2244:
2213:
2193:
2175:
2090:
2062:
2032:"EXPERIMENTAL, COMPUTATIONAL, AND OBSERVATIONAL ANALYSIS OF PRIMORDIAL NUCLEOSYNTHESIS"
1962:
1928:
667:
615:
462:
432:
397:
367:
314:
258:
27:
3586:
3352:
3179:
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2999:
2824:
2775:
2730:
2618:
2454:
2304:
2197:
2116:
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1966:
1954:
774:
In this field, for historical reasons it is customary to quote the helium-4 fraction
492:
2678:
2584:
2533:
2274:
3512:
3267:
3255:
3216:
3191:
3171:
3141:
3034:
2987:
2820:
2787:
2767:
2718:
2688:
2666:
2630:
2610:
2572:
2521:
2442:
2357:
2262:
2185:
2108:
2080:
1997:
1946:
575:
377:
213:
82:
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be consistent with a model that presumes that most of the universe is composed of
778:, symbol Y, so that 25% helium-4 means that helium-4 atoms account for 25% of the
387:
362:
3105:
3098:
2991:
2722:
2403:
2384:
1980:
Peebles, P. J. E. (1966). "Primeval Helium Abundance and the Primeval Fireball".
1853:
1848:
1694:
1481:
655:
502:
437:
422:
407:
392:
382:
246:
143:
3006:
3500:
3038:
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2001:
1486:
795:
748:
732:
There are several important characteristics of Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN):
631:
487:
447:
2927:
1950:
1509:, the bottleneck is passed by triple collisions of helium-4 nuclei, producing
662:. It is thought to be responsible for the formation of most of the universe's
3570:
3145:
1958:
472:
457:
357:
3220:
2414:
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that outlined the theory of light-element production in the early universe.
3524:
3415:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3364:
3342:
3290:
3183:
3124:
Gamow, G. (1948). "The Origin of Elements and the Separation of Galaxies".
3059:
2937:
2779:
2622:
1826:
1732:
1497:
Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced very few nuclei of elements heavier than
1466:
1441:
714:
694:
477:
452:
427:
412:
268:
3238:
Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R.; Gamow, G. (1948). "Evolution of the Universe".
2592:
1766:
of baryon-to-photon values which can account for all of the observations?
3370:
3227:
R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, "On the Relative Abundance of the Elements,"
3091:
3078:; Forensic Cosmology: Probing Baryons and Neutrinos With BBN and the CBR
3075:
3021:
2944:
2754:
2705:
2653:
2559:
2508:
2249:
1678:
1454:
1446:
710:
225:
218:
2771:
3448:
3443:
3083:
1769:
More recently, the question has changed: Precision observations of the
1588: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1490:
1465:
The history of Big Bang nucleosynthesis began with the calculations of
643:
467:
3467:
2295:
The Big Bang and Other Explosions in Nuclear and Particle Astrophysics
1919:
Coc, Alain; Vangioni, Elisabeth (2017). "Primordial nucleosynthesis".
739:
The universe was very close to homogeneous at this time, and strongly
3453:
3259:
3175:
3070:
Steigman, Gary, Primordial Nucleosynthesis: Successes And Challenges
2846:
2738:"A probable stellar solution to the cosmological lithium discrepancy"
2138:"Equilibrium and change: The physics behind Big Bang Nucleosynthesis"
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2614:
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1933:
1838:
1818:
1530:
768:
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670:
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639:
150:
52:
45:
2429:
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3438:
2317:
1747:
1710:
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1502:
1501:
due to a bottleneck: the absence of a stable nucleus with 8 or 5
1498:
1450:
702:
686:
635:
2470:"Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation"
2899:"Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Cooking up the first light elements"
1743:
1736:
1670:
1510:
907:{\displaystyle {\ce {n\ +e+<=>{\overline {\nu }}_{e}+p}}}
678:
663:
647:
2024:
3086:; and Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Probing the First 20 Minutes
2864:
The Cosmic Compendium: The Big Bang & the Early Universe
35:
2049:"Primordial Nucleosynthesis in the Precision Cosmology Era"
779:
3519:
2837:
Soler, F. J. P., Froggatt, C. D., & Muheim, F., eds.,
2691:(2005). "The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars".
2540:
For the observational values, see the following articles:
1886:
Patrignani, C.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2016).
693:(Li). In addition to these stable nuclei, two unstable or
673:(He)), along with small fractions of the hydrogen isotope
2839:
Neutrinos in Particle Physics, Astrophysics and Cosmology
2544:
942:
894:
2016:"ON THE SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS AT VERY HIGH TEMPERATURES"
724:, through the formation, evolution and death of stars.
2686:
1758:
of the light element observations be explained with a
966:
858:
717:
later decayed into He and Li, respectively, as above.
3484:
1355:
1287:
1219:
1151:
1092:
1042:
1005:{\displaystyle {\ce {n \ + \nu_{e}<=> p + e-}}}
921:
816:
2959:
1718:
3154:Gamow, G. (1948). "The Evolution of the Universe".
1137:{\displaystyle {\ce {p + ^2H -> ^3He + \gamma}}}
2292:
2008:
1408:
1340:
1272:
1204:
1136:
1077:
1004:
906:
3237:
2638:
2490:For a recent calculation of BBN predictions, see
1449:decay of the two major unstable products of BBN,
1341:{\displaystyle {\ce {^3He + ^2H -> ^4He + p}}}
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973:
956:
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866:
865:
848:
847:
3568:
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1973:
1409:{\displaystyle {\ce {^3H + ^2H -> ^4He + n}}}
1205:{\displaystyle {\ce {^2H + ^2H -> ^3He + n}}}
1078:{\displaystyle {\ce {p + n -> ^2H + \gamma}}}
3060:Non-Standard Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Scenarios
1273:{\displaystyle {\ce {^2H + ^2H -> ^3H + p}}}
2802:
2417:Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
2232:
1912:
3306:
2331:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science
2166:Coc, A (2017). "Primordial Nucleosynthesis".
2054:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science
2046:
650:as a nucleus) during the early phases of the
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1918:
754:It was widespread, encompassing the entire
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3275:Java Big Bang element abundance calculator
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2378:"Chapter 12: Cosmic Background Radiation"
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1648:Learn how and when to remove this message
1493:) are also man-made and are not included.
751:reactions to occur at a significant rate.
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2397:"Unit 4: The Evolution Of The Universe"
2299:. Singapore: World Scientific. p.
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1979:
1921:International Journal of Modern Physics
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685:(He), and a very small fraction of the
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2493:
2323:
1752:universe is presumed to be homogeneous
1024:
3294:
3153:
3123:
3096:R. A. Alpher, H. A. Bethe, G. Gamow,
2933:Big Bang nucleosynthesis on arxiv.org
2168:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
2086:10.1146/annurev.nucl.56.080805.140437
1881:
1879:
1771:cosmic microwave background radiation
2953:
1775:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
1586:adding citations to reliable sources
1557:
1460:
3065:Max-Planck-Institut fĂĽr Astrophysik
2165:
1469:in the 1940s. Alpher published the
1440:As the universe expands, it cools.
13:
3473:Graphical timeline of the Big Bang
2363:10.1146/annurev-nucl-102010-130445
2159:
1876:
727:
697:isotopes were produced: the heavy
330:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF")
14:
3598:
2896:
2885:
2467:
2135:
1731:has taken place (such as certain
1719:Measurements and status of theory
1476:
634:other than those of the lightest
545:Timeline of cosmological theories
310:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)
16:Process during the early universe
3554:
3542:
3530:
3518:
3506:
3494:
3466:
2326:"The Primordial Lithium Problem"
1908:from the original on 2016-12-01.
1562:
569:
558:
557:
3099:The Origin of Chemical Elements
2856:
2831:
2461:
2408:
2389:
2370:
2281:
2226:
2204:
1797:, especially the abundances of
1795:proton–proton nuclear reactions
1573:needs additional citations for
798:) and the baryon-photon ratio.
767:, about 0.01% of deuterium and
325:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS)
178:Future of an expanding universe
3582:Physical cosmological concepts
2190:10.1088/1742-6596/665/1/012001
2129:
2101:
2040:
1384:
1316:
1248:
1180:
1112:
1053:
976:
951:
868:
843:
540:History of the Big Bang theory
336:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
1:
2736:A. Korn; et al. (2006).
2447:10.1088/1475-7516/2008/11/012
1869:
1864:Ultimate fate of the universe
532:Discovery of cosmic microwave
183:Ultimate fate of the universe
2992:10.1103/RevModPhys.88.015004
2825:10.1016/0370-1573(93)90134-Y
2693:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2030:Smith, Kawano, and Malaney.
1791:cosmological lithium problem
1547:
883:
7:
3116:(1948), 803. The so-called
1832:
1524:
1427:
300:Black Hole Initiative (BHI)
10:
3603:
3434:Heat death of the universe
3330:Chronology of the universe
3039:10.1103/PhysRevD.63.063512
2723:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491
2014:Wagoner, Fowler and Hoyle
2002:10.1103/PhysRevLett.16.410
1888:"Big-Bang nucleosynthesis"
1844:Chronology of the universe
1708:
1704:
1597:"Big Bang nucleosynthesis"
1551:
1528:
624:primordial nucleosynthesis
63:Chronology of the universe
3462:
3424:
3328:
2324:Fields, Brian D. (2011).
1951:10.1142/S0218301317410026
1746:) relative to radiation (
1398:
1383:
1368:
1330:
1315:
1300:
1262:
1247:
1232:
1194:
1179:
1164:
1126:
1111:
1067:
156:Expansion of the universe
3390:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
3322:Timeline of the Big Bang
3146:10.1103/physrev.74.505.2
2928:BBN (cosmology tutorial)
1471:Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper
1393:
1387:
1378:
1372:
1363:
1357:
1325:
1319:
1310:
1304:
1295:
1289:
1257:
1251:
1242:
1236:
1227:
1221:
1189:
1183:
1174:
1168:
1159:
1153:
1121:
1115:
1106:
1100:
1062:
1056:
620:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
320:Planck space observatory
106:Gravitational wave (GWB)
3348:Grand unification epoch
3221:10.1103/PhysRev.74.1737
3054:: FERMILAB-Pub-00-239-A
2715:2005A&A...442..961C
1982:Physical Review Letters
1859:Stellar nucleosynthesis
1729:stellar nucleosynthesis
1542:stellar nucleosynthesis
722:stellar nucleosynthesis
630:) is the production of
173:Inhomogeneous cosmology
2891:For a general audience
2047:Gary Steigman (2007).
1815:non-standard cosmology
1809:Non-standard scenarios
1494:
1410:
1342:
1274:
1206:
1138:
1079:
1006:
908:
796:Standard Model physics
2641:Astrophysical Journal
2547:Astrophysical Journal
2496:Astrophysical Journal
2395:David Toback (2009).
2376:David Toback (2009).
2236:Astrophysical Journal
1699:cosmic ray spallation
1484:
1411:
1343:
1275:
1207:
1139:
1080:
1007:
909:
646:, H, having a single
626:, and abbreviated as
264:Large-scale structure
242:Shape of the universe
3426:Fate of the universe
3057:Jedamzik, Karsten, "
2687:C. Charbonnel &
2115:. World Scientific.
2113:Nuclei in the Cosmos
2109:Bertulani, Carlos A.
1697:. During the 1970s,
1582:improve this article
1515:triple-alpha process
1353:
1285:
1217:
1149:
1090:
1040:
919:
814:
802:Neutron–proton ratio
790:Important parameters
576:Astronomy portal
534:background radiation
511:List of cosmologists
3252:1948Natur.162..774A
3213:1948PhRv...74.1737A
3168:1948Natur.162..680G
3138:1948PhRv...74..505G
3031:2001PhRvD..63f3512B
2984:2016RvMP...88a5004C
2817:1993PhR...229..145M
2772:10.1038/nature05011
2764:2006Natur.442..657K
2663:2001ApJ...552..718O
2607:2002Natur.415...54B
2569:2004ApJ...617...29O
2518:2004ApJ...600..544C
2439:2008JCAP...11..012C
2354:2011ARNPS..61...47F
2259:1998ApJ...508..535B
2077:2007ARNPS..57..463S
1994:1966PhRvL..16..410P
1943:2017IJMPE..2641002C
1787:Population II stars
1025:Baryon–photon ratio
962:
944:
896:
854:
756:observable universe
276:Structure formation
168:Friedmann equations
58:Age of the universe
22:Part of a series on
3357:Inflationary epoch
3104:2013-02-07 at the
2909:on 8 February 2007
2480:on 8 February 2007
2402:2010-07-06 at the
2383:2010-07-06 at the
2148:on 8 February 2007
1685:than is observed.
1495:
1406:
1338:
1270:
1202:
1134:
1075:
1002:
981:
932:
904:
877:
873:
616:physical cosmology
315:Dark Energy Survey
259:Large quasar group
28:Physical cosmology
3482:
3481:
3394:Matter domination
3353:Electroweak epoch
3246:(4124): 774–775.
3207:(12): 1737–1742.
2954:Academic articles
2862:Anderson, R. W.,
2310:978-981-02-2024-2
2122:978-981-4417-66-2
1658:
1657:
1650:
1632:
1485:A version of the
1461:History of theory
1421:
1420:
1404:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1379:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1364:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1336:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1311:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1268:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1243:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1228:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1200:
1190:
1188:
1187:
1186:
1175:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1107:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1096:
1063:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1052:
1046:
994:
987:
983:
939:
928:
925:
902:
891:
886:
875:
830:
823:
820:
715:unstable isotopes
705:(H or T) and the
612:
611:
283:
282:
125:
124:
3594:
3559:
3558:
3557:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3535:
3534:
3533:
3523:
3522:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3499:
3498:
3490:
3470:
3315:
3308:
3301:
3292:
3291:
3271:
3260:10.1038/162774b0
3224:
3195:
3176:10.1038/162680a0
3149:
3092:astro-ph/0307244
3076:astro-ph/0511534
3050:
3024:
3022:astro-ph/0008495
3003:
2977:
2949:
2947:
2945:astro-ph/9903300
2917:
2915:
2914:
2905:. Archived from
2879:
2872:Lulu Press, Inc.
2860:
2854:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2800:
2794:
2791:
2757:
2755:astro-ph/0608201
2734:
2708:
2706:astro-ph/0505247
2682:
2656:
2654:astro-ph/0011179
2634:
2588:
2562:
2560:astro-ph/0405588
2537:
2511:
2509:astro-ph/0309480
2488:
2486:
2485:
2476:. Archived from
2465:
2459:
2458:
2432:
2412:
2406:
2393:
2387:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2347:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2298:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2252:
2250:astro-ph/9706047
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2183:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2144:. Archived from
2133:
2127:
2126:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2088:
2070:
2044:
2038:
2028:
2022:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1936:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1892:
1883:
1804:
1800:
1653:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1633:
1631:
1590:
1566:
1558:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1388:
1373:
1358:
1347:
1345:
1344:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1320:
1305:
1290:
1279:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1252:
1237:
1222:
1211:
1209:
1208:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1184:
1169:
1154:
1143:
1141:
1140:
1135:
1133:
1116:
1101:
1094:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1076:
1074:
1057:
1050:
1044:
1032:
1031:
1011:
1009:
1008:
1003:
1001:
1000:
999:
992:
985:
984:
982:
980:
979:
972:
964:
963:
961:
954:
946:
943:
940:
937:
926:
923:
913:
911:
910:
905:
903:
900:
895:
892:
889:
887:
879:
876:
874:
872:
871:
864:
856:
855:
853:
846:
838:
836:
835:
828:
821:
818:
604:
597:
590:
574:
573:
572:
561:
560:
254:Galaxy formation
214:Lambda-CDM model
203:
202:
195:Components
77:
76:
38:
19:
18:
3602:
3601:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3591:
3577:Nucleosynthesis
3567:
3566:
3565:
3555:
3553:
3543:
3541:
3531:
3529:
3517:
3507:
3505:
3493:
3485:
3483:
3478:
3458:
3420:
3409:Habitable epoch
3324:
3319:
3229:Physical Review
3201:Physical Review
3162:(4122): 680–2.
3126:Physical Review
3111:Physical Review
3106:Wayback Machine
2956:
2922:Overview of BBN
2920:White, Martin:
2912:
2910:
2903:Einstein Online
2893:
2888:
2883:
2882:
2868:Morrisville, NC
2861:
2857:
2836:
2832:
2805:Physics Reports
2801:
2797:
2748:(7103): 657–9.
2615:10.1038/415054a
2489:
2483:
2481:
2474:Einstein Online
2466:
2462:
2413:
2409:
2404:Wayback Machine
2394:
2390:
2385:Wayback Machine
2375:
2371:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2286:
2282:
2231:
2227:
2209:
2205:
2164:
2160:
2151:
2149:
2142:Einstein Online
2134:
2130:
2123:
2106:
2102:
2045:
2041:
2029:
2025:
2013:
2009:
1988:(10): 410–413.
1978:
1974:
1917:
1913:
1905:
1890:
1884:
1877:
1872:
1854:Relic abundance
1849:Nucleosynthesis
1835:
1811:
1803:Be + H → Be + p
1802:
1799:Be + n → Li + p
1798:
1721:
1713:
1707:
1695:alpha particles
1654:
1643:
1637:
1634:
1591:
1589:
1579:
1567:
1556:
1550:
1533:
1527:
1479:
1463:
1430:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1027:
995:
991:
975:
968:
967:
965:
957:
950:
948:
947:
945:
941:
936:
922:
920:
917:
916:
893:
888:
878:
867:
860:
859:
857:
849:
842:
840:
839:
837:
831:
827:
817:
815:
812:
811:
804:
792:
730:
728:Characteristics
656:nucleosynthesis
654:. This type of
622:(also known as
608:
570:
568:
550:
549:
536:
533:
526:
524:Subject history
516:
515:
507:
352:
344:
343:
340:
337:
295:
285:
284:
247:Galaxy filament
200:
188:
187:
139:
134:Expansion
127:
126:
111:Microwave (CMB)
90:Nucleosynthesis
74:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3600:
3590:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3564:
3563:
3551:
3539:
3527:
3515:
3503:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3463:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3430:
3428:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3401:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3334:
3332:
3326:
3325:
3318:
3317:
3310:
3303:
3295:
3289:
3288:
3277:
3272:
3235:
3225:
3196:
3151:
3132:(4): 505–506.
3121:
3094:
3084:hep-ph/0309347
3068:
3055:
3004:
2962:Rev. Mod. Phys
2955:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2935:
2930:
2924:
2918:
2897:Weiss, Achim.
2892:
2889:
2887:
2886:External links
2884:
2881:
2880:
2855:
2830:
2811:(4): 145–219.
2795:
2793:
2792:
2699:(3): 961–992.
2683:
2671:10.1086/320579
2647:(2): 718–730.
2635:
2601:(6867): 54–7.
2589:
2577:10.1086/425170
2539:
2538:
2526:10.1086/380121
2502:(2): 544–552.
2468:Weiss, Achim.
2460:
2407:
2388:
2369:
2316:
2309:
2289:Schramm, D. N.
2280:
2267:10.1086/306412
2243:(2): 535–538.
2225:
2203:
2158:
2136:Weiss, Achim.
2128:
2121:
2100:
2061:(1): 463–491.
2039:
2023:
2007:
1972:
1927:(8): 1741002.
1911:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1834:
1831:
1810:
1807:
1733:dwarf galaxies
1720:
1717:
1709:Main article:
1706:
1703:
1656:
1655:
1570:
1568:
1561:
1552:Main article:
1549:
1546:
1529:Main article:
1526:
1523:
1487:periodic table
1478:
1477:Heavy elements
1475:
1462:
1459:
1429:
1426:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1401:
1397:
1386:
1382:
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1367:
1348:
1333:
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1303:
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1193:
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1178:
1167:
1163:
1144:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1114:
1110:
1099:
1085:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1055:
1049:
1026:
1023:
1018:binding energy
1013:
1012:
998:
990:
978:
971:
960:
953:
935:
931:
914:
899:
885:
882:
870:
863:
852:
845:
834:
826:
803:
800:
791:
788:
760:
759:
752:
744:
737:
729:
726:
677:(H or D), the
610:
609:
607:
606:
599:
592:
584:
581:
580:
579:
578:
566:
552:
551:
548:
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400:
395:
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365:
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216:
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185:
180:
175:
170:
158:
153:
140:
133:
132:
129:
128:
123:
122:
121:
120:
118:Neutrino (CNB)
108:
100:
99:
95:
94:
93:
92:
75:
73:Early universe
72:
71:
68:
67:
66:
65:
60:
55:
40:
39:
31:
30:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3599:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3562:
3552:
3550:
3540:
3538:
3528:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3514:
3504:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3491:
3488:
3475:
3474:
3469:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3423:
3417:
3414:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3398:Recombination
3395:
3391:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3316:
3311:
3309:
3304:
3302:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3226:
3222:
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1895:Chin. Phys. C
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1638:February 2023
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1609:
1606:
1602:
1599: –
1598:
1594:
1593:Find sources:
1587:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1571:This section
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1443:
1442:Free neutrons
1438:
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37:
33:
32:
29:
26:
25:
21:
20:
3561:Solar System
3471:
3416:Reionization
3389:
3386:Photon epoch
3381:Lepton epoch
3376:Hadron epoch
3365:Baryogenesis
3343:Planck epoch
3243:
3239:
3231:
3228:
3204:
3200:
3159:
3155:
3129:
3125:
3113:
3110:
3097:
3058:
3051:
3012:
3009:Phys. Rev. D
3008:
2965:
2961:
2911:. Retrieved
2907:the original
2902:
2863:
2858:
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2833:
2808:
2804:
2798:
2745:
2741:
2696:
2692:
2644:
2640:
2598:
2594:
2553:(1): 29–49.
2550:
2546:
2499:
2495:
2482:. Retrieved
2478:the original
2473:
2463:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2391:
2372:
2338:(1): 47–68.
2335:
2329:
2319:
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2240:
2234:
2228:
2206:
2171:
2167:
2161:
2150:. Retrieved
2146:the original
2141:
2131:
2112:
2103:
2058:
2052:
2042:
2035:
2026:
2019:
2010:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1924:
1920:
1914:
1898:
1894:
1827:tau neutrino
1823:
1812:
1783:
1768:
1763:
1760:single value
1759:
1755:
1741:
1726:
1722:
1714:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1644:
1635:
1625:
1618:
1611:
1604:
1592:
1580:Please help
1575:verification
1572:
1538:
1534:
1519:
1496:
1467:Ralph Alpher
1464:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1422:
1028:
1014:
805:
793:
775:
773:
761:
731:
719:
713:(Be). These
627:
623:
619:
613:
338:Probe (WMAP)
272:
269:Reionization
250:
222:
196:
164:
147:
144:Hubble's law
135:
114:
89:
86:
49:
3549:Outer space
3537:Spaceflight
3371:Quark epoch
3067:, Garching.
2843:Baton Rouge
2685:Lithium-7:
2637:Deuterium:
2423:(11): 012.
2219:1403.4156v1
1777:(WMAP) and
1679:dark matter
1455:beryllium-7
1447:radioactive
784:Monte Carlo
743:-dominated.
711:beryllium-7
695:radioactive
293:Experiments
226:Dark matter
219:Dark energy
161:FLRW metric
98:Backgrounds
3571:Categories
3449:Big Bounce
3444:Big Crunch
3285:1801.08023
2975:1505.01076
2913:2007-02-24
2591:Helium-3:
2543:Helium-4:
2484:2007-02-24
2181:1609.06048
2174:: 012001.
2152:2007-02-24
1934:1707.01004
1901:: 100001.
1870:References
1724:big-bang.
1608:newspapers
1491:lawrencium
1021:helium-4.
644:hydrogen-1
373:Copernicus
351:Scientists
206:Components
3513:Astronomy
3454:Big Slurp
3404:Dark ages
3361:Reheating
3118:αβγ paper
3052:Report-no
3047:117792085
3000:118409603
2874:, 2015),
2849:, 2009),
2847:CRC Press
2731:119340132
2689:F. Primas
2455:122212670
2430:0808.2818
2345:1203.3551
2198:250691040
2095:118473571
2068:0712.1100
1967:119410875
1959:0218-3013
1819:neutrinos
1801:, versus
1773:with the
1554:Deuterium
1548:Deuterium
1385:⟶
1317:⟶
1249:⟶
1181:⟶
1131:γ
1113:⟶
1072:γ
1054:⟶
997:−
977:⇀
970:−
959:−
952:↽
934:ν
884:¯
881:ν
869:⇀
862:−
851:−
844:↽
741:radiation
707:beryllium
691:lithium-7
675:deuterium
503:Zeldovich
403:Friedmann
378:de Sitter
305:BOOMERanG
234:Structure
199:Structure
83:Inflation
3587:Big Bang
3338:Big Bang
3184:18893719
3102:Archived
2780:16900193
2679:14164537
2623:11780112
2585:15187664
2534:16276658
2400:Archived
2381:Archived
2291:(1996).
2275:16714636
2111:(2013).
1903:Archived
1839:Big Bang
1833:See also
1675:neutrons
1531:Helium-4
1525:Helium-4
1503:nucleons
1428:Sequence
769:helium-3
765:helium-4
709:isotope
701:isotope
699:hydrogen
689:isotope
683:helium-3
681:isotope
671:helium-4
660:Big Bang
652:universe
640:hydrogen
564:Category
483:Suntzeff
443:Lemaître
393:Einstein
358:Aaronson
151:Redshift
53:Universe
46:Big Bang
3501:Physics
3487:Portals
3439:Big Rip
3268:4113488
3248:Bibcode
3209:Bibcode
3192:4793163
3164:Bibcode
3134:Bibcode
3027:Bibcode
2980:Bibcode
2813:Bibcode
2788:3943644
2760:Bibcode
2711:Bibcode
2659:Bibcode
2631:4303625
2603:Bibcode
2565:Bibcode
2514:Bibcode
2435:Bibcode
2350:Bibcode
2255:Bibcode
2073:Bibcode
1990:Bibcode
1939:Bibcode
1748:photons
1744:baryons
1737:quasars
1711:Lithium
1705:Lithium
1671:protons
1622:scholar
1499:lithium
1451:tritium
776:by mass
703:tritium
687:lithium
668:isotope
636:isotope
488:Sunyaev
473:Schmidt
463:Penzias
458:Penrose
433:Huygens
423:Hawking
408:Galileo
3266:
3240:Nature
3190:
3182:
3156:Nature
3045:
2998:
2851:p. 362
2786:
2778:
2742:Nature
2729:
2677:
2629:
2621:
2595:Nature
2583:
2532:
2453:
2307:
2273:
2196:
2119:
2093:
1965:
1957:
1779:Planck
1683:clumpy
1624:
1617:
1610:
1603:
1595:
1511:carbon
927:
822:
749:fusion
679:helium
664:helium
648:proton
632:nuclei
562:
498:Wilson
493:Tolman
453:Newton
448:Mather
438:Kepler
428:Hubble
388:Ehlers
368:Alpher
363:Alfvén
271:
249:
221:
163:
146:
138:Future
113:
85:
48:
3525:Stars
3281:arXiv
3264:S2CID
3188:S2CID
3088:arXiv
3080:arXiv
3072:arXiv
3043:S2CID
3017:arXiv
2996:S2CID
2970:arXiv
2940:arXiv
2876:p. 54
2784:S2CID
2750:arXiv
2727:S2CID
2701:arXiv
2675:S2CID
2649:arXiv
2627:S2CID
2581:S2CID
2555:arXiv
2530:S2CID
2504:arXiv
2451:S2CID
2425:arXiv
2340:arXiv
2271:S2CID
2245:arXiv
2214:arXiv
2194:S2CID
2176:arXiv
2091:S2CID
2063:arXiv
1963:S2CID
1929:arXiv
1906:(PDF)
1891:(PDF)
1764:range
1629:JSTOR
1615:books
1513:(the
1507:stars
666:(as
478:Smoot
468:Rubin
413:Gamow
398:Ellis
383:Dicke
3180:PMID
2776:PMID
2619:PMID
2421:2008
2305:ISBN
2117:ISBN
1955:ISSN
1673:and
1601:news
1453:and
780:mass
418:Guth
3256:doi
3244:162
3217:doi
3172:doi
3160:162
3142:doi
3063:".
3035:doi
2988:doi
2821:doi
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2522:doi
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1947:doi
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1739:).
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