Physical cosmology

2527: 8628: 2652:, there must be an additional component making up 73% (in addition to the 23% dark matter and 4% baryons) of the energy density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to interfere with Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong observational evidence for dark energy, as the total energy density of the universe is known through constraints on the flatness of the universe, but the amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this. The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements demonstrated that the expansion of the universe has begun to gradually accelerate. 2100: 2681:': i.e. the reason that physicists observe a universe with such a small cosmological constant is that no physicists (or any life) could exist in a universe with a larger cosmological constant. Many cosmologists find this an unsatisfying explanation: perhaps because while the weak anthropic principle is self-evident (given that living observers exist, there must be at least one universe with a cosmological constant (CC) which allows for life to exist) it does not attempt to explain the context of that universe. For example, the weak anthropic principle alone does not distinguish between: 1556: 29: 8191: 580: 57: 1529:, but found that his original formulation of the theory did not permit it. This is because masses distributed throughout the universe gravitationally attract, and move toward each other over time. However, he realized that his equations permitted the introduction of a constant term which could counteract the attractive force of gravity on the cosmic scale. Einstein published his first paper on relativistic cosmology in 1917, in which he added this 4531:; Arnaud, M.; Ashdown, M.; Aumont, J.; Baccigalupi, C.; Banday, A. J.; Barreiro, R. B.; Bartlett, J. G.; Bartolo, N.; Battaner, E.; Battye, R.; Benabed, K.; Benoit, A.; Benoit-Levy, A.; Bernard, J. -P.; Bersanelli, M.; Bielewicz, P.; Bonaldi, A.; Bonavera, L.; Bond, J. R.; Borrill, J.; Bouchet, F. R.; Boulanger, F.; Bucher, M.; Burigana, C.; Butler, R. C.; Calabrese, E.; et al. (2016). "Planck 2015 Results. XIII. Cosmological Parameters". 8203: 7426: 592: 2523:, which should suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter. More advanced simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy. 2389:). One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the Lambda-CDM model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the Big Bang model and look for new physics. The results of measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses. 2103:

The inflationary theory as an augmentation to the Big Bang theory was first proposed by Alan Guth of MIT. Inflation solves the 'horizon problem' by making the early universe much more compact than was assumed in the standard model. Given such smaller size, causal contact (i.e., thermal communication)

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of the photons that make it up. Thus the energy of radiation becomes a smaller part of the universe's total energy than that of matter as it expands. The very early universe is said to have been 'radiation dominated' and radiation controlled the deceleration of expansion. Later, as the average energy

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in which structures form from the bottom up, with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as superclusters, are still assembling. One way to study structure in the universe is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional picture of the galaxies in

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An example of a gravitational lens found in the DESI Legacy Surveys data. There are four sets of lensed images in DESI-090.9854-35.9683, corresponding to four distinct background galaxies—from the outermost giant red arc to the innermost bright blue arc, arranged in four concentric circles. All of

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For a number of years, support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1965 lent strong support to the Big Bang model, and since the

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to his field equations in order to force them to model a static universe. The Einstein model describes a static universe; space is finite and unbounded (analogous to the surface of a sphere, which has a finite area but no edges). However, this so-called Einstein model is unstable to small

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As a rule of thumb, a scattering or a decay process is cosmologically important in a certain epoch if the time scale describing that process is smaller than, or comparable to, the time scale of the expansion of the universe. The time scale that describes the expansion of the universe is

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governing the universe as a whole are derived from general relativity with a small, positive cosmological constant. The solution is an expanding universe; due to this expansion, the radiation and matter in the universe cool and become diluted. At first, the expansion is slowed down by

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would have been possible among all regions of the early universe. The image was an adaptation from various generic charts depicting the growth of the size of the observable universe, for both the standard model and inflationary model respectively, of the Big Bang theory.

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Observations suggest that the universe began around 13.8 billion years ago. Since then, the evolution of the universe has passed through three phases. The very early universe, which is still poorly understood, was the split second in which the universe was so hot that

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attracting the radiation and matter in the universe. However, as these become diluted, the cosmological constant becomes more dominant and the expansion of the universe starts to accelerate rather than decelerate. In our universe this happened billions of years ago.

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and inhomogeneities to the observed level, and exponentially dilutes the monopoles. The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, but it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and

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stars. He discovered a relationship between the redshift of a galaxy and its distance. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding from Earth in every direction at speeds proportional to their distance from Earth. This fact is now known as

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There is no clear way to define the total energy in the universe using the most widely accepted theory of gravity, general relativity. Therefore, it remains controversial whether the total energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each

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of radiation and matter dilute at different rates. As a particular volume expands, mass-energy density is changed only by the increase in volume, but the energy density of radiation is changed both by the increase in volume and by the increase in the

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The history of the universe is a central issue in cosmology. The history of the universe is divided into different periods called epochs, according to the dominant forces and processes in each period. The standard cosmological model is known as the

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around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory, and the particle physics nature of dark matter remains completely unknown. Without observational constraints, there are a number of candidates, such as a stable

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of the cosmic microwave background. These measurements are expected to provide further confirmation of the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called secondary anisotropies, such as the

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Given the cosmological principle, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. Two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by

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in the early 1990s, few cosmologists have seriously proposed other theories of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. One consequence of this is that in standard general relativity, the universe began with a

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effect. This energy is not transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. On the other hand, some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense; this follows the law of

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independently derived the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker equations and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe began with the "explosion" of a "primeval

2179:, but this is not observed. Therefore, some process in the early universe must have created a small excess of matter over antimatter, and this (currently not understood) process is called 2085:

Below, some of the most active areas of inquiry in cosmology are described, in roughly chronological order. This does not include all of the Big Bang cosmology, which is presented in

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that indicated they were receding from Earth. However, it is difficult to determine the distance to astronomical objects. One way is to compare the physical size of an object to its

2547:, which allows cosmologists to measure the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen gas in the early universe, by measuring the absorption of light from distant quasars by the gas. 4751:

Naess, Sigurd; Hasselfield, Matthew; McMahon, Jeff; Niemack, Michael D.; et al. (October 2014). "The Atacama Cosmology Telescope: CMB polarization at 200 < l < 9000".

1862:. As the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes even further and the cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an acceleration in the universe's expansion. 1841:, and so move at the speed of light or very close to it; non-relativistic particles have much higher rest mass than their energy and so move much slower than the speed of light. 1639:

provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory. Hubble showed that the spiral nebulae were galaxies by determining their distances using measurements of the brightness of

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Another tool for understanding structure formation is simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of matter in the universe, as it clusters into

5004: 1648:, though the numerical factor Hubble found relating recessional velocity and distance was off by a factor of ten, due to not knowing about the types of Cepheid variables. 1688:

An alternative view to extend the Big Bang model, suggesting the universe had no beginning or singularity and the age of the universe is infinite, has been presented.

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or contract. It was later realized that Einstein's model was just one of a larger set of possibilities, all of which were consistent with general relativity and the

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Planck Collaboration (2016). "Planck intermediate results. XXX. The angular power spectrum of polarized dust emission at intermediate and high Galactic latitudes".

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Colpi, Monica; Sesana, Alberto (2017). "Gravitational Wave Sources in the Era of Multi-Band Gravitational Wave Astronomy". In Gerard, Augar; Eric, Plagnol (eds.).

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Lamarre, Jean-Michel (2010). "The Cosmic Microwave Background". In Huber, M. C. E.; Pauluhn, A.; Culhane, J. L.; Timothy, J. G.; Wilhelm, K.; Zehnder, A. (eds.).

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Abbott, B. P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger".

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Weinberg, David H.; Davé, Romeel; Katz, Neal; Kollmeier, Juna A. (May 2003). "The Lyman-α Forest as a Cosmological Tool". In Holt, S.H.; Reynolds, C. S. (eds.).

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could occur. Big Bang nucleosynthesis had a brief period during which it could operate, so only the very lightest elements were produced. Starting from hydrogen

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Big Bang nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its

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Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and

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Lemaître, Georges (1927). "Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques".

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on Earth. Therefore, while the basic features of this epoch have been worked out in the Big Bang theory, the details are largely based on educated guesses.

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Sievers, J. L.; et al. (2003). "Cosmological Parameters from Cosmic Background Imager Observations and Comparisons with BOOMERANG, DASI, and MAXIMA".

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Furlanetto, Steven R.; Oh, S. Peng; Briggs, Frank H. (October 2006). "Cosmology at low frequencies: The 21 cm transition and the high-redshift Universe".

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Scranton, R.; Connolly, A. J.; Nichol, R. C.; Stebbins, A.; Szapudi, I.; Eisenstein, D. J.; et al. (July 2003). "Physical Evidence for Dark Energy".

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Boucher, V.; Gérard, J.-M.; Vandergheynst, P.; Wiaux, Y. (November 2004). "Cosmic microwave background constraints on the strong equivalence principle".

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or a modification of gravity on the largest scales. The effect on cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark energy's

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whose nature is currently not well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many diverse observations.

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Kuhlen, Michael; Vogelsberger, Mark; Angulo, Raul (November 2012). "Numerical simulations of the dark universe: State of the art and the next decade".

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Pogosian, Levon; Tye, S.-H. Henry; Wasserman, Ira; Wyman, Mark (2003). "Observational constraints on cosmic string production during brane inflation".

3731: 3043: 552: 1549: 8121: 2451:, concluding that the B-mode signal from dust is the same strength as that reported from BICEP2. On 30 January 2015, a joint analysis of BICEP2 and 7170: 8128: 7057: 2531:

them are gravitationally warped—or lensed—by the orange galaxy at the very center. Dark matter is expected to produce gravitational lensing also.

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and lower, matter dictates the rate of deceleration and the universe is said to be 'matter dominated'. The intermediate case is not treated well

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in which new matter is created as the galaxies move away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.

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Hinshaw, G.; et al. (October 2013). "Nine-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Cosmological Parameter Results".

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Takeda, M.; et al. (10 August 1998). "Extension of the Cosmic-Ray Energy Spectrum beyond the Predicted Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuz'min Cutoff".

8240: 6207: 2365:, which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular 2053:. This is when the first protons, electrons and neutrons formed, then nuclei and finally atoms. With the formation of neutral hydrogen, the 8581: 3956: 2167:. Cosmologists can observationally deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter and antimatter. If it were, there would be 1480: 622: 3319:

Seitter, Waltraut C.; Duerbeck, Hilmar W. (1999). Egret, Daniel; Heck, Andre (eds.). "Carl Wilhelm Wirtz – Pioneer in Cosmic Dimensions".

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Lots of universes exist (simultaneously or serially) with a range of CC values, and of course ours is one of the life-supporting ones.

5015: 829: 3486: 2250:. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. The basic theory of nucleosynthesis was developed in 1948 by George Gamow, 1403: 3756:

Burles, Scott; Nollett, Kenneth M.; Turner, Michael S. (May 2001). "Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Predictions for Precision Cosmology".

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Cyburt, Richard H.; Fields, Brian D.; Olive, Keith A.; Yeh, Tsung-Han (January 2016). "Big bang nucleosynthesis: Present status".

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physics. Some cosmologists have proposed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth "sterile" species of neutrino.

1525:, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time. At the time, Einstein believed in a 4506:

Lucente, Michele; Abada, Asmaa; Arcadi, Giorgio; Domcke, Valerie (March 2018). "Leptogenesis, dark matter and neutrino masses".

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suggests that about 23% of the mass of the universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of visible,

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which aims to use gravitational waves to collect observational data about sources of detectable gravitational waves such as

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The early, hot universe appears to be well explained by the Big Bang from roughly 10 seconds onwards, but there are several

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Cole, Shaun; Percival, Will J.; Peacock, John A.; Norberg, Peder; Baugh, Carlton M.; Frenk, Carlos S.; et al. (2005).

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Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and observation. In 1916, Albert Einstein published his theory of

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Introductory cosmology and general relativity without the full tensor apparatus, deferred until the last part of the book.

2703:, which varies depending upon the theory. The nature of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology. 2526: 7340: 5179:

Percival, Will J.; et al. (2007). "The Shape of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 5 Galaxy Power Spectrum".

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Only one universe will ever exist and there is some underlying principle that constrains the CC to the value we observe.

1003: 2710:. In the current cosmological epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures larger than 6583:

Modern introduction to cosmology covering the homogeneous and inhomogeneous universe as well as inflation and the CMB.

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Nojiri, S.; Odintsov, S. D. (2006). "Introduction to Modified Gravity and Gravitational Alternative for Dark Energy".

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Munshi, Dipak; Valageas, Patrick; van Waerbeke, Ludovic; Heavens, Alan (2008). "Cosmology with weak lensing surveys".

717:. These advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe, and allowed the establishment of the 8233: 7175: 6620: 4866:

Refregier, A. (1999). "Overview of Secondary Anisotropies of the CMB". In de Oliveira-Costa, A.; Tegmark, M. (eds.).

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from forming. It is not known whether the acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing until a

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at the speed of light, generated in certain gravitational interactions that propagate outward from their source.

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George FR Ellis (2006). "Issues in the Philosophy of Cosmology". In Jeremy Butterfield & John Earman (ed.).

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The Penrose-Hawking Singularity Theorems: History and Implications – The expanding worlds of general relativity

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was emitted. Finally, the epoch of structure formation began, when matter started to aggregate into the first

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cosmological model, the most widely accepted out of all in physical cosmology (neither time nor size to scale)

8063: 7273: 7201: 5122:"The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey: power-spectrum analysis of the final data set and cosmological implications" 3954:

Frieman, Joshua A.; Turner, Michael S.; Huterer, Dragan (2008). "Dark Energy and the Accelerating Universe".

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Other, complementary observations to measure the distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe

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Das, Saurya; Bhaduri, Rajat K (21 May 2015). "Dark matter and dark energy from a Bose–Einstein condensate".

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Only one universe will ever exist and although there is no underlying principle fixing the CC, we got lucky.

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Springel, Volker; Frenk, Carlos S.; White, Simon D.M. (2006). "The large-scale structure of the Universe".

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Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and earliest structures (i.e., quasars, galaxies,

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During the earliest moments of the universe, the average energy density was very high, making knowledge of

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Dick, Steven J. (2020). "The Biophysical Cosmology: The Place of Bioastronomy in the History of Science".

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reactions, smaller atomic nuclei are then combined into larger atomic nuclei, ultimately forming stable

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Fernández-Jambrina, L. (September 2014). "Grand rip and grand bang/crunch cosmological singularities".

2774: 2719: 2626:. Alternatives to the dark matter hypothesis include a modification of gravity at small accelerations ( 2505: 2482: 2370: 1700: 1669: 799: 659: 350: 330: 138: 83: 2296:

of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant, denoted by

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also powers the most energetic processes, generally seen in the nuclear regions of galaxies, forming

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Peebles, Phillip James Edwin (April 2014). "Discovery of the hot Big Bang: What happened in 1948".

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These will help cosmologists settle the question of when and how structure formed in the universe.

2500: 2382: 2217: 2087: 2032: 1871: 815: 345: 110: 3172:. Milton Keynes Cambridge, UK; New York: Open University Cambridge University Press. p. 232. 3147:. Milton Keynes Cambridge, UK; New York: Open University Cambridge University Press. p. 228. 3094: 2425: 2049:

Following this, in the early universe, the evolution of the universe proceeded according to known

1833:, or non-relativistic particles referred to as matter. Relativistic particles are particles whose 8603: 8452: 8291: 8019: 7805: 7664: 7643: 7602: 7566: 7534: 7396: 6423: 2750: 1728: 1154: 313: 193: 7072:(subtitle) Could cosmic inflation be a sign that our universe is embedded in a far vaster realm? 8072: 7945: 7938: 7861: 7655: 7304: 6652: 5434: 5371: 5308: 4116: 3292:

Slipher, V. M. (1922). "Further Notes on Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae and Clusters".

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Another major problem in cosmology is what caused the universe to contain far more matter than

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Klasen, M.; Pohl, M.; Sigl, G. (November 2015). "Indirect and direct search for dark matter".

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Kovetz, Ely D. (2017). "Probing Primordial Black Hole Dark Matter with Gravitational Waves".

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in the universe, which have not been found. These problems are resolved by a brief period of

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announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to interstellar dust in the Milky Way.

1602:, but a physical size must be assumed in order to do this. Another method is to measure the 729:; however, most cosmologists agree that the Big Bang theory best explains the observations. 8561: 8509: 8402: 8345: 8034: 7966: 7784: 7722: 7513: 7490: 7483: 7381: 6496: 6285: 6226: 6167: 6106: 5951: 5846: 5797: 5744: 5691: 5601: 5554: 5497: 5426: 5363: 5300: 5251: 5198: 5143: 5084: 4966: 4881: 4819: 4770: 4717: 4664: 4627: 4597: 4550: 4472: 4419: 4363: 4287: 4242: 4195: 4108: 4055: 3987: 3975: 3912: 3861: 3824: 3775: 3686: 3633: 3585: 3521: 3455: 3396: 3365: 3328: 3301: 3025: 2951: 2894: 2804:

of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other

2785: 2657: 2649: 2601:. The gravitational effects of dark matter are well understood, as it behaves like a cold, 2401: 2386: 2341:

when neutral atoms first formed. At this point, radiation produced in the Big Bang stopped

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Apart from its density and its clustering properties, nothing is known about dark energy.

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Canetti, Laurent; et al. (September 2012). "Matter and antimatter in the universe".

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universe, which may expand or contract, and whose geometry may be open, flat, or closed.

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An introduction including more on general relativity and quantum field theory than most.

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Cosmologists cannot explain all cosmic phenomena exactly, such as those related to the

1661: 1611: 1583: 1564: 1522: 1423: 1379: 714: 694: 483: 453: 418: 388: 335: 279: 5703: 3419: 3384: 1751:, meaning subsequent to the Big Bang. Such reactions of nuclear particles can lead to 8456: 8316: 8311: 8301: 8100: 8086: 7885: 7870: 7847: 7791: 7559: 7391: 7376: 6918: 6898: 6877: 6853: 6833: 6827: 6811: 6787: 6768: 6744: 6724: 6704: 6684: 6677: 6660: 6638: 6616: 6592: 6572: 6552: 6526: 6504: 6472: 6453: 6429: 6405: 6383: 6344: 6313: 6248: 6122: 5979: 5967: 5911: 5876: 5862: 5817: 5764: 5658: 5646: 5574: 5517: 5452: 5393: 5330: 5271: 5156: 5121: 5106: 4889: 4790: 4729: 4570: 4492: 4383: 4307: 4134: 4075: 4015: 3928: 3877: 3795: 3706: 3614: 3537: 3424: 3336: 3173: 3148: 3123: 3098: 2959: 2904: 2899: 2889: 2797: 2793: 2602: 2444: 2132: 1859: 1712: 780: 513: 6187: 6134: 5711: 5218: 4737: 4684: 3995: 3940: 3889: 3653: 8442: 8005: 7984: 7819: 7812: 7430: 7309: 7061: 7021: 6988: 6630: 6336: 6303: 6293: 6234: 6175: 6118: 6114: 5963: 5959: 5899: 5854: 5805: 5752: 5699: 5638: 5609: 5590:"Vacuum catastrophe: An elementary exposition of the cosmological constant problem" 5562: 5505: 5464: 5444: 5381: 5318: 5259: 5206: 5165: 5151: 5092: 5043: 5038:

Cowen, Ron (30 January 2015). "Gravitational waves discovery now officially dead".

4986: 4974: 4827: 4778: 4725: 4672: 4558: 4480: 4439: 4427: 4371: 4295: 4250: 4203: 4146: 4126: 4063: 3983: 3920: 3869: 3832: 3783: 3694: 3645: 3641: 3529: 3463: 3414: 3404: 3033: 2909: 2672: 2520: 2516: 2308: 2198: 2136: 1992: 1924: 1878: 1799: 1744: 1640: 1195: 768: 745: 725:, as the leading cosmological model. A few researchers still advocate a handful of 689:

Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began in 1915 with the development of

596: 398: 234: 103: 5448: 5385: 4978: 4562: 2842:, whether or not Einstein's general theory of relativity is the correct theory of 408: 383: 8491: 8151: 7826: 7743: 7681: 7636: 7580: 7325: 7237: 7026: 6518: 6443: 6419: 5642: 4484: 4375: 4184:"Inflationary universe: A possible solution to the horizon and flatness problems" 3873: 3516:

Earman, John (1999). Goenner, Hubert; Jürgen; Ritter, Jim; Sauer, Tilman (eds.).

2884: 2847: 2666: 2598: 2512: 2443:

to occur during the earliest phase of the Big Bang. However, later that year the

2186: 2157: 2073:

formed. The future of the universe is not yet firmly known, but according to the

1775: 1724: 1682: 1645: 1526: 764: 741: 690: 523: 458: 443: 428: 413: 403: 267: 164: 6340: 6179: 4804:

Baumann, Daniel; et al. (2009). "Probing Inflation with CMB Polarization".

4036:

Ojeda, P.; Rosu, H. (June 2006). "Supersymmetry of FRW barotropic cosmologies".

3533: 3196: 3122:. New York: Hill and Wang, A division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 19. 2861: 2369:

of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments (

1844:

As the universe expands, both matter and radiation become diluted. However, the

8632: 8556: 8519: 8281: 8266: 8218: 7998: 7931: 7833: 6019: 5858: 5809: 5566: 5509: 5263: 5000: 4909: 4806:

CMB Polarization Workshop: Theory and Foregrounds: CMBPol Mission Concept Study

4528: 4431: 4254: 3389:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3254: 3038: 2495: 2418: 2366: 2301: 2227: 1932: 1845: 1838: 1622: 1255: 1215: 1175: 784: 508: 468: 19:

This article is about the branch of physics and astronomy. For other uses, see

5903: 5756: 5047: 4067: 3837: 3810: 3468: 3443: 3385:"A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" 2190: 1691:

In September 2023, astrophysicists questioned the overall current view of the

8642: 8586: 8566: 8056: 7034: 6635:

Einstein's General Theory of Relativity with Modern Applications in Cosmology

6057: 2611: 2606: 2551: 2255: 2153: 1795: 1678: 1595: 1500: 710: 663: 650:, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the 493: 478: 378: 5533:"Constraining Dark Energy with Type Ia Supernovae and Large-Scale Structure" 5097: 5062: 4208: 4183: 3924: 2706:

A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the problem of the

2557:

line of neutral atomic hydrogen also provides a sensitive test of cosmology.

2489:) is one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of 2109: 732:

Dramatic advances in observational cosmology since the 1990s, including the

8276: 8261: 8012: 7991: 7609: 7345: 6373: 6317: 6126: 5971: 5672:

Sahni, Varun (2002). "The cosmological constant problem and quintessence".

5650: 5456: 4138: 3932: 3881: 3590: 3428: 2865: 2762: 2711: 2560: 2536: 2486: 2346: 2181: 2176: 2070: 1855: 1787: 1653: 1636: 1618:, nor did they speculate about the cosmological implications. In 1927, the 1599: 1399: 1128: 992: 776: 759:

Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many disparate areas of research in

698: 679: 498: 473: 448: 433: 289: 3409: 2938:

Philosophy of Physics (Handbook of the Philosophy of Science) 3 volume set

1555: 28: 8535: 8476: 8368: 8079: 7299: 7289: 7000: 6969: 6671:

For undergraduates; mathematically gentle with a strong historical focus.

6486: 6162: 5686: 5549: 5421: 5358: 5295: 5193: 5138: 5061:

Heß, Steffen; Kitaura, Francisco-Shu; Gottlöber, Stefan (November 2013).

4876: 4851: 4659: 4414: 4103: 3770: 2946: 2843: 2758: 2754: 2643: 2580: 2448: 2263: 2223: 2194: 1905: 1794:

that permeates all space. One hypothesis is that dark energy is just the

1791: 1275: 753: 749: 246: 239: 6298: 4130: 3612:

Ali, Ahmed Faraq (4 February 2015). "Cosmology from quantum potential".

3008: 8576: 8540: 8497: 8271: 8049: 8026: 7506: 7294: 6402:

The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins

5739: 4237: 2828: 2766: 2354: 2288: 2164: 2144: 1928: 1850: 1764: 1732: 1657: 1607: 1603: 1067: 737: 488: 6949: 5322: 4831: 4050: 1027: 8480: 8432: 8407: 8392: 8286: 8250: 8144: 7471: 7108: 6469:

Heart of Darkness: Unraveling the mysteries of the invisible Universe

6397: 2770: 2738: 2734: 2661:

predicts a cosmological constant (CC) much like dark energy, but 120

2239: 2172: 2117: 1834: 1830: 1615: 1587: 706: 655: 639: 438: 20: 16:

Branch of cosmology which studies mathematical models of the universe

5994:"Gravitational waves detected 100 years after Einstein's prediction" 5614: 5589: 5532: 3852:

Frautschi, S. (13 August 1982). "Entropy in an expanding universe".

3259:"Detection of Waves in Space Buttresses Landmark Theory of Big Bang" 2860:

as part or an inherent part of physical cosmology. It stresses that

8428: 7252: 7137: 7127: 6101: 5946: 5841: 5492: 5210: 4676: 4545: 4512: 4467: 3809:

Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W. A.; Hoyle, F. (1957).

3787: 2801: 2462: 2267: 2023:

is roughly equal to the age of the universe at each point in time.

1815: 1716: 1692: 1572: 1560: 718: 697:, followed by major observational discoveries in the 1920s: first, 651: 171: 73: 66: 33: 6280: 6221: 5792: 5246: 5079: 4961: 4814: 4765: 4712: 4358: 4282: 4026:

This argues cogently "Energy is always, always, always conserved."

3970: 3681: 3628: 2800:

black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On 15 June 2016, a

7010: 7003: : A Knowledgebase for Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology 5833:

An Overview of Gravitational Waves: Theory, Sources and Detection

5406: 4626:. ISSI Scientific Reports Series. Vol. 9. pp. 149–162. 2987: 2715: 2429: 2247: 1814:

that travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the

1619: 1544:. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by 1235: 667: 2074: 701:

discovered that the universe contains a huge number of external

8174: 5178: 4399: 2414: 2358: 2297: 2243: 2235: 2062: 1811: 1769: 1740: 1720: 1668:

precise measurements of the cosmic microwave background by the

1625: 1591: 1443: 1150: 748:. This model requires the universe to contain large amounts of 702: 8337: 5588:

Adler, Ronald J.; Casey, Brendan; Jacob, Ovid C. (July 1995).

4844: 4750: 5287:

AIP Conference Proceedings: The Emergence of Cosmic Structure

4644: 4526: 2634:

is a version of MOND that can explain gravitational lensing.

2631: 2619: 2393: 2185:. Three required conditions for baryogenesis were derived by 2168: 1467: 7440: 7077: 6959: 6798:

Discusses the formation of large-scale structures in detail.

5727:

International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics

5531:

Perlmutter, Saul; Turner, Michael S.; White, Martin (1999).

4803: 2856:: a type of physical cosmology that studies and understands 2345:

from charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by

2333:

The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from

1790:. Instead, cosmologists propose a new form of energy called 686:, which first allowed those physical laws to be understood. 56: 6953: 6755:

An introduction to cosmology with a thorough discussion of

6549:

Relativity, Gravitation and Cosmology: a Basic Introduction

6335:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 53–58. 6065: 6024:"Scientists Hear a Second Chirp From Colliding Black Holes" 5629:

Siegfried, Tom (11 August 2006). "A 'Landscape' Too Far?".

4697: 3808: 2857: 2781: 2742: 2627: 2374: 2058: 1760: 1736: 1632: 5289:. AIP Conference Series. Vol. 666. pp. 157–169. 5119: 3321:

Harmonizing Cosmic Distance Scales in a Post-Hipparcos Era

2189:

in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics

1723:, were created during the Big Bang through the process of 8321: 7616: 7064:(November 2007). "The Great Cosmic Roller-Coaster Ride". 6425:

A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes

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Kirshner, R. P. (2003). "Throwing Light on Dark Energy".

2377:) and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as 2231: 1798:, a component of empty space that is associated with the 1463: 6989:

Cosmology: Methodological Debates in the 1930s and 1940s

5231: 4505: 3586:"Big Bang, Deflated? Universe May Have Had No Beginning" 7014:". Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics (LHEA) NASA 5890:

Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze (11 February 2016).

4323:"New source of asymmetry between matter and antimatter" 2824:

were formed in our universe, and what happened to them.

2273: 2042:

had energies higher than those currently accessible in

5063:"Simulating structure formation of the Local Universe" 3722:"The Story of Our Universe May Be Starting to Unravel" 2447:

collaboration provided a more accurate measurement of

2435:

polarization of the CMB, considered to be evidence of

1939:

are important for cosmological models of this period.

1610:, from which the distance may be determined using the 8616: 6058:"The Newest Search for Gravitational Waves has Begun" 5530: 4870:. ASP Conference Series. Vol. 181. p. 219. 2788:

Collaboration teams announced that they had made the

2618:, a gravitationally-interacting massive particle, an 2001: 1977: 1949: 6909:

A standard reference for the mathematical formalism.

6629: 4946: 4452: 3953: 2695:

Other possible explanations for dark energy include

2208:, rather than through observations of the universe. 654:

and allows study of fundamental questions about its

6603:An introductory text, released slightly before the 5060: 3755: 3009:Beringer, J.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2012). 2718:, or whether it will eventually reverse, lead to a 1927:critical to understanding this environment. Hence, 794: 642:concerned with the study of cosmological models. A 7030:". Division of Astronomy & Astrophysics, UCLA. 6803: 6698: 6676: 5777: 5343: 4088: 3720:Frank, Adam; Gleiser, Marcelo (2 September 2023). 3120:Many worlds in one: the search for other universes 2015: 1995:, which varies with time. The expansion timescale 1983: 1963: 1825:Different forms of energy may dominate the cosmos— 5889: 5126:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 5067:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3448:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3294:Publications of the American Astronomical Society 2827:Detection of cosmic rays with energies above the 2131:of particle physics suggest that there should be 1571:, a rapidly accelerated expansion just after the 8640: 8248: 6741:Cosmological Inflation and Large-Scale Structure 6738: 6551:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 3220: 3218: 2463:Formation and evolution of large-scale structure 1912: 1635:"—which was later called the Big Bang. In 1929, 5587: 5031: 4163:. The European Space Agency (ESA). 2 April 2013 3493:. American Institute of Physics. Archived from 3358:Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles 3318: 3249: 3247: 3080: 3078: 2935: 1548:in the early 1920s. His equations describe the 7056: 7005:". Caltech and Carnegie. Pasadena, California. 6946:– from Cambridge University (public home page) 6466: 6264:"Varying Constants, Gravitation and Cosmology" 5892:"Einstein's gravitational waves found at last" 5883: 5724: 5524: 5477: 5337: 5005:"Study Confirms Criticism of Big Bang Finding" 4753:Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics 4395: 4393: 3569:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 3167: 3142: 2322: 8353: 8234: 7456: 7093: 6471:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 6467:Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Mitton, Simon (2013). 6208:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 5622: 4859: 3957:Annual Review of Astronomy & Astrophysics 3845: 3751: 3749: 3227:"NASA Technology Views Birth of the Universe" 3215: 3191: 3189: 2519:. Most simulations contain only non-baryonic 823: 616: 6194: 6012: 5771: 5278: 4993: 4940: 4902: 4838: 4314: 4216: 4082: 3719: 3713: 3244: 3075: 2806:gravitational-wave observatories (detectors) 6874:New Perspectives in Astrophysical Cosmology 6781: 5830: 4797: 4691: 4638: 4615: 4499: 4390: 4337: 4261: 3947: 3660: 3605: 3577: 2026: 8360: 8346: 8241: 8227: 7463: 7449: 7100: 7086: 6203:"Experimental Tests of General Relativity" 6141: 6080: 5718: 5471: 5400: 5225: 5172: 4520: 4446: 4009: 3746: 3666: 3509: 3186: 3084: 2413:, which are caused by interaction between 2361:today and is isotropic to one part in 10. 2160:will provide an alternative to inflation. 2077:model it will continue expanding forever. 1891:Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric 1865: 1536:perturbations—it will eventually start to 830: 816: 623: 609: 55: 7171:Religious interpretations of the Big Bang 6850:The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe 6571:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6307: 6297: 6279: 6238: 6220: 6161: 6100: 5945: 5840: 5824: 5791: 5738: 5685: 5665: 5628: 5613: 5581: 5548: 5491: 5438: 5420: 5375: 5357: 5312: 5294: 5245: 5192: 5155: 5137: 5096: 5078: 4960: 4875: 4865: 4850: 4813: 4764: 4744: 4711: 4658: 4584:Carlisle, Camille M. (10 February 2015). 4544: 4511: 4466: 4413: 4357: 4281: 4236: 4207: 4120: 4102: 4049: 4035: 3969: 3851: 3836: 3769: 3680: 3627: 3467: 3418: 3408: 3170:An introduction to galaxies and cosmology 3145:An introduction to galaxies and cosmology 3037: 2945: 2811: 7161:Discovery of cosmic microwave background 6912: 6890: 6762: 6651: 6586: 6517: 6255: 6200: 5480:Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics 5113: 5054: 4583: 4577: 4320: 4175: 3902: 3444:"A New Model for the Expanding Universe" 3355: 3117: 2928: 2850:are the same everywhere in the universe. 2790:first observation of gravitational waves 2525: 2098: 1837:is zero or negligible compared to their 1763:. Gravitational collapse of matter into 1554: 27: 6993:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6847: 6825: 6801: 6566: 6442: 6418: 6018: 4999: 4908: 4621: 4343: 3291: 3253: 3168:Jones, Mark; Lambourne, Robert (2004). 3143:Jones, Mark; Lambourne, Robert (2004). 2563:, the distortion of a distant image by 2315:). It is frequently referred to as the 1706: 713:and others showed that the universe is 8641: 7033: 6718: 6715:The classic reference for researchers. 6674: 6657:Cosmology: the science of the universe 6610: 6372: 6086: 5931: 4527:Collaboration, Planck; Ade, P. A. R.; 4321:Pandolfi, Stefania (30 January 2017). 3988:10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145243 3515: 3481: 3479: 3382: 3224: 2831:, and whether it signals a failure of 2725: 2421:with the cosmic microwave background. 2357:spectrum. It has a temperature of 2.7 2094: 1884: 1784:accelerating expansion of the universe 1496: 767:. Areas relevant to cosmology include 8341: 8222: 7444: 7081: 6735:Cosmology without general relativity. 6699:Kolb, Edward; Michael Turner (1988). 6546: 6485: 6240:10.1146/annurev.nucl.58.020807.111839 5925: 5671: 5037: 3734:from the original on 2 September 2023 3583: 3441: 2630:) or an effect from brane cosmology. 2424:On 17 March 2014, astronomers of the 1606:of an object and assume an intrinsic 808: 8202: 6871: 6492:Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe 6396: 6330: 6324: 6261: 4700:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement 4596:(1). Sky & Telescope Media: 28. 4181: 3811:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars" 3802: 3049:from the original on 9 October 2022. 2494:the universe and measure the matter 2439:that are predicted by the theory of 2428:announced the apparent detection of 2307:), associated with dark energy, and 2274:Standard model of Big Bang cosmology 1452: 1432: 1412: 1388: 1368: 1348: 1328: 1308: 1288: 1264: 1244: 1224: 1204: 1184: 1164: 1137: 1117: 1097: 1077: 797: 544: 6981: 6784:Structure formation in the universe 6739:Liddle, Andrew; David Lyth (2000). 6721:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 5986: 4808:. Vol. 1141. pp. 10–120. 4586:"Planck Upholds Standard Cosmology" 4012:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 3611: 3476: 3089:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 2616:weakly interacting massive particle 2469:Large-scale structure of the cosmos 2379:Degree Angular Scale Interferometer 1550:Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker 744:, have led to the development of a 13: 6361: 6262:Uzan, Jean-Philippe (March 2011). 3002: 2211: 790: 351:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 14: 8680: 7176:Timeline of cosmological theories 6932: 6765:Physical Foundations of Cosmology 6679:Astronomy: A Physical Perspective 6613:Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy 4182:Guth, Alan H. (15 January 1981). 3225:Clavin, Whitney (17 March 2014). 3011:"2013 Review of Particle Physics" 2722:, or follow some other scenario. 2669:and a number of string theorists 2080: 1743:, which have the highest nuclear 566:Timeline of cosmological theories 331:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 8626: 8201: 8190: 8189: 7960:Southern African Large Telescope 7424: 6829:Principles of Physical Cosmology 5157:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09318.x 3201:The BICEP / Keck CMB Experiments 2862:life is inherent to the universe 2491:hierarchical structure formation 2363:Cosmological perturbation theory 775:, theoretical and observational 590: 579: 578: 8367: 7269:Future of an expanding universe 7008:Tyler, Pat, and Newman, Phil, " 6960:Center for Cosmological Physics 6695:An introductory astronomy text. 6050: 4346:The European Physical Journal H 4153: 4029: 4002: 3896: 3584:Ghose, Tia (26 February 2015). 3435: 3376: 3349: 3312: 3285: 2152:. Some cosmologists think that 2139:, which drives the universe to 1747:. The net process results in a 1567:are hypothesized to arise from 346:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 199:Future of an expanding universe 7166:History of the Big Bang theory 6937: 6876:. Cambridge University Press. 6852:. Princeton University Press. 6832:. Princeton University Press. 6810:. Cambridge University Press. 6786:. Cambridge University Press. 6767:. Cambridge University Press. 6763:Mukhanov, Viatcheslav (2005). 6683:. Cambridge University Press. 6659:. Cambridge University Press. 6119:10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.131301 5964:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102 3699:10.1088/0264-9381/32/10/105003 3646:10.1016/j.physletb.2014.12.057 3536:(inactive 11 September 2024). 3161: 3136: 3111: 3053: 2986:. 1 April 2014. Archived from 2972: 2637: 2574: 2498:. This is the approach of the 2477:Galaxy formation and evolution 2437:primordial gravitational waves 1854:per photon becomes roughly 10 1076: 561:History of the Big Bang theory 357:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 1: 8453:creation of chemical elements 7470: 7274:Ultimate fate of the universe 7202:Gravitational wave background 7107: 6000:. National Science Foundation 5674:Classical and Quantum Gravity 5449:10.1016/j.physrep.2008.02.003 5386:10.1016/j.physrep.2006.08.002 4783:10.1088/1475-7516/2014/10/007 4300:10.1088/1367-2630/14/9/095012 3669:Classical and Quantum Gravity 3197:"BICEP2 2014 Results Release" 2921: 2784:Scientific Collaboration and 2708:ultimate fate of the universe 1919:Particle physics in cosmology 1913:Particle physics in cosmology 553:Discovery of cosmic microwave 204:Ultimate fate of the universe 8664:Astronomical sub-disciplines 6540: 6268:Living Reviews in Relativity 5643:10.1126/science.313.5788.750 5234:Physics of the Dark Universe 4949:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4533:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4485:10.1103/RevModPhys.88.015004 3874:10.1126/science.217.4560.593 3383:Hubble, Edwin (March 1929). 2777:shortly after the Big Bang. 2747:Gravitational-wave astronomy 2400:, are trying to measure the 2226:dropped below that at which 695:general theory of relativity 7: 7192:Cosmic microwave background 7016:Goddard Space Flight Center 6917:. Oxford University Press. 6633:; Hervik, Sigbjørn (2007). 6341:10.1007/978-3-030-41614-0_4 6201:Turyshev, Slava G. (2008). 6180:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.1163 5704:10.1088/0264-9381/19/13/304 5594:American Journal of Physics 4979:10.1051/0004-6361/201425034 4914:"Ripples From the Big Bang" 4563:10.1051/0004-6361/201525830 3534:10.1007/978-1-4612-0639-2_7 3487:"Big Bang or Steady State?" 2872: 2773:, and the formation of the 2665:larger than that observed. 2624:massive compact halo object 2593:, structure formation, and 2591:cosmic microwave background 2455:data was published and the 2398:Atacama Cosmology Telescope 2392:Newer experiments, such as 2329:Cosmic microwave background 2323:Cosmic microwave background 2238:), it principally produced 2065:, and ultimately galaxies, 2055:cosmic microwave background 1897:standard cosmological model 1697:Standard Model of Cosmology 1497: 977: 746:standard model of cosmology 734:cosmic microwave background 321:Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 10: 8685: 8383:Chronology of the universe 7197:Cosmic neutrino background 7133:Chronology of the universe 7027:Cosmology tutorial and FAQ 6868:and correlation functions. 6848:Peebles, P. J. E. (1980). 6826:Peebles, P. J. E. (1993). 6611:Gal-Or, Benjamin (1987) . 6449:The Universe in a Nutshell 6366: 5859:10.1142/9789813141766_0002 5810:10.1103/PhysRevD.90.064014 5567:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.670 5510:10.1016/j.ppnp.2015.07.001 5264:10.1016/j.dark.2012.10.002 4730:10.1088/0067-0049/208/2/19 4624:Observing Photons in Space 4432:10.1103/PhysRevD.70.103528 4376:10.1140/epjh/e2014-50002-y 4255:10.1103/PhysRevD.68.023506 3039:10.1103/PhysRevD.86.010001 2641: 2578: 2506:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey 2466: 2326: 2215: 2030: 1916: 1888: 1869: 1757:cataclysmic variable stars 1701:James Webb Space Telescope 1670:Cosmic Background Explorer 1656:The other explanation was 1510: 84:Chronology of the universe 18: 8595: 8549: 8528: 8416: 8375: 8257: 8184: 7976: 7953:Large Binocular Telescope 7918:Extremely Large Telescope 7911:Extremely large telescope 7884: 7767: 7707: 7628: 7590: 7551: 7544: 7478: 7420: 7364: 7318: 7282: 7261: 7243:Expansion of the universe 7220: 7184: 7151: 7115: 7070:(print). pp. 52–59. 6913:Weinberg, Steven (2008). 6894:Gravitation and Cosmology 6891:Weinberg, Steven (1971). 5904:10.1038/nature.2016.19361 5757:10.1142/S0219887807001928 5181:The Astrophysical Journal 5048:10.1038/nature.2015.16830 4647:The Astrophysical Journal 4455:Reviews of Modern Physics 4068:10.1007/s10773-006-9123-2 3838:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547 3816:Reviews of Modern Physics 3758:The Astrophysical Journal 3323:. ASP Conference Series. 2846:, and if the fundamental 2816:Cosmologists also study: 2749:is an emerging branch of 2407:Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect 1829:which are referred to as 177:Expansion of the universe 32:Artist conception of the 7925:Gran Telescopio Canarias 7039:"Four Keys to Cosmology" 6844:Strong historical focus. 6782:Padmanabhan, T. (1993). 6587:Dodelson, Scott (2003). 6567:Baumann, Daniel (2022). 6379:The Fabric of the Cosmos 2915:Universal Rotation Curve 2808:are under construction. 2587:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 2501:Sloan Digital Sky Survey 2383:Cosmic Background Imager 2353:, has a perfect thermal 2218:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 2175:produced as a result of 2088:Timeline of the Big Bang 2033:Timeline of the Big Bang 2027:Timeline of the Big Bang 1872:Timeline of the Big Bang 840: 341:Planck space observatory 127:Gravitational wave (GWB) 8510:Agricultural Revolution 8292:Extragalactic astronomy 8020:Astrology and astronomy 7730:Gravitational radiation 7397:Observational cosmology 6995:, Edward N. Zalta (ed.) 6719:Liddle, Andrew (2003). 6523:The First Three Minutes 6333:Space, Time, and Aliens 6150:Physical Review Letters 6089:Physical Review Letters 5934:Physical Review Letters 5537:Physical Review Letters 4971:2016A&A...586A.133P 4602:2015S&T...130a..28C 4555:2016A&A...594A..13P 4209:10.1103/PhysRevD.23.347 3980:2008ARA&A..46..385F 3925:10.1126/science.1086879 3469:10.1093/mnras/108.5.372 3118:Vilenkin, Alex (2007). 3061:"Nobel Prize Biography" 2751:observational astronomy 2677:have invoked the 'weak 2319:of Big Bang cosmology. 2284:Lambda cold dark matter 1866:History of the universe 1729:stellar nucleosynthesis 727:alternative cosmologies 682:to those on Earth, and 194:Inhomogeneous cosmology 7939:Hubble Space Telescope 7248:Accelerating expansion 6802:Peacock, John (1998). 6637:. New York: Springer. 6547:Cheng, Ta-Pei (2005). 4270:New Journal of Physics 2984:cosmologystatement.org 2822:primordial black holes 2812:Other areas of inquiry 2595:galaxy rotation curves 2532: 2129:grand unified theories 2123:cosmological principle 2105: 2017: 1985: 1965: 1827:relativistic particles 1820:conservation of energy 1802:that exist due to the 1753:sudden energy releases 1699:, based on the latest 1575: 1542:cosmological principle 873:−10 — 863:−11 — 853:−12 — 843:−13 — 779:, general relativity, 37: 8654:Philosophy of physics 8043:Astroparticle physics 7778:Australian Aboriginal 7351:Shape of the universe 7341:Large-scale structure 7154:cosmological theories 6964:University of Chicago 6872:Rees, Martin (2002). 6866:large-scale structure 6675:Kutner, Marc (2003). 6452:. Bantam Books, Inc. 6428:. Bantam Books, Inc. 6382:. Penguin Books Ltd. 5098:10.1093/mnras/stt1428 5003:(22 September 2014). 4868:Microwave Foregrounds 3410:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168 2934:For an overview, see 2854:Biophysical cosmology 2840:equivalence principle 2792:, originating from a 2769:; and events such as 2565:gravitational lensing 2529: 2457:European Space Agency 2351:Robert Woodrow Wilson 2260:equivalence principle 2102: 2044:particle accelerators 2018: 1986: 1966: 1804:uncertainty principle 1786:, using conventional 1695:, in the form of the 1677:, as demonstrated by 1558: 1532:cosmological constant 1513:Timeline of cosmology 1018:Accelerated expansion 963:−1 — 953:−2 — 943:−3 — 933:−4 — 923:−5 — 913:−6 — 903:−7 — 893:−8 — 883:−9 — 674:, which implies that 285:Large-scale structure 263:Shape of the universe 31: 8562:Cynthia Stokes Brown 8467:formation of planets 8403:Goldilocks principle 8035:Astronomers Monument 7967:Very Large Telescope 7514:Astronomical symbols 7431:astronomy portal 6970:Origins, Nova Online 6864:The classic work on 6806:Cosmological Physics 3442:Hoyle, Fred (1948). 2895:List of cosmologists 2757:systems composed of 2658:Quantum field theory 2515:, superclusters and 2426:BICEP2 Collaboration 2150:quantum field theory 2067:clusters of galaxies 1999: 1975: 1947: 1937:elementary particles 1749:later energy release 1707:Energy of the cosmos 1517:List of cosmologists 1236:NGC 188 star cluster 672:Copernican principle 670:originated with the 597:Astronomy portal 555:background radiation 532:List of cosmologists 8536:Big History Project 8529:Web-based education 8376:Themes and subjects 8249:Major subfields of 8108:List of astronomers 7521:Astronomical object 7356:Structure formation 7319:Structure formation 7233:Friedmann equations 7143:Observable universe 7123:Age of the universe 7067:Scientific American 7043:Scientific American 6998:Madore, Barry F., " 6966:, Chicago, Illinois 6944:Cambridge Cosmology 6615:. Springer Verlag. 6501:2004biba.book.....S 6444:Hawking, Stephen W. 6420:Hawking, Stephen W. 6299:10.12942/lrr-2011-2 6290:2011LRR....14....2U 6231:2008ARNPS..58..207T 6172:1998PhRvL..81.1163T 6111:2017PhRvL.119m1301K 6068:. 18 September 2015 5956:2016PhRvL.116f1102A 5851:2017ogw..book...43C 5835:. pp. 43–140. 5802:2014PhRvD..90f4014F 5749:2007IJGMM..04..115N 5696:2002CQGra..19.3435S 5606:1995AmJPh..63..620A 5559:1999PhRvL..83..670P 5502:2015PrPNP..85....1K 5431:2008PhR...462...67M 5368:2006PhR...433..181F 5305:2003AIPC..666..157W 5256:2012PDU.....1...50K 5203:2007ApJ...657..645P 5148:2005MNRAS.362..505C 5089:2013MNRAS.435.2065H 4886:1999ASPC..181..219R 4824:2009AIPC.1141...10B 4775:2014JCAP...10..007N 4722:2013ApJS..208...19H 4669:2003ApJ...591..599S 4632:2010ISSIR...9..149L 4477:2016RvMP...88a5004C 4424:2004PhRvD..70j3528B 4368:2014EPJH...39..205P 4292:2012NJPh...14i5012C 4247:2003PhRvD..68b3506P 4200:1981PhRvD..23..347G 4161:"Cosmic Detectives" 4131:10.1038/nature04805 4113:2006Natur.440.1137S 4097:(7088): 1137–1144. 4060:2006IJTP...45.1152R 4038:Int. J. Theor. Phys 4010:Liddle, A. (2003). 3917:2003Sci...300.1914K 3911:(5627): 1914–1918. 3866:1982Sci...217..593F 3829:1957RvMP...29..547B 3780:2001ApJ...552L...1B 3691:2015CQGra..32j5003D 3638:2015PhLB..741..276F 3526:1999ewgr.book..235E 3460:1948MNRAS.108..372H 3401:1929PNAS...15..168H 3370:1927ASSB...47...49L 3333:1999ASPC..167..237S 3306:1922PAAS....4..284S 3085:Liddle, A. (2003). 3030:2012PhRvD..86a0001B 2956:2006astro.ph..2280E 2733:are ripples in the 2731:Gravitational waves 2726:Gravitational waves 2679:anthropic principle 2663:orders of magnitude 2648:If the universe is 2567:due to dark matter. 2473:Structure formation 2337:after the epoch of 2116:, homogeneous, and 2095:Very early universe 2051:high energy physics 2016:{\displaystyle 1/H} 1964:{\displaystyle 1/H} 1901:equations of motion 1885:Equations of motion 1727:. In a sequence of 1565:gravitational waves 1546:Alexander Friedmann 1360:Sexual reproduction 1300:Earliest known life 684:Newtonian mechanics 297:Structure formation 189:Friedmann equations 79:Age of the universe 43:Part of a series on 8659:Philosophy of time 8649:Physical cosmology 8307:Physical cosmology 8297:Galactic astronomy 8094:Physical cosmology 7336:Large quasar group 6703:. Addison-Wesley. 6701:The Early Universe 6591:. Academic Press. 6029:The New York Times 5010:The New York Times 4919:The New York Times 3727:The New York Times 3491:Ideas of Cosmology 3264:The New York Times 2833:special relativity 2741:that propagate as 2545:Lyman-alpha forest 2533: 2411:Sachs-Wolfe effect 2343:Thomson scattering 2252:Ralph Asher Alpher 2133:magnetic monopoles 2106: 2013: 1981: 1961: 1662:steady state model 1612:inverse-square law 1586:) interpreted the 1584:Carl Wilhelm Wirtz 1576: 1523:general relativity 1424:Cambrian explosion 1340:Atmospheric oxygen 1039:Single-celled life 644:cosmological model 636:Physical cosmology 336:Dark Energy Survey 280:Large quasar group 49:Physical cosmology 38: 8614: 8613: 8489:- development of 8481:evolution of life 8443:creation of stars 8335: 8334: 8327:Stellar astronomy 8317:Planetary science 8312:Planetary geology 8302:Orbital mechanics 8216: 8215: 8101:Quantum cosmology 8087:Planetary geology 7880: 7879: 7591:Celestial subject 7438: 7437: 7392:Illustris project 7062:Quevedo, Fernando 7037:(February 2004). 6924:978-0-19-852682-7 6904:978-0-471-92567-5 6883:978-0-521-64544-7 6859:978-0-691-08240-0 6839:978-0-691-01933-8 6817:978-0-521-42270-3 6793:978-0-521-42486-8 6774:978-0-521-56398-7 6750:978-0-521-57598-0 6730:978-0-470-84835-7 6710:978-0-201-11604-5 6690:978-0-521-52927-3 6666:978-0-521-66148-5 6644:978-0-387-69199-2 6598:978-0-12-219141-1 6578:978-0-19-852957-6 6558:978-0-19-852957-6 6532:978-0-465-02437-7 6510:978-0-00-716221-5 6495:. Fourth Estate. 6478:978-0-691-13430-7 6459:978-0-553-80202-3 6435:978-0-553-38016-3 6411:978-0-224-04448-6 6389:978-0-14-101111-0 6350:978-3-030-41613-3 6038:on 1 January 2022 5868:978-981-314-176-6 5780:Physical Review D 5680:(13): 3435–3448. 5637:(5788): 750–753. 5323:10.1063/1.1581786 5019:on 1 January 2022 4928:on 1 January 2022 4912:(25 March 2014). 4895:978-1-58381-006-4 4832:10.1063/1.3160885 4590:Sky and Telescope 4402:Physical Review D 4225:Physical Review D 4188:Physical Review D 4021:978-0-470-84835-7 3860:(4560): 593–599. 3622:(2015): 276–279. 3615:Physics Letters B 3543:978-1-4612-6850-5 3342:978-1-886733-88-6 3273:on 1 January 2022 3257:(17 March 2014). 3179:978-0-521-54623-2 3154:978-0-521-54623-2 3129:978-0-8090-6722-0 3104:978-0-470-84835-7 3093:. Wiley. p. 2965:978-0-444-51560-5 2940:. North Holland. 2905:Quantum cosmology 2900:Physical ontology 2890:Illustris project 2835:at high energies. 2701:equation of state 2605:fluid that forms 1984:{\displaystyle H} 1800:virtual particles 1735:elements such as 1713:chemical elements 1509: 1508: 1501:billion years ago 1475: 1474: 1451: 1450: 1431: 1430: 1411: 1410: 1387: 1386: 1367: 1366: 1347: 1346: 1327: 1326: 1307: 1306: 1287: 1286: 1263: 1262: 1243: 1242: 1223: 1222: 1216:Milky Way spirals 1203: 1202: 1183: 1182: 1163: 1162: 1136: 1135: 1116: 1115: 1096: 1095: 1089:Earliest Universe 781:quantum mechanics 666:. Cosmology as a 633: 632: 304: 303: 146: 145: 8676: 8631: 8630: 8622: 8417:Eight thresholds 8388:Cosmic evolution 8362: 8355: 8348: 8339: 8338: 8243: 8236: 8229: 8220: 8219: 8209: 8205: 8204: 8197: 8193: 8192: 8177: 8168: 8161: 8154: 8147: 8138: 8131: 8124: 8122:Medieval Islamic 8117: 8110: 8103: 8096: 8089: 8082: 8075: 8066: 8059: 8052: 8045: 8038: 8029: 8022: 8015: 8008: 8006:Astroinformatics 8001: 7994: 7987: 7985:Archaeoastronomy 7969: 7962: 7955: 7948: 7946:Keck Observatory 7941: 7934: 7927: 7920: 7913: 7906: 7899: 7873: 7864: 7857: 7850: 7843: 7841:Medieval Islamic 7836: 7829: 7822: 7815: 7808: 7801: 7794: 7787: 7780: 7760: 7753: 7746: 7739: 7732: 7725: 7718: 7700: 7691: 7684: 7677: 7670: 7668: 7660: 7658: 7646: 7639: 7619: 7612: 7605: 7583: 7576: 7569: 7562: 7549: 7548: 7537: 7530: 7523: 7516: 7509: 7500: 7493: 7486: 7465: 7458: 7451: 7442: 7441: 7429: 7428: 7427: 7331:Galaxy formation 7310:Lambda-CDM model 7221:Present universe 7102: 7095: 7088: 7079: 7078: 7074: 7053: 7051: 7049: 6982:From individuals 6952:– from the NASA 6928: 6908: 6887: 6863: 6843: 6821: 6809: 6797: 6778: 6754: 6734: 6714: 6694: 6682: 6670: 6653:Harrison, Edward 6648: 6626: 6602: 6589:Modern Cosmology 6582: 6562: 6536: 6519:Weinberg, Steven 6514: 6482: 6463: 6439: 6415: 6404:. Random House. 6393: 6355: 6354: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6311: 6301: 6283: 6259: 6253: 6252: 6242: 6224: 6198: 6192: 6191: 6165: 6163:astro-ph/9807193 6156:(6): 1163–1166. 6145: 6139: 6138: 6104: 6084: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6073: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6043: 6037: 6032:. 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Archived from 4906: 4900: 4899: 4879: 4877:astro-ph/9904235 4863: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4852:astro-ph/0307335 4842: 4836: 4835: 4817: 4801: 4795: 4794: 4768: 4748: 4742: 4741: 4715: 4695: 4689: 4688: 4662: 4660:astro-ph/0205387 4642: 4636: 4635: 4619: 4613: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4548: 4524: 4518: 4517: 4515: 4503: 4497: 4496: 4470: 4450: 4444: 4443: 4417: 4415:astro-ph/0407208 4397: 4388: 4387: 4361: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4285: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4240: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4211: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4168: 4157: 4151: 4150: 4124: 4106: 4104:astro-ph/0604561 4086: 4080: 4079: 4053: 4044:(6): 1191–1196. 4033: 4027: 4025: 4006: 4000: 3999: 3973: 3951: 3945: 3944: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3840: 3806: 3800: 3799: 3773: 3771:astro-ph/0010171 3753: 3744: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3684: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3631: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3567: 3561: 3557: 3555: 3547: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3483: 3474: 3473: 3471: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3422: 3412: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3353: 3347: 3346: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3272: 3267:. Archived from 3251: 3242: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3222: 3213: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3193: 3184: 3183: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3140: 3134: 3133: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3092: 3082: 3073: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3048: 3041: 3015: 3006: 3000: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2949: 2947:astro-ph/0602280 2932: 2910:String cosmology 2802:second detection 2673:string landscape 2521:cold dark matter 2309:cold dark matter 2199:baryon asymmetry 2137:cosmic inflation 2022: 2020: 2019: 2014: 2009: 1993:Hubble parameter 1990: 1988: 1987: 1982: 1970: 1968: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1925:particle physics 1879:Lambda-CDM model 1846:energy densities 1745:binding energies 1641:Cepheid variable 1629:Georges Lemaître 1569:cosmic inflation 1489: 1458: 1453: 1444:Earliest mammals 1438: 1433: 1418: 1413: 1400:Earliest animals 1394: 1389: 1374: 1369: 1354: 1349: 1334: 1329: 1314: 1309: 1294: 1289: 1270: 1265: 1250: 1245: 1230: 1225: 1210: 1205: 1196:Andromeda Galaxy 1190: 1185: 1170: 1165: 1157: 1143: 1138: 1123: 1118: 1103: 1098: 1083: 1078: 1070: 1030: 1019: 1008: 1005:Matter-dominated 995: 984: 974: 969: 964: 959: 954: 949: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 884: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 832: 825: 818: 812: 802: 795: 771:experiments and 769:particle physics 742:redshift surveys 723:Georges Lemaître 709:; then, work by 676:celestial bodies 625: 618: 611: 595: 594: 593: 582: 581: 275:Galaxy formation 235:Lambda-CDM model 224: 223: 216:Components 98: 97: 59: 40: 39: 8684: 8683: 8679: 8678: 8677: 8675: 8674: 8673: 8639: 8638: 8637: 8625: 8617: 8615: 8610: 8591: 8572:David Christian 8545: 8524: 8412: 8371: 8366: 8336: 8331: 8322:Solar astronomy 8253: 8247: 8217: 8212: 8200: 8188: 8180: 8173: 8164: 8157: 8152:X-ray telescope 8150: 8143: 8134: 8127: 8120: 8113: 8106: 8099: 8092: 8085: 8078: 8071: 8062: 8055: 8048: 8041: 8032: 8025: 8018: 8011: 8004: 7997: 7990: 7983: 7972: 7965: 7958: 7951: 7944: 7937: 7930: 7923: 7916: 7909: 7902: 7895: 7887: 7876: 7869: 7860: 7853: 7846: 7839: 7832: 7825: 7818: 7811: 7804: 7797: 7790: 7783: 7776: 7763: 7758:Multi-messenger 7756: 7749: 7742: 7735: 7728: 7721: 7714: 7703: 7696: 7687: 7680: 7673: 7666: 7663: 7654: 7649: 7642: 7635: 7624: 7615: 7608: 7597: 7586: 7581:Space telescope 7579: 7572: 7565: 7558: 7540: 7533: 7526: 7519: 7512: 7505: 7496: 7489: 7482: 7474: 7469: 7439: 7434: 7425: 7423: 7416: 7360: 7326:Galaxy filament 7314: 7278: 7262:Future universe 7257: 7216: 7212:Nucleosynthesis 7180: 7153: 7147: 7111: 7106: 7047: 7045: 7011:Beyond Einstein 6987:Gale, George, " 6984: 6940: 6935: 6925: 6905: 6884: 6860: 6840: 6818: 6794: 6775: 6751: 6731: 6711: 6691: 6667: 6645: 6623: 6599: 6579: 6559: 6543: 6533: 6525:. Basic Books. 6511: 6479: 6460: 6436: 6412: 6390: 6369: 6364: 6362:Further reading 6359: 6358: 6351: 6329: 6325: 6260: 6256: 6199: 6195: 6146: 6142: 6085: 6081: 6071: 6069: 6056: 6055: 6051: 6041: 6039: 6020:Overbye, Dennis 6017: 6013: 6003: 6001: 5992: 5991: 5987: 5930: 5926: 5916: 5914: 5888: 5884: 5869: 5829: 5825: 5776: 5772: 5723: 5719: 5670: 5666: 5627: 5623: 5615:10.1119/1.17850 5586: 5582: 5529: 5525: 5476: 5472: 5440:10.1.1.337.3760 5409:Physics Reports 5405: 5401: 5377:10.1.1.256.8319 5346:Physics Reports 5342: 5338: 5314:10.1.1.256.1928 5283: 5279: 5230: 5226: 5177: 5173: 5118: 5114: 5059: 5055: 5036: 5032: 5022: 5020: 5001:Overbye, Dennis 4998: 4994: 4945: 4941: 4931: 4929: 4910:Overbye, Dennis 4907: 4903: 4896: 4864: 4860: 4843: 4839: 4802: 4798: 4749: 4745: 4696: 4692: 4643: 4639: 4620: 4616: 4606: 4604: 4582: 4578: 4525: 4521: 4504: 4500: 4451: 4447: 4398: 4391: 4342: 4338: 4328: 4326: 4319: 4315: 4266: 4262: 4221: 4217: 4180: 4176: 4166: 4164: 4159: 4158: 4154: 4122:10.1.1.255.8877 4087: 4083: 4034: 4030: 4022: 4007: 4003: 3952: 3948: 3901: 3897: 3850: 3846: 3807: 3803: 3754: 3747: 3737: 3735: 3718: 3714: 3665: 3661: 3610: 3606: 3596: 3594: 3582: 3578: 3568: 3559: 3558: 3549: 3548: 3544: 3514: 3510: 3500: 3498: 3497:on 12 June 2015 3485: 3484: 3477: 3440: 3436: 3381: 3377: 3354: 3350: 3343: 3317: 3313: 3290: 3286: 3276: 3274: 3255:Overbye, Dennis 3252: 3245: 3235: 3233: 3223: 3216: 3206: 3204: 3203:. 17 March 2014 3195: 3194: 3187: 3180: 3166: 3162: 3155: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3116: 3112: 3105: 3083: 3076: 3066: 3064: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3046: 3013: 3007: 3003: 2993: 2991: 2990:on 1 April 2014 2978: 2977: 2973: 2966: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2875: 2848:laws of physics 2814: 2728: 2667:Steven Weinberg 2646: 2640: 2599:baryonic matter 2583: 2577: 2479: 2467:Main articles: 2465: 2331: 2325: 2294:parametrization 2276: 2220: 2214: 2212:Big Bang Theory 2187:Andrei Sakharov 2158:brane cosmology 2097: 2083: 2035: 2029: 2005: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1953: 1948: 1945: 1944: 1921: 1915: 1893: 1887: 1874: 1868: 1788:forms of energy 1776:active galaxies 1725:nucleosynthesis 1709: 1683:Stephen Hawking 1559:History of the 1527:static universe 1519: 1505: 1504: 1492: 1491: 1490: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1471: 1470: 1456: 1447: 1446: 1436: 1427: 1426: 1416: 1407: 1406: 1392: 1383: 1382: 1372: 1363: 1362: 1352: 1343: 1342: 1332: 1323: 1322: 1320:Earliest oxygen 1312: 1303: 1302: 1292: 1283: 1282: 1268: 1259: 1258: 1248: 1239: 1238: 1228: 1219: 1218: 1208: 1199: 1198: 1188: 1179: 1178: 1168: 1159: 1158: 1148: 1141: 1132: 1131: 1129:Earliest galaxy 1121: 1112: 1111: 1101: 1092: 1091: 1081: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1058: 1052: 1051: 1050: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1034: 1033: 1032: 1028: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1011: 1010: 1006: 1004: 999: 998: 997: 993: 988: 987: 986: 982: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 875: 872: 870: 867: 865: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 836: 810: 804: 801:Nature timeline 800: 793: 791:Subject history 765:applied physics 691:Albert Einstein 678:obey identical 638:is a branch of 629: 591: 589: 571: 570: 557: 554: 547: 545:Subject history 537: 536: 528: 373: 365: 364: 361: 358: 316: 306: 305: 268:Galaxy filament 221: 209: 208: 160: 155:Expansion 148: 147: 132:Microwave (CMB) 111:Nucleosynthesis 95: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8682: 8672: 8671: 8666: 8661: 8656: 8651: 8636: 8635: 8612: 8611: 8609: 8608: 8599: 8597: 8593: 8592: 8590: 8589: 8584: 8579: 8574: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8557:Walter Alvarez 8553: 8551: 8550:Notable people 8547: 8546: 8544: 8543: 8538: 8532: 8530: 8526: 8525: 8523: 8522: 8512: 8502: 8501: 8500: 8483: 8469: 8459: 8445: 8435: 8420: 8418: 8414: 8413: 8411: 8410: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8379: 8377: 8373: 8372: 8365: 8364: 8357: 8350: 8342: 8333: 8332: 8330: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8282:Cosmochemistry 8279: 8274: 8269: 8267:Astrochemistry 8264: 8258: 8255: 8254: 8246: 8245: 8238: 8231: 8223: 8214: 8213: 8211: 8210: 8198: 8185: 8182: 8181: 8179: 8178: 8171: 8170: 8169: 8162: 8155: 8141: 8140: 8139: 8132: 8125: 8118: 8104: 8097: 8090: 8083: 8076: 8069: 8068: 8067: 8053: 8046: 8039: 8030: 8023: 8016: 8009: 8002: 7999:Astrochemistry 7995: 7988: 7980: 7978: 7974: 7973: 7971: 7970: 7963: 7956: 7949: 7942: 7935: 7932:Hale Telescope 7928: 7921: 7914: 7907: 7900: 7892: 7890: 7882: 7881: 7878: 7877: 7875: 7874: 7867: 7866: 7865: 7851: 7844: 7837: 7830: 7823: 7816: 7809: 7802: 7795: 7788: 7781: 7773: 7771: 7765: 7764: 7762: 7761: 7754: 7747: 7740: 7733: 7726: 7719: 7711: 7709: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7701: 7694: 7693: 7692: 7678: 7671: 7665:Visible-light 7661: 7647: 7640: 7632: 7630: 7626: 7625: 7623: 7622: 7621: 7620: 7606: 7594: 7592: 7588: 7587: 7585: 7584: 7577: 7570: 7563: 7555: 7553: 7546: 7542: 7541: 7539: 7538: 7531: 7524: 7517: 7510: 7503: 7502: 7501: 7487: 7479: 7476: 7475: 7468: 7467: 7460: 7453: 7445: 7436: 7435: 7421: 7418: 7417: 7415: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7368: 7366: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7322: 7320: 7316: 7315: 7313: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7286: 7284: 7280: 7279: 7277: 7276: 7271: 7265: 7263: 7259: 7258: 7256: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7224: 7222: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7188: 7186: 7182: 7181: 7179: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7157: 7155: 7149: 7148: 7146: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7119: 7117: 7113: 7112: 7105: 7104: 7097: 7090: 7082: 7076: 7075: 7058:Burgess, Cliff 7054: 7035:Musser, George 7031: 7019: 7006: 6996: 6983: 6980: 6979: 6978: 6972:– Provided by 6967: 6957: 6947: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6933:External links 6931: 6930: 6929: 6923: 6910: 6903: 6897:. John Wiley. 6888: 6882: 6869: 6858: 6845: 6838: 6823: 6816: 6799: 6792: 6779: 6773: 6760: 6749: 6736: 6729: 6723:. John Wiley. 6716: 6709: 6696: 6689: 6672: 6665: 6649: 6643: 6627: 6621: 6608: 6597: 6584: 6577: 6564: 6557: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6531: 6515: 6509: 6483: 6477: 6464: 6458: 6440: 6434: 6416: 6410: 6394: 6388: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6349: 6323: 6254: 6215:(1): 207–248. 6193: 6140: 6095:(13): 131301. 6079: 6049: 6011: 5985: 5924: 5882: 5867: 5823: 5770: 5740:hep-th/0601213 5733:(1): 115–146. 5717: 5664: 5621: 5600:(7): 620–626. 5580: 5543:(4): 670–673. 5523: 5470: 5399: 5336: 5277: 5240:(1–2): 50–93. 5224: 5211:10.1086/510615 5187:(2): 645–663. 5171: 5132:(2): 505–534. 5112: 5053: 5030: 4992: 4939: 4901: 4894: 4858: 4837: 4796: 4743: 4690: 4677:10.1086/375510 4653:(2): 599–622. 4637: 4614: 4576: 4519: 4498: 4445: 4408:(10): 103528. 4389: 4352:(2): 205–223. 4336: 4313: 4260: 4238:hep-th/0304188 4215: 4194:(2): 347–356. 4174: 4152: 4081: 4028: 4020: 4001: 3964:(1): 385–432. 3946: 3895: 3844: 3823:(4): 547–650. 3801: 3788:10.1086/320251 3745: 3712: 3675:(10): 105003. 3659: 3604: 3576: 3560:|journal= 3542: 3508: 3475: 3454:(5): 372–382. 3434: 3395:(3): 168–173. 3375: 3348: 3341: 3311: 3284: 3243: 3214: 3185: 3178: 3160: 3153: 3135: 3128: 3110: 3103: 3074: 3052: 3001: 2971: 2964: 2926: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2882: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2870: 2869: 2864:and therefore 2851: 2836: 2825: 2813: 2810: 2775:early universe 2727: 2724: 2693: 2692: 2689: 2686: 2642:Main article: 2639: 2636: 2612:supersymmetric 2585:Evidence from 2579:Main article: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2558: 2548: 2496:power spectrum 2464: 2461: 2367:power spectrum 2327:Main article: 2324: 2321: 2317:standard model 2275: 2272: 2228:nuclear fusion 2216:Main article: 2213: 2210: 2143:, smooths out 2096: 2093: 2082: 2081:Areas of study 2079: 2031:Main article: 2028: 2025: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1980: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1931:processes and 1917:Main article: 1914: 1911: 1889:Main article: 1886: 1883: 1867: 1864: 1839:kinetic energy 1708: 1705: 1685:in the 1960s. 1623:Roman Catholic 1592:spiral nebulae 1578:In the 1910s, 1507: 1506: 1498: 1494: 1493: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1462: 1461: 1459: 1449: 1448: 1442: 1441: 1439: 1429: 1428: 1422: 1421: 1419: 1409: 1408: 1398: 1397: 1395: 1385: 1384: 1380:Earliest fungi 1378: 1377: 1375: 1365: 1364: 1358: 1357: 1355: 1345: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1335: 1325: 1324: 1318: 1317: 1315: 1305: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1295: 1285: 1284: 1274: 1273: 1271: 1261: 1260: 1256:Alpha Centauri 1254: 1253: 1251: 1241: 1240: 1234: 1233: 1231: 1221: 1220: 1214: 1213: 1211: 1201: 1200: 1194: 1193: 1191: 1181: 1180: 1176:Omega Centauri 1174: 1173: 1171: 1161: 1160: 1147: 1146: 1144: 1134: 1133: 1127: 1126: 1124: 1114: 1113: 1109:Earliest stars 1107: 1106: 1104: 1094: 1093: 1087: 1086: 1084: 1075: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1048:Photosynthesis 1046: 1045: 1044: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1029:Water on Earth 1026: 1025: 1024: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1002: 1001: 1000: 991: 990: 989: 980: 979: 978: 976: 973:0 — 971: 966: 961: 956: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 838: 837: 835: 834: 827: 820: 809: 806: 805: 798: 792: 789: 785:plasma physics 631: 630: 628: 627: 620: 613: 605: 602: 601: 600: 599: 587: 573: 572: 569: 568: 563: 558: 551: 548: 543: 542: 539: 538: 535: 534: 527: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 375: 374: 371: 370: 367: 366: 363: 362: 355: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 317: 312: 311: 308: 307: 302: 301: 300: 299: 287: 282: 277: 265: 257: 256: 252: 251: 250: 249: 237: 229: 228: 222: 215: 214: 211: 210: 207: 206: 201: 196: 191: 179: 174: 161: 154: 153: 150: 149: 144: 143: 142: 141: 139:Neutrino (CNB) 129: 121: 120: 116: 115: 114: 113: 96: 94:Early universe 93: 92: 89: 88: 87: 86: 81: 76: 61: 60: 52: 51: 45: 44: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8681: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8646: 8644: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8623: 8620: 8607:(2013 series) 8606: 8605: 8601: 8600: 8598: 8594: 8588: 8587:Graeme Snooks 8585: 8583: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8567:Eric Chaisson 8565: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8554: 8552: 8548: 8542: 8539: 8537: 8534: 8533: 8531: 8527: 8521: 8517: 8513: 8511: 8507: 8503: 8499: 8496: 8495: 8494: 8493: 8488: 8484: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8421: 8419: 8415: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8380: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8363: 8358: 8356: 8351: 8349: 8344: 8343: 8340: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8259: 8256: 8252: 8244: 8239: 8237: 8232: 8230: 8225: 8224: 8221: 8208: 8199: 8196: 8187: 8186: 8183: 8176: 8172: 8167: 8163: 8160: 8156: 8153: 8149: 8148: 8146: 8142: 8137: 8133: 8130: 8126: 8123: 8119: 8116: 8112: 8111: 8109: 8105: 8102: 8098: 8095: 8091: 8088: 8084: 8081: 8077: 8074: 8070: 8065: 8061: 8060: 8058: 8057:Constellation 8054: 8051: 8047: 8044: 8040: 8037: 8036: 8031: 8028: 8024: 8021: 8017: 8014: 8010: 8007: 8003: 8000: 7996: 7993: 7989: 7986: 7982: 7981: 7979: 7975: 7968: 7964: 7961: 7957: 7954: 7950: 7947: 7943: 7940: 7936: 7933: 7929: 7926: 7922: 7919: 7915: 7912: 7908: 7905: 7901: 7898: 7894: 7893: 7891: 7889: 7883: 7872: 7868: 7863: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7849: 7845: 7842: 7838: 7835: 7831: 7828: 7824: 7821: 7817: 7814: 7810: 7807: 7803: 7800: 7796: 7793: 7789: 7786: 7782: 7779: 7775: 7774: 7772: 7770: 7766: 7759: 7755: 7752: 7748: 7745: 7741: 7738: 7734: 7731: 7727: 7724: 7720: 7717: 7713: 7712: 7710: 7708:Other methods 7706: 7699: 7695: 7690: 7686: 7685: 7683: 7679: 7676: 7672: 7669: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7648: 7645: 7644:Submillimetre 7641: 7638: 7634: 7633: 7631: 7627: 7618: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7607: 7604: 7603:Extragalactic 7600: 7596: 7595: 7593: 7589: 7582: 7578: 7575: 7571: 7568: 7567:Observational 7564: 7561: 7557: 7556: 7554: 7550: 7547: 7543: 7536: 7532: 7529: 7525: 7522: 7518: 7515: 7511: 7508: 7504: 7499: 7495: 7494: 7492: 7488: 7485: 7481: 7480: 7477: 7473: 7466: 7461: 7459: 7454: 7452: 7447: 7446: 7443: 7433: 7432: 7419: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7369: 7367: 7363: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7323: 7321: 7317: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7281: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7266: 7264: 7260: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7225: 7223: 7219: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7185:Past universe 7183: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7158: 7156: 7150: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7120: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7103: 7098: 7096: 7091: 7089: 7084: 7083: 7080: 7073: 7069: 7068: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7029: 7028: 7023: 7020: 7017: 7013: 7012: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6997: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6985: 6977: 6976: 6971: 6968: 6965: 6961: 6958: 6955: 6951: 6950:Cosmology 101 6948: 6945: 6942: 6941: 6926: 6920: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6900: 6896: 6895: 6889: 6885: 6879: 6875: 6870: 6867: 6861: 6855: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6835: 6831: 6830: 6824: 6819: 6813: 6808: 6807: 6800: 6795: 6789: 6785: 6780: 6776: 6770: 6766: 6761: 6758: 6752: 6746: 6743:. Cambridge. 6742: 6737: 6732: 6726: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6706: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6686: 6681: 6680: 6673: 6668: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6622:0-387-90581-2 6618: 6614: 6609: 6606: 6600: 6594: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6574: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6554: 6550: 6545: 6544: 6534: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6474: 6470: 6465: 6461: 6455: 6451: 6450: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6431: 6427: 6426: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6391: 6385: 6381: 6380: 6375: 6374:Greene, Brian 6371: 6370: 6352: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6327: 6319: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6258: 6250: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6209: 6204: 6197: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6144: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6083: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6053: 6036: 6031: 6030: 6025: 6021: 6015: 5999: 5995: 5989: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5940:(6): 061102. 5939: 5935: 5928: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5886: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5834: 5827: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5786:(6): 064014. 5785: 5781: 5774: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5668: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5625: 5616: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5584: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5527: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5474: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5415:(3): 67–121. 5414: 5410: 5403: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5340: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5288: 5281: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5228: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5175: 5167: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5116: 5108: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5057: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5034: 5017: 5012: 5011: 5006: 5002: 4996: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4955:(133): A133. 4954: 4950: 4943: 4926: 4921: 4920: 4915: 4911: 4905: 4897: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4869: 4862: 4853: 4848: 4841: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4807: 4800: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4747: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4694: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4641: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4618: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4523: 4514: 4509: 4502: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4461:(1): 015004. 4460: 4456: 4449: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4396: 4394: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4340: 4324: 4317: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4276:(9): 095012. 4275: 4271: 4264: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4231:(2): 023506. 4230: 4226: 4219: 4210: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4178: 4162: 4156: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4085: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4051:gr-qc/0510004 4047: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4023: 4017: 4013: 4005: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3958: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3839: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3812: 3805: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3750: 3733: 3729: 3728: 3723: 3716: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3616: 3608: 3593: 3592: 3587: 3580: 3572: 3565: 3553: 3545: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3512: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3482: 3480: 3470: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3438: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3379: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3360:(in French). 3359: 3352: 3344: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3288: 3271: 3266: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3250: 3248: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3219: 3202: 3198: 3192: 3190: 3181: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3156: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3131: 3125: 3121: 3114: 3106: 3100: 3096: 3091: 3090: 3081: 3079: 3063:. Nobel Prize 3062: 3056: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3024:(1): 010001. 3023: 3019: 3012: 3005: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2975: 2967: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2939: 2931: 2927: 2916: 2913: 2911: 2908: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2896: 2893: 2891: 2888: 2886: 2883: 2881: 2878: 2877: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2823: 2819: 2818: 2817: 2809: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2780:In 2016, the 2778: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2763:neutron stars 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2712:superclusters 2709: 2704: 2702: 2698: 2690: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2674: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2659: 2653: 2651: 2645: 2635: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2603:non-radiative 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2582: 2572: 2566: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2552:21-centimeter 2549: 2546: 2542: 2541: 2540: 2538: 2528: 2524: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2487:superclusters 2484: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2339:recombination 2336: 2330: 2320: 2318: 2314: 2311:(abbreviated 2310: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2271: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2256:Robert Herman 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2209: 2207: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2154:string theory 2151: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2101: 2092: 2091: 2089: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2071:superclusters 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2034: 2024: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1994: 1978: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1940: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1920: 1910: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1892: 1882: 1880: 1873: 1863: 1861: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1796:vacuum energy 1793: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1777: 1772: 1771: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1711:The lightest 1704: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1679:Roger Penrose 1676: 1671: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1654:George Gamow. 1649: 1647: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1596:Doppler shift 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1580:Vesto Slipher 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1518: 1514: 1502: 1495: 1488: 1469: 1465: 1464:Earliest apes 1460: 1455: 1454: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1434: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1414: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1390: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1370: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1350: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1330: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1310: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1290: 1281: 1277: 1272: 1267: 1266: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1246: 1237: 1232: 1227: 1226: 1217: 1212: 1207: 1206: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1186: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1166: 1156: 1152: 1145: 1140: 1139: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1119: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1099: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1079: 1071: 1060: 1057:Multicellular 1049: 1040: 1031: 1020: 1009: 996: 985: 839: 833: 828: 826: 821: 819: 814: 813: 807: 803: 796: 788: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 757: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 730: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 711:Vesto Slipher 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 687: 685: 681: 680:physical laws 677: 673: 669: 665: 664:ultimate fate 661: 658:, structure, 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 626: 621: 619: 614: 612: 607: 606: 604: 603: 598: 588: 586: 577: 576: 575: 574: 567: 564: 562: 559: 556: 550: 549: 546: 541: 540: 533: 530: 529: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 376: 369: 368: 360: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 318: 315: 310: 309: 298: 295: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 273: 269: 266: 264: 261: 260: 259: 258: 254: 253: 248: 245: 241: 238: 236: 233: 232: 231: 230: 226: 225: 219: 213: 212: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 166: 163: 162: 158: 152: 151: 140: 137: 133: 130: 128: 125: 124: 123: 122: 118: 117: 112: 109: 105: 102: 101: 100: 99: 91: 90: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 68: 65: 64: 63: 62: 58: 54: 53: 50: 47: 46: 42: 41: 35: 30: 26: 22: 8669:Astrophysics 8602: 8515: 8505: 8492:Homo sapiens 8490: 8486: 8472: 8462: 8448: 8438: 8424: 8387: 8306: 8277:Astrophysics 8262:Astrobiology 8093: 8033: 8013:Astrophysics 7992:Astrobiology 7656:Far-infrared 7610:Local system 7545:Astronomy by 7535:... in space 7422: 7346:Reionization 7305:Quintessence 7238:Hubble's law 7071: 7065: 7046:. Retrieved 7042: 7025: 7009: 6999: 6992: 6973: 6914: 6893: 6873: 6849: 6828: 6805: 6783: 6764: 6740: 6720: 6700: 6678: 6656: 6634: 6631:Grøn, Øyvind 6612: 6588: 6568: 6548: 6522: 6491: 6487:Singh, Simon 6468: 6448: 6424: 6401: 6378: 6332: 6326: 6271: 6267: 6257: 6212: 6206: 6196: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6092: 6088: 6082: 6070:. Retrieved 6062:LIGO Caltech 6061: 6052: 6040:. Retrieved 6035:the original 6027: 6014: 6002:. Retrieved 5997: 5988: 5937: 5933: 5927: 5915:. Retrieved 5895: 5885: 5832: 5826: 5783: 5779: 5773: 5730: 5726: 5720: 5677: 5673: 5667: 5634: 5630: 5624: 5597: 5593: 5583: 5540: 5536: 5526: 5483: 5479: 5473: 5412: 5408: 5402: 5349: 5345: 5339: 5286: 5280: 5237: 5233: 5227: 5184: 5180: 5174: 5129: 5125: 5115: 5070: 5066: 5056: 5039: 5033: 5023:22 September 5021:. Retrieved 5016:the original 5008: 4995: 4952: 4948: 4942: 4930:. Retrieved 4925:the original 4917: 4904: 4867: 4861: 4840: 4805: 4799: 4756: 4752: 4746: 4703: 4699: 4693: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4623: 4617: 4605:. 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Retrieved 2988:the original 2983: 2974: 2937: 2930: 2885:Hubble's law 2853: 2815: 2779: 2759:white dwarfs 2729: 2705: 2697:quintessence 2694: 2670: 2656: 2654: 2647: 2614:particle, a 2584: 2570: 2561:Weak lensing 2537:reionization 2534: 2510: 2499: 2490: 2480: 2430: 2423: 2402:polarization 2391: 2347:Arno Penzias 2332: 2316: 2312: 2304: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2277: 2221: 2203: 2182:baryogenesis 2180: 2177:annihilation 2162: 2145:anisotropies 2127:. Moreover, 2120: 2107: 2086: 2084: 2048: 2036: 1941: 1935:of unstable 1922: 1894: 1875: 1860:analytically 1843: 1824: 1808: 1781: 1774: 1768: 1752: 1748: 1715:, primarily 1710: 1690: 1687: 1666: 1650: 1646:Hubble's law 1637:Edwin Hubble 1600:angular size 1577: 1530: 1520: 1280:Solar System 994:Reionization 777:astrophysics 758: 731: 699:Edwin Hubble 688: 647: 646:, or simply 643: 635: 634: 359:Probe (WMAP) 293: 290:Reionization 271: 243: 217: 185: 168: 165:Hubble's law 156: 135: 107: 70: 48: 25: 8604:Big History 8506:Agriculture 8477:abiogenesis 8457:dying stars 8398:Time scales 8369:Big History 8080:Planetarium 7737:High-energy 7723:Cosmic rays 7675:Ultraviolet 7365:Experiments 7300:Dark matter 7290:Dark energy 7228:FLRW metric 7022:Wright, Ned 6938:From groups 6072:29 November 6004:11 February 5998:www.nsf.gov 5917:11 February 5896:Nature News 4759:(10): 007. 4539:(13): A13. 4529:Aghanim, N. 3738:3 September 3597:28 February 3327:: 237–242. 3300:: 284–286. 3067:25 February 2844:gravitation 2767:black holes 2755:binary star 2644:Dark energy 2638:Dark energy 2581:Dark matter 2575:Dark matter 2449:cosmic dust 2292:model is a 2266:, and test 2264:dark matter 2262:, to probe 2224:temperature 2195:CP-symmetry 1906:gravitation 1895:Within the 1792:dark energy 1765:black holes 1675:singularity 1582:(and later 1069:Vertebrates 811:This box: 761:theoretical 754:dark energy 750:dark matter 740:and galaxy 721:theory, by 705:beyond the 314:Experiments 247:Dark matter 240:Dark energy 182:FLRW metric 119:Backgrounds 8643:Categories 8582:Fred Spier 8577:Carl Sagan 8541:ChronoZoom 8520:modern era 8272:Astrometry 8073:Photometry 8050:Binoculars 8027:Astrometry 7888:telescopes 7785:Babylonian 7629:EM methods 7507:Astronomer 7295:Dark fluid 7283:Components 7152:History of 7116:Background 6398:Guth, Alan 6102:1705.09182 5947:1602.03837 5842:1610.05309 5493:1507.03800 4546:1502.01589 4513:1803.10826 4468:1505.01076 2922:References 2829:GZK cutoff 2771:supernovae 2720:Big Freeze 2555:absorption 2355:black-body 2335:decoupling 2289:Lambda-CDM 2206:experiment 2173:gamma rays 2165:antimatter 1991:being the 1929:scattering 1870:See also: 1851:wavelength 1733:iron group 1658:Fred Hoyle 1608:luminosity 1604:brightness 1511:See also: 1155:black hole 738:supernovae 736:, distant 394:Copernicus 372:Scientists 227:Components 8516:Modernity 8498:Stone Age 8433:cosmogony 8408:Modernity 8393:Deep time 8287:Cosmology 8251:astronomy 8145:Telescope 7751:Spherical 7698:Gamma-ray 7667:(optical) 7472:Astronomy 7382:BOOMERanG 7207:Inflation 7109:Cosmology 6915:Cosmology 6757:inflation 6569:Cosmology 6541:Textbooks 6521:(1993) . 6281:1009.5514 6249:119199160 6222:0806.1731 5980:124959784 5912:182916902 5877:119292265 5818:118328824 5793:1408.6997 5765:119458605 5659:118891996 5575:119427069 5518:118359390 5435:CiteSeerX 5394:118985424 5372:CiteSeerX 5331:118868536 5309:CiteSeerX 5272:119232040 5247:1209.5745 5107:119198359 5080:1304.6565 4962:1409.5738 4815:0811.3919 4791:118593572 4766:1405.5524 4713:1212.5226 4706:(2): 19. 4571:119262962 4493:118409603 4384:118539956 4359:1310.2146 4308:119233888 4283:1204.4186 4117:CiteSeerX 4076:119496918 4014:. 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