Anti-aircraft warfare

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20 mm had already started to provide protection for the British and this was adopted in exchange for the M2 machine guns. From December 1941 to January 1942, production had risen to not only cover all British requirements but also allowed 812 units to be actually delivered to the US Navy. By the end of 1942 the 20 mm had accounted for 42% of all aircraft destroyed by the US Navy's shipboard AA. However, the King Board had noted that the balance was shifting towards the larger guns used by the fleet. The US Navy had intended to use the British pom-pom, however, the weapon required the use of cordite which BuOrd had found objectionable for US service. Further investigation revealed that US powders would not work in the pom-pom. Bureau of Ordnance was well aware of the Bofors 40 mm gun. The firm York Safe and Lock was negotiating with Bofors to attain the rights to the air-cooled version of the weapon. At the same time Henry Howard, an engineer, and businessman became aware of it and contacted RAMD W. R. Furlong, chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. He ordered the Bofors weapon system to be investigated. York Safe and Lock would be used as the contracting agent. The system had to be redesigned for both the English measurement system and mass production, as the original documents recommended hand fitting parts and drilling to shape. As early as 1928 the US Navy saw the need to replace the .50 caliber machine gun with something heavier. The 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 was designed. Placed in quadruple mounts with a 500 rpm rate of fire it would have fit the requirements. However, the gun was suffering teething issues being prone to jamming. While this could have been solved the weight of the system was equal to that of the quad-mount Bofors 40 mm while lacking the range and power that the Bofors provided. The gun was relegated to smaller less vital ships by the end of the war. The

1236: 1934: 696: 940:- the Predictor AA No 1. Given the target height, its operators tracked the target and the predictor produced bearing, quadrant elevation and fuse setting. These were passed electrically to the guns, where they were displayed on repeater dials to the layers who "matched pointers" (target data and the gun's actual data) to lay the guns. This system of repeater electrical dials built on the arrangements introduced by British coast artillery in the 1880s, and coast artillery was the background of many AA officers. Similar systems were adopted in other countries and for example the later Sperry M3A3 in the US, was also used by Britain as the Predictor AA No 2. Height finders were also increasing in size; in Britain, the seven-foot optical base World War I 606: 2167: 2473: 1562: 2786: 1440: 2651: 1324: 1283: 878: 763: 688: 1910: 2382: 2032: 1686: 2823: 866: 1543: 1347:. Operators kept it pointed at the target, and the Predictor then calculated the proper aim point automatically and displayed it as a pointer mounted on the gun. The gun operators simply followed the pointer and loaded the shells. The Kerrison was fairly simple, but it pointed the way to future generations that incorporated radar, first for ranging and later for tracking. Similar predictor systems were introduced by Germany during the war, also adding radar ranging as the war progressed. 625: 576: 1756: 1399: 680: 5604: 591: 2725: 2535: 1136: 1812: 1305: 1351: 48: 1061:. It proved prone to jamming, and was eventually replaced in AA units by the Bofors 40 mm. The Bofors had attracted attention from the US Navy, but none were acquired before 1939. Also, in 1931 the US Army worked on a mobile anti-aircraft machine mount on the back of a heavy truck having four .30 calibre water-cooled machine guns and an optical director. It proved unsuccessful and was abandoned. 1628: 796:, being hydrogen-filled balloons, were targets for incendiary shells and the British introduced these with airburst fuses, both shrapnel type-forward projection of incendiary "pot" and base ejection of an incendiary stream. The British also fitted tracers to their shells for use at night. Smoke shells were also available for some AA guns, these bursts were used as targets during training. 2396: 2892:. Firing an RPG at steep angles poses a danger to the user, because the backblast from firing reflects off the ground. In Somalia, militia members sometimes welded a steel plate onto the exhaust end of an RPG's tube to deflect pressure away from the shooter when shooting up at US helicopters. RPGs are used in this role only when more effective weapons are not available. 2619:. Often, the high-altitude long-range missile systems force aircraft to fly at low level, where anti-aircraft guns can bring them down. As well as the small and large systems, for effective air defence there must be intermediate systems. These may be deployed at regiment-level and consist of platoons of self-propelled anti-aircraft platforms, whether they are 1320:

long range, the aircraft remains in firing range for a long time, so the necessary calculations can, in theory, be done by slide rules—though, because small errors in distance cause large errors in shell fall height and detonation time, exact ranging is crucial. For the ranges and speeds that the Bofors worked at, neither answer was good enough.

2358:, it was split off from the artillery to form a separate arm of its own in 1990. This is in contrast to some (largely communist or ex-communist) countries where not only are there provisions for air defence in the army, navy and air force but there are specific branches that deal only with the air defence of territory, for example, the Soviet 322:, although field-deployed air defence relied on less sophisticated arrangements. NATO later called these arrangements an "air defence ground environment", defined as "the network of ground radar sites and command and control centres within a specific theatre of operations which are used for the tactical control of air defence operations". 842:, the 77 mm had become the standard German weapon, and came mounted on a large traverse that could be easily transported on a wagon. Krupp 75 mm guns were supplied with an optical sighting system that improved their capabilities. The German Army also adapted a revolving cannon that came to be known to Allied fliers as the " 862:. When the war ended, it was clear that the increasing capabilities of aircraft would require better means of acquiring targets and aiming at them. Nevertheless, a pattern had been set: anti-aircraft warfare would employ heavy weapons to attack high-altitude targets and lighter weapons for use when aircraft came to lower altitudes. 2222:. Long range missiles depend on long-range detection to provide significant lead. Stealth designs cut detection ranges so much that the aircraft is often never even seen, and when it is, it is often too late for an intercept. Systems for detection and tracking of stealthy aircraft are a major problem for anti-aircraft development. 360:

destroy; nonetheless, damaged aircraft may be forced to abort their mission and, even if they manage to return and land in friendly territory, may be out of action for days or permanently. Ignoring small arms and smaller machine-guns, ground-based air defence guns have varied in calibre from 20 mm to at least 152 mm.

115:, and modern NATO and the United States, ground-based air defence and air defence aircraft have been under integrated command and control. However, while overall air defence may be for homeland defence (including military facilities), forces in the field, wherever they are, provide their own defences against airborne threats. 811:(76 mm), a new field mounting was introduced in 1916. Since most attacks were at night, searchlights were soon used, and acoustic methods of detection and locating were developed. By December 1916 there were 183 AA sections defending Britain (most with the 3-inch), 74 with the BEF in France and 10 in the Middle East. 933:

targets up to 24,000 ft (7.3 km). Mechanical time fuses were required because the speed of powder burning varied with height, so fuse length was not a simple function of time of flight. Automated fire ensured a constant rate of fire that made it easier to predict where each shell should be individually aimed.

1057:. It was standardised in 1927 as the T9 AA cannon, but trials quickly revealed that it was worthless in the ground role. However, while the shell was a bit light (well under 2 lbs) it had a good effective ceiling and fired 125 rounds per minute; an AA carriage was developed and it entered service in 1939 as the 294:

usefully used. One term is "ceiling", the maximum ceiling being the height a projectile would reach if fired vertically, not practically useful in itself as few AA guns are able to fire vertically, and the maximum fuse duration may be too short, but potentially useful as a standard to compare different weapons.

2698:). Area defence systems have medium to long range and can be made up of various other systems and networked into an area defence system (in which case it may be made up of several short range systems combined to effectively cover an area). An example of area defence is the defence of Saudi Arabia and Israel by 2904:

mission in Wardak province. One feature that makes RPGs useful in air defence is that they are fused to automatically detonate at 920 m. If aimed into the air this causes the warhead to airburst which can release a limited but potentially damaging amount of shrapnel hitting a helicopter landing or taking off.

4505:"Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM) strikes on helicopters during the Syrian Civil War - I made a short compilation detailing the 8 recorded ATGM strikes on helicopters in Syria. 3 strikes on parked helis, 2 on landing helis, 2 on helis after emergency landings & 1 on heli in-flight https://t.co/Za6azGABVV" 104:). ‘Layered air defence’ usually refers to multiple ‘tiers’ of air defence systems which, when combined, an airborne threat must penetrate in order to reach its target; This defence is usually accomplished via the combined use of systems optimized for either short-, medium-, or long-range air defence. 1783:

system, an almost fully automated system including the radar, computers, power, and auto-loading gun on a single powered platform. The Skysweeper replaced all smaller guns then in use in the Army, notably the 40 mm Bofors. By 1955, the US military deemed the 40 mm Bofors obsolete due to its

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were used, mostly the former. Airburst fuses were either igniferious (based on a burning fuse) or mechanical (clockwork). Igniferious fuses were not well suited for anti-aircraft use. The fuse length was determined by time of flight, but the burning rate of the gunpowder was affected by altitude. The

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The essence of air defence is to detect hostile aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space; an attack must not only match these three coordinates, but must do so at the time the target is at that position. This means that projectiles either have

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The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure. However, many different definitions are used and unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the ascending part of the trajectory can be

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used RPGs in a direct fire role against landing helicopters. Four rangers were killed when their helicopter was shot down by an RPG, and SEAL team member Neil C. Roberts fell out of his helicopter when it was hit by two RPGs. In other instances helicopters have been shot down in Afghanistan during a

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The introduction of the guided missile resulted in a significant shift in anti-aircraft strategy. Although Germany had been desperate to introduce anti-aircraft missile systems, none became operational during World War II. Following several years of post-war development, however, these systems began

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had also put some thought into the problem, When the US Navy began to rearm in 1939 in many ships the primary short ranged gun was the M2 .50 caliber machine gun. While effective in fighters at 300 to 400 yards this is point blank range in naval anti-aircraft ranges. Production of the Swiss Oerlikon

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Until this time the British, at RAF insistence, continued their use of World War I machine guns, and introduced twin MG mountings for AAAD. The army was forbidden from considering anything larger than .50-inch. However, in 1935 their trials showed that the minimum effective round was an impact-fused

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Two assumptions underpinned the British approach to HAA fire; first, aimed fire was the primary method and this was enabled by predicting gun data from visually tracking the target and having its height. Second, that the target would maintain a steady course, speed and height. This HAA was to engage

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reported that the British government had decided to "dot the coasts of the British Isles with a series of towers, each armed with two quick-firing guns of special design," while "a complete circle of towers" was to be built around "naval installations" and "at other especially vulnerable points". By

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Passive air defence is defined by NATO as "Passive measures taken for the physical defence and protection of personnel, essential installations and equipment in order to minimise the effectiveness of air and/or missile attack". It remains a vital activity by ground forces and includes camouflage and

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The British adopted "effective ceiling", meaning the altitude at which a gun could deliver a series of shells against a moving target; this could be constrained by maximum fuse running time as well as the gun's capability. By the late 1930s the British definition was "that height at which a directly

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Most modern air defence systems are fairly mobile. Even the larger systems tend to be mounted on trailers and are designed to be fairly quickly broken down or set up. In the past, this was not always the case. Early missile systems were cumbersome and required much infrastructure; many could not be

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Larger SAMs may be deployed in fixed launchers, but can be towed/re-deployed at will. The SAMs launched by individuals are known in the United States as the Man-Portable Air Defence Systems (MANPADS). MANPADS of the former Soviet Union have been exported around the World, and can be found in use by

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Service trials demonstrated another problem however: that ranging and tracking the new high-speed targets was almost impossible. At short range, the apparent target area is relatively large, the trajectory is flat and the time of flight is short, allowing to correct lead by watching the tracers. At

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The British had already arranged licence building of the Bofors 40 mm, and introduced these into service. These had the power to knock down aircraft of any size, yet were light enough to be mobile and easily swung. The gun became so important to the British war effort that they even produced a

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prevented Germany having AA weapons, and for example, the Krupps designers joined Bofors in Sweden. Some World War I guns were retained and some covert AA training started in the late 1920s. Germany introduced the 8.8 cm FlaK 18 in 1933, the 36 and 37 models followed with various improvements,

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was replaced by the nine-foot optical base UB 7 and the eighteen-foot optical base UB 10 (only used on static AA sites). Goertz in Germany and Levallois in France produced five m (16 ft) instruments. However, in most countries the main effort in HAA guns until the mid-1930s was improving

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bombers had particularly influenced the British and was one of if not the main driver for forming an independent air force. As the capabilities of aircraft and their engines improved it was clear that their role in future war would be even more critical as their range and weapon load grew. However,

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had published any information by 1910. Krupp's designs included adaptations of their 65 mm 9-pounder, a 75 mm 12-pounder, and even a 105 mm gun. Erhardt also had a 12-pounder, while Vickers Maxim offered a 3-pounder and Schneider a 47 mm. The French balloon gun appeared in 1910,

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By the early 20th century balloon, or airship, guns, for land and naval use were attracting attention. Various types of ammunition were proposed, high explosive, incendiary, bullet-chains, rod bullets and shrapnel. The need for some form of tracer or smoke trail was articulated. Fuzing options were

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Batteries are usually grouped into battalions or equivalent. In the field army, a light gun or SHORAD battalion is often assigned to a manoeuvre division. Heavier guns and long-range missiles may be in air-defence brigades and come under corps or higher command. Homeland air defence may have a full

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The basic air defence unit is typically a battery with 2 to 12 guns or missile launchers and fire control elements. These batteries, particularly with guns, usually deploy in a small area, although batteries may be split; this is usual for some missile systems. SHORAD missile batteries often deploy

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tested a railgun; it fired a shell at 5,600 miles (9,000 km) per hour using 10 megajoules of energy. Its expected performance is over 13,000 miles (21,000 km) per hour muzzle velocity, accurate enough to hit a 5-metre target from 200 nautical miles (370 km) away while shooting at 10

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Although the firearms used by the infantry, particularly machine guns, can be used to engage low altitude air targets, on occasion with notable success, their effectiveness is generally limited and the muzzle flashes reveal infantry positions. Speed and altitude of modern jet aircraft limit target

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In 1939 radio controlled drones became available to actually test existing systems in British and American service. The results were disappointing by any measure. High-level manoeuvring drones were virtually immune to shipboard AA systems. The US drones could simulate dive bombing which showed the

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The US ended World War I with two 3-inch AA guns and improvements were developed throughout the inter-war period. However, in 1924 work started on a new 105 mm static mounting AA gun, but only a few were produced by the mid-1930s because by this time work had started on the 90 mm AA gun,

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However, the problem of deflection settings — "aim-off" — required knowing the rate of change in the target's position. Both France and the UK introduced tachymetric devices to track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles. The French Brocq system was electrical; the operator

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AA gunnery was a difficult business. The problem was of successfully aiming a shell to burst close to its target's future position, with various factors affecting the shells' predicted trajectory. This was called deflection gun-laying, where "off-set" angles for range and elevation were set on the

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Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions were the standard weapon; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges. However, the type of shell or warhead and its fuzing and, with missiles, the guidance arrangement were and are varied. Targets are not always easy to

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Throughout the 20th century, air defence was one of the fastest-evolving areas of military technology, responding to the evolution of aircraft and exploiting technology such as radar, guided missiles and computing (initially electromechanical analogue computing from the 1930s on, as with equipment

1735:. With the liberation of Antwerp, the port city immediately became the highest priority target, and received the largest number of V-1 and V-2 missiles of any city. The smallest tactical unit of the operation was a gun battery consisting of four 90 mm guns firing shells equipped with a radio 1000:

in a twin turret, which the army adopted in simplified single-gun mountings for static positions, mostly around ports where naval ammunition was available. The performance of the new guns was limited by their standard fuse No 199, with a 30-second running time, although a new mechanical time fuse

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As aircraft started to be used against ground targets on the battlefield, the AA guns could not be traversed quickly enough at close targets and, being relatively few, were not always in the right place (and were often unpopular with other troops), so changed positions frequently. Soon the forces

5016: 2806:, command posts etc.) benefit from being mounted on a fleet of vehicles. In general, a fixed system can be identified, attacked and destroyed whereas a mobile system can show up in places where it is not expected. Soviet systems especially concentrate on mobility, after the lessons learnt in the 1100:

WWI had been a war in which air warfare blossomed, but had not matured to the point of being a real threat to naval forces. The prevailing assumption was that a few relatively small caliber naval guns could manage to keep enemy aircraft beyond a range where harm might be expected. In 1939 radio

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Four years of war had seen the creation of a new and technically demanding branch of military activity. Air defence had made huge advances, albeit from a very low starting point. However, it was new and often lacked influential 'friends' in the competition for a share of limited defence budgets.

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mounted on a tripod. It measured the distance to the target and the elevation angle, which together gave the height of the aircraft. These were complex instruments and various other methods were also used. The HRF was soon joined by the height/fuse indicator (HFI), this was marked with elevation

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and these proved much more satisfactory. However, in general, these ad hoc solutions proved largely useless. With little experience in the role, no means of measuring target, range, height or speed the difficulty of observing their shell bursts relative to the target gunners proved unable to get

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As this process continued, the missile found itself being used for more and more of the roles formerly filled by guns. First to go were the large weapons, replaced by equally large missile systems of much higher performance. Smaller missiles soon followed, eventually becoming small enough to be

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in 1943 an entirely new system was developed that was required to knock down any low-flying aircraft with a single hit. The first attempt to produce such a system used a 50 mm gun, but this proved inaccurate and a new 55 mm gun replaced it. The system used a centralised control system

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and later in the decade it was redesigned by Mauser-Werke and became the 2 cm FlaK 38. Nevertheless, while 20 mm was better than a machine gun and mounted on a very small trailer made it easy to move, its effectiveness was limited. Germany therefore added a 3.7 cm. The first, the

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dire need for autocannons. Japan introduced powered gliders in 1940 as drones but apparently was unable to dive bomb. There is no evidence of other powers using drones in this application at all. It may have caused a major underestimation of the threat and an inflated view of their AA systems.

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and funds for the military had been sparse to the degree that 50% of shells used were still powder fused. The US Navy found that a significant portion of its shells were duds or low order detonations (incomplete detonation of the explosive contained by the shell). Virtually every major country

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The developments during World War II continued for a short time into the post-war period as well. In particular the US Army set up a huge air defence network around its larger cities based on radar-guided 90 mm and 120 mm guns. US efforts continued into the 1950s with the 75 mm

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fleets. The balloon, a simple blimp tethered to the ground, worked in two ways. Firstly, it and the steel cable were a danger to any aircraft that tried to fly among them. Secondly, to avoid the balloons, bombers had to fly at a higher altitude, which was more favourable for the guns. Barrage

1395:. Although of less power than Germany's 20 mm systems, the typical four or five combat batteries of an Army AAA battalion were often spread many kilometres apart from each other, rapidly attaching and detaching to larger ground combat units to provide welcome defence from enemy aircraft. 1049:

developed by Rheinmetall in the early 1930s, was basically an enlarged 2 cm FlaK 30. It was introduced in 1935 and production stopped the following year. A redesigned gun 3.7 cm FlaK 36 entered service in 1938, it too had a two-wheel carriage. However, by the mid-1930s the Luftwaffe

1301:, that encouraged workers on the assembly line to work harder. The Imperial measurement production drawings the British had developed were supplied to the Americans who produced their own (unlicensed) copy of the 40 mm at the start of the war, moving to licensed production in mid-1941. 1208:

entered service in increasing numbers. In addition, the RAF regiment was formed in 1941 with responsibility for airfield air defence, eventually with Bofors 40 mm as their main armament. Fixed AA defences, using HAA and LAA, were established by the Army in key overseas places, notably

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World War I demonstrated that aircraft could be an important part of the battlefield, but in some nations it was the prospect of strategic air attack that was the main issue, presenting both a threat and an opportunity. The experience of four years of air attacks on London by Zeppelins and

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moved at all. With the diversification of air defence there has been much more emphasis on mobility. Most modern systems are usually either self-propelled (i.e. guns or missiles are mounted on a truck or tracked chassis) or towed. Even systems that consist of many components (

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designed by Krupp. Artillery weapons of this sort have for the most part been superseded by the effective surface-to-air missile systems that were introduced in the 1950s, although they were still retained by many nations. The development of surface-to-air missiles began in

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The use of balloons by the U.S. Army during the American Civil War compelled the Confederates to develop methods of combating them. These included the use of artillery, small arms, and saboteurs. They were unsuccessful, and internal politics led the United States Army's

2674:. However, most air forces choose to augment airbase defence with surface-to-air missile systems as they are such valuable targets and subject to attack by enemy aircraft. In addition, some countries choose to put all air defence responsibilities under the air force. 815:

gunsight and updated as their target moved. In this method, when the sights were on the target, the barrel was pointed at the target's future position. Range and height of the target determined fuse length. The difficulties increased as aircraft performance improved.

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entered the target range and had displays at guns; it was used with their 75 mm. The British Wilson-Dalby gun director used a pair of trackers and mechanical tachymetry; the operator entered the fuse length, and deflection angles were read from the instruments.

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as counter measures, but none of them were ready at the end of the war. The Germans missile research was the most advanced of the war as the Germans put considerable effort in the research and development of rocket systems for all purposes. Among them were several

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fired his cannon at the enemy aircraft and successfully shot one down. It crashed in the city and both pilots died from their injuries. The cannon Ljutovac used was not designed as an anti-aircraft gun; it was a slightly modified Turkish cannon captured during the

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systems in the 1960s, and by the 1990s had replaced almost all such systems in modern armies. Man-portable missiles, MANPADS, as they are known today, were introduced in the 1960s and have supplanted or replaced even the smallest guns in most advanced armies.

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Post-war analysis demonstrated that even with newest anti-aircraft systems employed by both sides, the vast majority of bombers reached their targets successfully, on the order of 90%. While these figures were undesirable during the war, the advent of the

719:. Soldiers fired at them with shotguns and machine-guns but failed to prevent them from dropping 45 bombs over the city, hitting military installations, the railway station and many other, mostly civilian, targets in the city. During the bombing raid, 2492:

Layered air defence in naval tactics, especially within a carrier group, is often built around a system of concentric layers with the aircraft carrier at the centre. The outer layer will usually be provided by the carrier's aircraft, specifically its

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their fuse setting correct and most rounds burst well below their targets. The exception to this rule was the guns protecting spotting balloons, in which case the altitude could be accurately measured from the length of the cable holding the balloon.

807:, was appointed to make improvements, particularly an integrated AA defence for London. The air defences were expanded with more RNVR AA guns, 75 mm and 3-inch, the pom-poms being ineffective. The naval 3-inch was also adopted by the army, the 1720:, 'retaliation weapon'). The 419th and 601st anti-aircraft gun battalions of the US Army were first allocated to the Folkestone-Dover coast to defend London, and then moved to Belgium to become part of the "Antwerp X" project coordinated from the 421:

concealment to avoid detection by reconnaissance and attacking aircraft. Measures such as camouflaging important buildings were common in the Second World War. During the Cold War the runways and taxiways of some airfields were painted green.

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with mobile carriages and static mountings able to engage air, sea and ground targets. The M1 version was approved in 1940. During the 1920s there was some work on a 4.7-inch which lapsed, but revived in 1937, leading to a new gun in 1944.

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across an area with individual launchers several kilometres apart. When MANPADS is operated by specialists, batteries may have several dozen teams deploying separately in small sections; self-propelled air defence guns may deploy in pairs.

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A 3"/50 MK 22 semiautomatic dual gun was produced but not employed before the end of the war and therefore beyond the scope of this article. However early marks of the 3"/50 were employed in destroyer escorts and on merchant ships. 3″/50

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During the 1930s solid-fuel rockets were under development in the Soviet Union and Britain. In Britain the interest was for anti-aircraft fire, it quickly became clear that guidance would be required for precision. However, rockets, or

5075: 1747:, an electronic analogue computer to calculate the lead and elevation corrections for the guns. With the help of these three technologies, close to 90% of the V-1 missiles, on track to the defence zone around the port, were destroyed. 1020:(40 mm) on a modified naval mount. The air-cooled Bofors was vastly superior for land use, being much lighter than the water-cooled "pom-pom", and UK production of the Bofors 40 mm was licensed. The Predictor AA No 3, as the 186:

it was sometimes prefixed by "light" or "heavy" (LAA or HAA) to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include "AA", "AAA" or "triple-A" (abbreviations of "anti-aircraft artillery"), "flak" (from the German

1421:, which was the most powerful AA gun with an impressive 60,000 ft (18 km) altitude capability, however no 120 M1 was ever fired at an enemy aircraft. The 90 mm and 120 mm guns continued to be used into the 1950s. 387:

belts that ran north–south across Germany, across a military formation's manoeuvre area, or above a city or port. In ground operations air defence areas may be used offensively by rapid redeployment across current aircraft transit

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involved in combat in World War II invested in aircraft development. The cost of aircraft research and development was small and the results could be large. So rapid was the performance leaps of evolving aircraft that the British

5236: 1118:(HACS) was obsolete and designing a successor very difficult for the British establishment. Electronics would prove to be an enabler for effective anti-aircraft systems and both the US and UK had a growing electronics industry. 5130: 1039:

Rheinmetall in Germany developed an automatic 20 mm in the 1920s and Oerlikon in Switzerland had acquired the patent to an automatic 20 mm gun designed in Germany during World War I. Germany introduced the rapid-fire

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All armies soon deployed AA guns often based on their smaller field pieces, notably the French 75 mm and Russian 76.2 mm, typically simply propped up on some sort of embankment to get the muzzle pointed skyward. The

2268:, would all be able to narrow down the location of a stealth aircraft under certain parameters. The newest SAMs have a claimed ability to be able to detect and engage stealth targets, with the most notable being the Russian 5050: 118:

Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 7.62 mm (.30 in) to 152.4 mm (6 in) were the standard weapons; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges (as with

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had ordered the development of a 40 mm naval anti-aircraft gun from the Bofors company. It was light, rapid-firing and reliable, and a mobile version on a four-wheel carriage was soon developed. Known simply as the

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platforms seek to suppress or negate the effectiveness of an opposing air-defence system. It is an arms race; as better jamming, countermeasures and anti-radiation weapons are developed, so are better SAM systems with

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it was an 11-pounder but mounted on a vehicle, with a total uncrewed weight of two tons. However, since balloons were slow moving, sights were simple. But the challenges of faster moving aeroplanes were recognised.

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formed in 1925 provided a network of observation posts to report hostile aircraft flying over Britain. Initially radar was used for airspace surveillance to detect approaching hostile aircraft. However, the German

2426:-equipped destroyers and cruisers are as much a threat to aircraft as any land-based air defence system. In general, naval vessels should be treated with respect by aircraft, however the reverse is equally true. 214:

NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) as "measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites". In some armies the term

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shots per minute. It is expected to be ready in 2020 to 2025. These systems, while currently designed for static targets, would only need the ability to be retargeted to become the next generation of AA system.

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However, there were lessons to be learned. In particular the British, who had had AA guns in most theatres in action in daylight and used them against night attacks at home. Furthermore, they had also formed an

538:. Although lacking anti-aircraft weapons, they were the first to shoot down an airplane by rifle fire. The first aircraft to crash in a war was the one of Lieutenant Piero Manzini, shot down on August 25, 1912. 5309: 1105:

became available to the US Navy in quantity allowing a more realistic testing of existing anti-aircraft suites against actual flying and manoeuvring targets. The results were sobering to an unexpected degree.

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The most extreme case was the Soviet Union and this model may still be followed in some countries: it was a separate service, on a par with the army, navy, or air force. In the Soviet Union, this was called

5314: 2279:. Although air planners have imagined lasers in combat since the late 1960s, only the most modern laser systems are currently reaching what could be considered "experimental usefulness". In particular the 2140:. A variety of designs have been developed, using lasers, net-guns and air-to-air netting, signal jamming, and hi-jacking by means of in-flight hacking. Anti-UAV defence systems have been deployed against 333:. While these rules originate at the highest authority, different rules can apply to different types of air defence covering the same area at the same time. AAAD usually operates under the tightest rules. 5299: 4931: 307:

to be guided to hit the target, or aimed at the predicted position of the target at the time the projectile reaches it, taking into account the speed and direction of both the target and the projectile.

4926: 4838: 4813: 896:

in the years immediately after World War I, the prospect of another major war seemed remote, particularly in Europe, where the most militarily capable nations were, and little financing was available.

5294: 5271: 4871: 1961:

systems were commonly used for most anti-aircraft gunnery, starting with standard pieces on new mountings, and evolving to specially designed guns with much higher performance prior to World War II.

1228:, manned by artillery, was used in the vicinity of naval ports and made use of the naval ammunition supply. The 4.5-inch at Singapore had the first success in shooting down Japanese bombers. Mid war 376:

Area air defence, typically "belts" of air defence to provide a barrier, but sometimes an umbrella covering an area. Areas can vary widely in size. They may extend along a nation's border, e.g. the

5226: 5008: 4936: 4886: 3968: 1991:

Unlike the heavier guns, these smaller weapons are in widespread use due to their low cost and ability to quickly follow the target. Classic examples of autocannons and large calibre guns are the

1414:

would prove, as did the eighty-eight, to make an excellent anti-tank gun as well, and was widely used late in the war in this role. Also available to the Americans at the start of the war was the

4881: 2016:. Land-based SAMs can be deployed from fixed installations or mobile launchers, either wheeled or tracked. The tracked vehicles are usually armoured vehicles specifically designed to carry SAMs. 648:

By 1913 only France and Germany had developed field guns suitable for engaging balloons and aircraft and addressed issues of military organisation. Britain's Royal Navy would soon introduce the

311:

described below). Improvements were made to sensors, technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were either very primitive or non-existent.

5211: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4896: 4891: 1639:

Some nations started rocket research before World War II, including for anti-aircraft use. Further research started during the war. The first step was unguided missile systems like the British

5261: 5012: 4921: 4916: 4911: 5304: 636:

also examined, both impact and time types. Mountings were generally pedestal type but could be on field platforms. Trials were underway in most countries in Europe but only Krupp, Erhardt,

318:

in the 1980s. Command and control remained primitive until the late 1930s, when Britain created an integrated system for ADGB that linked the ground-based air defence of the British Army's

985:

appeared, soon followed by the 39; this was designed primarily for static sites but had a mobile mounting, and the unit had 220 V 24 kW generators. In 1938 design started on the

5256: 4818: 1800:

to mature into viable weapons. The US started an upgrade of their defences using the Nike Ajax missile, and soon the larger anti-aircraft guns disappeared. The same thing occurred in the

1506:, and other auxiliary vessels, and were used as a secondary dual-purpose battery on some other types of ships, including some older battleships. They also replaced the original low-angle 465:

In Britain and some other armies, the single artillery branch has been responsible for both home and overseas ground-based air defence, although there was divided responsibility with the

1372:

smaller-calibre air-defence weapons of the American forces were also quite capable. Their needs could cogently be met with smaller-calibre ordnance beyond using the usual singly-mounted

1008:

While HAA and its associated target acquisition and fire control was the primary focus of AA efforts, low-level close-range targets remained and by the mid-1930s were becoming an issue.

1682:('waterfall') rocket. Owing to the severe war situation for Germany all of those systems were only produced in small numbers and most of them were only used by training or trial units. 992:

Britain had successfully tested a new 3.6-inch gun, in 1918. In 1928 a 3.7-inch (94 mm) gun became the preferred solution, but it took six years to gain funding. Production of the

497:

was disbanded in March 1955, but during the 1960s and 1970s the RAF's Fighter Command operated long-range air-defence missiles to protect key areas in the UK. During World War II, the

1279:

to point themselves at high speeds. Operators simply fed the guns and selected the targets. This system, modern even by today's standards, was in late development when the war ended.

996:

began in 1937; this gun was used on mobile carriages with the field army and transportable guns on fixed mountings for static positions. At the same time the Royal Navy adopted a new

925:

Centralised control of fire on each gun position, directed by tachymetric instruments incorporating the facility to apply corrections of the moment for meteorological and wear factors

314:

Initially sensors were optical and acoustic devices developed during World War I and continued into the 1930s, but were quickly superseded by radar, which in turn was supplemented by

501:

also provided air defence units; formally part of the mobile naval base defence organisation, they were handled as an integral part of the army-commanded ground based air defences.

462:. Many other nations also deploy an air-defence branch in the army. Some, such as Japan or Israel, choose to integrate their ground based air defence systems into their air force. 429:

While navies are usually responsible for their own air defence—at least for ships at sea—organisational arrangements for land-based air defence vary between nations and over time.

3350: 2203:, which is smaller, faster, and allows for mid-flight course correction (guidance) to ensure a hit. To bridge the gap between guns and missiles, Russia in particular produces the 4645:

History of the Ministry of Munitions. 1922. Volume X The Supply of Munitions, Part VI Anti-Aircraft Supplies. Reprinted by Naval & Military Press Ltd and Imperial War Museum.

1092:- was introduced first to deal with low-level or dive bombing attacks on smaller targets such as airfields. The three-inch was in development at the end of the inter-war period. 96:

Most modern anti-aircraft (AA) weapons systems are optimized for short-, medium-, or long-range air defence, although some systems may incorporate multiple weapons (such as both

5060: 1612:

and other tidal areas upon which they based guns. After the war most were left to rot. Some were outside territorial waters, and had a second life in the 1960s as platforms for

4021: 2638:

On a national level the United States Army was atypical in that it was primarily responsible for the missile air defences of the Continental United States with systems such as

1988:

and 40 mm calibre have been widely used in this role. Smaller weapons, typically .50 calibre or even 8 mm rifle calibre guns have been used in the smallest mounts.

5206: 1486:, and were subsequently mounted on many types of ships as the need for anti-aircraft protection was recognized. During World War II, they were the primary gun armament on 2098:

to provide tactical and operational warning and direction, primarily during defensive operations. In their functional roles they provide target search, threat detection,

3937: 1188:

Poland's AA defences were no match for the German attack, and the situation was similar in other European countries. Significant AAW (Anti-Air Warfare) started with the

4393: 2083:. Invariably the type is differentiated from other fighter aircraft designs by higher speeds and shorter operating ranges, as well as much reduced ordnance payloads. 3994: 4116: 605: 751:(RGA) was given responsibility for AA defence in the field, using motorised two-gun sections. The first were formally formed in November 1914. Initially they used 3402: 2304:; if true, this would represent the first known time a vehicle mounted combat laser was used to destroy another combat vehicle during genuine wartime conditions. 5150: 5035: 4998: 1297: 1050:

realised that there was still a coverage gap between 3.7 cm and 8.8 cm guns. They started development of a 5 cm gun on a four-wheel carriage.

779:

was issued in 1915. It remained in service throughout the war but 18-pdr guns were lined down to take the 13-pdr shell with a larger cartridge producing the

219:(AAAD) is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops. Other terms from the late 20th century include "ground based air defence" (GBAD) with related terms " 2464:

aircraft are significant threats. The subsurface launched anti-air missile was first purposed by US Navy Rear Admiral Charles B. Momsen, in a 1953 article.

2199:

for last ditch anti-missile and anti-aircraft defence. Even this formerly front-line weapon is currently being replaced by new missile systems, such as the

5135: 5105: 5055: 5002: 1263:, the gun proved to be one of the best anti-aircraft guns in the world, as well as particularly deadly against light, medium, and even early heavy tanks. 5170: 5155: 5145: 5115: 5070: 3960: 2075:

were built in the period starting after the end of World War II and ending in the late 1960s, when they became less important due to the shifting of the

1792:. In Europe NATO's Allied Command Europe developed an integrated air defence system, NATO Air Defence Ground Environment (NADGE), that later became the 5160: 5085: 5065: 5045: 3372: 4431: 1036:, it was adopted by some 17 different nations just before World War II and is still in use today in some applications such as on coastguard frigates. 831:

angles and height lines overlaid with fuse length curves, using the height reported by the HRF operator, the necessary fuse length could be read off.

667:

in 1911 to meet the perceived threat of airships, that eventually was used as the basis for the US Navy's first operational anti-aircraft cannon: the

5165: 5140: 5095: 5080: 2430:

are especially well defended, as not only do they typically consist of many vessels with heavy air defence armament but they are also able to launch

1721: 1255:, but the specifications were later amended to require much higher performance. In response Krupp's engineers presented a new 88 mm design, the 5125: 4203: 1901:

province, after it had attacked an Iranian target in Syria. In 2006, Israel also lost a helicopter over Lebanon, shot down by a Hezbollah rocket.

1275:, which calculated the aim point for the guns after considering windage and ballistics, and then sent electrical commands to the guns, which used 1076:, which appears to have been copied from the Bofors 40 mm. A Bofors 25 mm, essentially a scaled down 40 mm, was also copied as the 4833: 4642:

Handbook for the Ordnance, Q.F. 3.7-inch Mark II on Mounting, 3.7-inch A.A. Mark II – Land Service. 1940. London: War Office 26|Manuals|2494

4080: 1358:

A plethora of anti-aircraft gun systems of smaller calibre was available to the German Wehrmacht combined forces, and among them the 1940-origin

4180: 818:

The British dealt with range measurement first, when it was realised that range was the key to producing a better fuse setting. This led to the

443:

the Strategic Air defence Service responsible for Air Defence of the Homeland, created in 1941 and becoming an independent service in 1954, and

5319: 5216: 5110: 2028:

before being engaged. The developments in the latest and relatively cheap short-range missiles have begun to replace autocannons in this role.

409:

to illuminate aircraft at night for both gun-layers and optical instrument operators. During World War II searchlights became radar controlled.

1980:) to explode close to the airborne target, releasing a shower of fast metal fragments. For shorter-range work, a lighter weapon with a higher 1665: 400:

to deter and threaten aircraft flying below the height of the balloons, where they are susceptible to damaging collisions with steel tethers.

65:

and it includes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action". It includes surface based, subsurface (

787:

The first issue was ammunition. Before the war it was recognised that ammunition needed to explode in the air. Both high explosive (HE) and

4552:

Checkland, Peter and Holwell, Sue. 1998. "Information, Systems and Information Systems – making sense of the field". Chichester: Wiley

3757: 1077: 1073: 908:

during the war and accumulated large amounts of data that was subjected to extensive analysis. As a result, they published the two-volume

325:

Rules of engagement are critical to prevent air defences engaging friendly or neutral aircraft. Their use is assisted but not governed by

5640: 4254: 4150: 3342: 2866:

capabilities and the ability to shoot down anti-radiation missiles and other munitions aimed at them or the targets they are defending.

4941: 4681:

1914 1918 war in Alsace – The Battle of Linge 1915 – The 63rd Anti Aircraft Regiment in 14 18 – The 96th poste semi-fixed in the Vosges

3016: 2911:

is to attempt to destroy them on the ground, either by penetrating an airbase perimeter and destroying aircraft individually, e.g. the

1436:

Mated with the Mark 37 director and the proximity fuse it could routinely knock drones out of the sky at ranges as far as 13,000 yards.

1709:

balloons were limited in application, and had minimal success at bringing down aircraft, being largely immobile and passive defences.

274:: Противовозду́шная оборо́на), a literal translation of 'anti-air defence', abbreviated as PVO. In Russian, the AA systems are called 5251: 5221: 4823: 4017: 2411:

Smaller boats and ships typically have machine-guns or fast cannons, which can often be deadly to low-flying aircraft if linked to a

1379:

machine gun atop a tank's turret, as four of the ground-used "heavy barrel" (M2HB) guns were mounted together on the American Maxson

1041: 4686: 4229: 4848: 1933: 3270:

Essential Militaria: Facts, Legends, and Curiosities About Warfare Through the Ages, Nicholas Hobbs, Atlantic Monthly Press 2004,

2155:

at close range, and for smaller drones, training eagles to snatch them from the air. This only works on relatively small UAVs and

1235: 1232:

started being emplaced in some permanent sites around London. This gun was also deployed in dual-role coast defence/AA positions.

4971: 4324: 4047: 3820: 2513:, with a range of up to 30 nmi. Finally, virtually every modern warship will be fitted with small-calibre guns, including a 1592:, on which they placed anti-aircraft artillery. Those in cities attacked by the Allied land forces became fortresses. Several in 17: 3846: 1359: 5090: 2915:, or finding a position where aircraft can be engaged with indirect fire, such as mortars. A recent trend emerging during the 2746: 2556: 2446: 1153: 52: 3933: 93:

is an extension of air defence, as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight.

5175: 4901: 4287: 2127: 3055: 2008:, though no working system was deployed before the war's end, and represented new attempts to increase effectiveness of the 1433:

rounded out the US Navy's AA suite. A dual purpose mount, it was used in both the surface and AA roles with great success.

1368:-based anti-aircraft weapon system was one of the most often-seen weapons, seeing service on both land and sea. The similar 1088:" as they were called, could be used for anti-aircraft barrages. A two-inch rocket using HE or wire obstacle warheads - the 695: 4808: 2141: 2024:, then tracked before/while a SAM is "locked-on" and then fired. Potential targets, if they are military aircraft, will be 1218: 738:

The British recognised the need for anti-aircraft capability a few weeks before World War I broke out; on 8 July 1914, the

458:

that provides ground-based air defence for both homeland and the army in the field; however, it is operationally under the

3990: 3041: 2334:

Most Western and Commonwealth militaries integrate air defence purely with the traditional services of the military (i.e.

1647:, and were also fitted to warships. The firing of one of these devices during an air raid is suspected to have caused the 5276: 5266: 4106: 3887: 2952: 2242: 1613: 459: 69:), and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements, and passive measures (e.g. 4489: 1001:

giving 43 seconds was nearing readiness. In 1939 a machine fuse setter was introduced to eliminate manual fuse setting.

624: 439:, and had both fighter aircraft, separate from the air force, and ground-based systems. This was divided into two arms, 5231: 3398: 2957: 2494: 2370: 2036: 1793: 1225: 997: 905: 846:" from the shells in flight. This gun had five barrels that quickly launched a series of 37 mm artillery shells. 4726: 4633: 4614: 4592: 4582: 4565: 4358: 3275: 3162: 2863: 2846: 2772: 2582: 1175: 298:

approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation".

2754: 2564: 799:

German air attacks on the British Isles increased in 1915 and the AA efforts were deemed somewhat ineffective, so a

5246: 5241: 4752: 2912: 2620: 2200: 1922: 1704:

to act as physical obstacle initially to bomber aircraft over cities and later for ground attack aircraft over the

447:

Air Defence of the Ground Forces. Subsequently, these became part of the air force and ground forces respectively.

1053:

After World War I the US Army started developing a dual-role (AA/ground) automatic 37 mm cannon, designed by

489:'s operating bases in the UK. All ground-based air defence was removed from Royal Air Force (RAF) jurisdiction in 5633: 4866: 4803: 2596: 2145: 1823: 1523:

to provide better anti-aircraft protection. The gun was also used on specialist destroyer conversions; the "AVD"

1392: 1205: 1033: 224: 195:

used by the British for voice transmission of "AA"); and "archie" (a World War I British term probably coined by

416:

created by large smoke canisters on the ground to screen targets and prevent accurate weapon aiming by aircraft.

5756: 5471: 3258: 2750: 2560: 1835:

mounted on armoured cars and tank chassis. These started replacing, or at least supplanting, similar gun-based

1820: 1224:

While the 3.7-inch was the main HAA gun in fixed defences and the only mobile HAA gun with the field army, the

1157: 481:

was formed to protect airfields everywhere, and this included light air defences. In the later decades of the

4858: 2947: 1859:

missile system was the primary GBAD system, used by both British artillery and RAF regiment, a few brand-new

744: 4438: 3376: 2445:

in the defence of its Home islands, and the United States also uses its Aegis-equipped ships as part of its

5476: 5027: 2799: 2060: 2025: 1816: 550: 455: 326: 171: 4656:

I templi incompiuti di Hitler", catalogo della mostra omonima, Milano, Spazio Guicciardini, 17.2-13.3.2009

4775: 2655: 2329: 1648: 1632: 1312: 575: 513:

was part of ADGB. At its peak in 1941–42 it comprised three AA corps with 12 AA divisions between them.

5761: 5626: 5589: 5481: 5201: 5196: 4989: 4674: 2889: 2858: 2280: 2166: 2040: 776: 39: 4070: 2472: 1712:

The Allies' most advanced technologies were showcased by the anti-aircraft defence against the German

969:

put into use in 1940 was capable of providing data suitable for controlling AA guns, and the British

4463: 4172: 2888:(RPGs) can be—and often are—used against hovering helicopters (e.g., by Somali militiamen during the 2885: 2359: 2312: 2295: 2208: 2091: 731:

in 1912. This was the first occasion in military history that a military aircraft was shot down with

435: 2272:, which is claimed to be able to detect a target with a 0.05-square metre RCS from 90 km away. 1561: 928:

More accurate sound-location for the direction of searchlights and to provide plots for barrage fire

392:

Air defence has included other elements, although after the Second World War most fell into disuse:

5766: 5516: 5339: 4770: 4765: 4694: 2854: 2735: 2545: 945: 748: 747:(RNVR) was manning AA guns and searchlights assembled from various sources at some nine ports. The 653: 590: 541:

The earliest known use of weapons specifically made for the anti-aircraft role occurred during the

528: 403:

Cables strung across valleys, sometimes forming a "curtain" with vertical cables hanging from them.

35: 2932: 2785: 2441:

Nations such as Japan use their SAM-equipped vessels to create an outer air defence perimeter and

178:

command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called "anti-aircraft", abbreviated as

4790: 4760: 2739: 2691: 2549: 2485: 2301: 2163:

can be (and frequently are) shot down like manned aircraft of similar sizes and flight profiles.

2137: 2072: 1996: 1621: 1517: 1439: 1373: 1240: 1196:

provided the backbone of the ground-based AA defences, although initially significant numbers of

1146: 827: 486: 220: 101: 3749: 2099: 1847:, the Argentine armed forces deployed the newest west European weapons including the 35 mm 900:

Demobilisation meant that most AA guns were taken out of service, leaving only the most modern.

5429: 4574:

Gander, T 2014. "The Bofors gun", 3rd edn. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military.

2850: 2514: 2502: 2461: 2419: 2389: 2287: 1950: 1887: 1827: 1784:

reduced capability to shoot down jet powered aircraft, and turned to SAM development, with the

1511: 1455: 1403: 1369: 1229: 1017: 960:

to be generally halted, although equipment was retained. Furthermore, in Britain the volunteer

855: 240: 228: 120: 4261: 3650: 3324: 3112: 1578: 370:

Accompanying defence, specialist air defence elements accompanying armoured or infantry units.

5364: 5359: 4780: 4719: 4406: 4375: 4138: 2908: 2687: 1992: 1536: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1430: 1013: 510: 494: 319: 236: 31: 3013: 1539:

conversions received three guns, and those retaining destroyer classification received six.

1507: 668: 4798: 4508: 2501:. If an attacker is able to penetrate this layer, then the next layers would come from the 2427: 2367: 2311:. Currently tests are underway on developing systems that could create as much damage as a 2238: 1676:. Guided systems were several sophisticated radio, wire, or radar guided missiles like the 1528: 1085: 1046: 977: 961: 752: 664: 657: 3399:"Radoje Raka Ljutovac – first person in the world to shoot down an airplane with a cannon" 1247:

Germany's high-altitude needs were originally going to be filled by a 75 mm gun from

956:; these developments were sufficiently advanced by the late 1930s for development work on 373:

Point defence around a key target, such as a bridge, critical government building or ship.

8: 5409: 2521:

of between 20 mm and 30 mm calibre capable of firing several thousand rounds per minute.

2423: 2416: 2246: 2234: 2095: 1973: 1475: 1201: 1200:

were also used. The Army's Anti-aircraft command, which was under operational command of

859: 780: 542: 2877:

supplied by the United States were used against the aircraft of the Soviet Union by the

2207:, which uses both guns and missiles for final defence with two six-barrelled 30 mm 5414: 5374: 5344: 4743: 4549:

Bethel, Colonel HA. 1911. "Modern Artillery in the Field". London: Macmillan and Co Ltd

2896: 2671: 2453: 2229:

grows, so does anti-stealth technology. Multiple transmitter radars such as those from

2226: 2156: 2064: 2044: 1965: 1941: 1880: 1864: 1726: 1499: 1425: 1344: 1267: 1193: 1021: 993: 936:

In 1925 the British adopted a new instrument developed by Vickers. It was a mechanical

870: 854:

based weapons mounted on poles. These short-range weapons proved more deadly, and the "

554: 451: 200: 128: 4577:

Hogg, Ian V. 1998. "Allied Artillery of World War Two". Malborough: The Crowood Press

4043: 3816: 2650: 2020:

many armed forces. Targets for non-ManPAD SAMs will usually be acquired by air-search

1984:

is required, to increase a hit probability on a fast airborne target. Weapons between

5649: 5491: 5466: 5461: 5394: 5369: 4994: 4629: 4610: 4588: 4587:

Hogg, Ian V. 1998. "Allied Artillery of World War One" Malborough: The Crowood Press

4578: 4561: 4354: 4111: 3842: 3271: 3254: 3240: 3168: 3158: 2900: 2498: 2435: 2175: 2076: 1969: 1914: 1872: 1705: 1479: 1466: 1323: 1260: 1189: 957: 819: 641: 615: 535: 509:

military structure. For example, the UK's Anti-Aircraft Command, commanded by a full

192: 1883:

short range systems. Machine guns in AA mountings were used both ashore and afloat.

1775:

considerably altered the acceptability of even a single bomber reaching its target.

966: 569:— on top of a horse-drawn carriage for the purpose of shooting down these balloons. 5607: 5546: 5511: 5501: 5434: 5389: 5384: 5349: 4843: 4712: 2916: 2878: 2830: 2628: 2219: 2107: 2068: 2052: 1876: 1856: 1852: 1693: 1597: 1495: 1487: 1282: 1197: 1110: 953: 941: 877: 823: 808: 728: 649: 397: 330: 86: 4504: 4298: 4228:

Smith, Saphora; Kube, Courtney; Gubash, Charlene; Gains, Mosheh (21 August 2019).

3023:

OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (accessed 14 September 2013).

762: 687: 5725: 5705: 5700: 5660: 5531: 5399: 4981: 4626:

History of the Royal regiment of Artillery – Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1914–55

4606: 3059: 3020: 2835: 2699: 2682:

Area air defence, the air defence of a specific area or location, (as opposed to

2616: 2506: 2477: 2347: 2265: 2188: 2111: 2056: 1949:

opportunities, and critical systems may be armoured in aircraft designed for the

1937: 1909: 1785: 1744: 1713: 1701: 1524: 986: 982: 937: 723: 699:

A French anti-aircraft motor battery (motorized AAA battery) that brought down a

546: 315: 232: 175: 90: 70: 2237:

are said to have the capabilities to detect stealth aircraft. Advanced forms of

775:

adopted the 13-pounder quickly producing new mountings suitable for AA use, the

5735: 5551: 5506: 5496: 5456: 3033: 2874: 2811: 2659: 2604: 2509:, with a range of up to 100 nmi, and the point-defence missiles, like the 2400: 2381: 2245:

would be able to optically see a stealth aircraft regardless of the aircraft's

2230: 2103: 2031: 1977: 1860: 1805: 1780: 1736: 1685: 1609: 1601: 1491: 1328: 970: 788: 720: 534:

Turks carried out the first ever anti-airplane operation in history during the

85:

in any location. However, for most countries, the main effort has tended to be

62: 4668: 3877: 2822: 865: 766:

A Maxim anti-aircraft machine gun in the anti-aircraft museum in Finland, 2006

531:

to be disbanded mid-war. The Confederates experimented with balloons as well.

66: 5750: 5584: 5574: 5521: 5444: 5424: 5286: 4075: 2937: 2695: 2683: 2624: 2612: 2355: 2298: 2284: 2192: 2160: 2115: 2009: 1985: 1898: 1844: 1740: 1656: 1566: 1542: 1415: 1380: 1354:

US coast guardsmen in the South Pacific man a 20 mm anti-aircraft cannon

1054: 916:

Shells of improved ballistic shape with HE fillings and mechanical time fuses

843: 732: 498: 384: 355:: weapons may only be fired in self-defence or in response to a formal order. 124: 3230:

Spring 2007 issue of the American Association of Aviation Historians Journal

3172: 2187:

Guns are being increasingly pushed into specialist roles, such as the Dutch

2055:

designed specifically to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft, particularly

1478:

guns (Marks 10, 17, 18, and 20) first entered service in 1915 as a refit to

1410:

AAA battalions were also used to help suppress ground targets. Their larger

5720: 5680: 5579: 5526: 5486: 5439: 2639: 2510: 2442: 2351: 2204: 2094:

waves to identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of aircraft and

2001: 1981: 1926: 1848: 1801: 1772: 1669: 1660: 1551: 1411: 1102: 1058: 1028: 772: 712: 553:

and French troops outside the city started an attempt at communication via

478: 474: 413: 343:: weapons may be fired at any target not positively recognised as friendly. 208: 196: 112: 108: 2460:, are equipped with surface-to-air missile systems, since helicopters and 1027:

The 40 mm Bofors had become available in 1931. In the late 1920s the

5730: 5690: 5685: 5419: 5404: 4598: 3152: 2826: 2807: 2667: 2611:

at smaller force levels up to army-level missile defence systems such as

2518: 2505:

carried by the carrier's escorts; the area-defence missiles, such as the

2457: 2431: 2404: 2290:(DEW) system is a Turkish dual electromagnetic/laser weapon developed by 2269: 2218:

Upsetting this development to all-missile systems is the current move to

2196: 1760: 1655:

attacks the British and US developed surface-to-air rockets like British

1617: 851: 839: 804: 470: 406: 380: 183: 97: 1755: 1398: 679: 51:

Artist's rendition of short and long range AA systems used by the Dutch

2942: 2790: 2171: 2005: 1954: 1732: 1678: 1589: 1573: 1547: 1388: 1365: 1340: 1214: 1160: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 800: 716: 466: 231:, ("SAMs") and surface-to-air guided weapons (SAGWs). Examples are the 204: 4688:

Archie to SAM: A Short Operational History of Ground-Based Air Defense

4018:"Pilot of downed F-16 jet regains consciousness, taken off respirator" 1819:

fireteam practices using a rocket target with a training variant of a

973:, was designed to be used on AA gun positions and was in use by 1939. 912:

in 1924–1925. It included five key recommendations for HAA equipment:

127:

or, in very modern systems, surface-to-air adaptations of short-range

5665: 5379: 2608: 2354:

for instance, air defence is part of the artillery arm, while in the

2343: 2253: 1958: 1918: 1897:

In February 2018, an Israeli F-16 fighter was downed in the occupied

1640: 1605: 1532: 1503: 1276: 1256: 1089: 892: 756: 82: 5618: 2724: 2534: 1135: 949:

existing ones, although various new designs were on drawing boards.

663:

The first US anti-aircraft cannon was a 1-pounder concept design by

5185: 4394:"What it takes to successfully attack an American Aircraft carrier" 3739:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 1642

3730:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 1617

2793:

can engage targets while moving, thus achieving high survivability.

2703: 2632: 2291: 2257: 2151:

Alternative approaches for dealing with UAVs have included using a

1868: 1811: 1652: 1462: 1304: 793: 700: 482: 377: 271: 4699: 3721:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 271

3709:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 266

3700:

Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 242

1968:

fired by these weapons are usually fitted with different types of

1635:

bomber emerges from a cloud of flak with its No. 2 engine smoking.

1596:

were some of the last buildings to fall to the Soviets during the

1350: 1204:

within Air Defence GB, grew to 12 AA divisions in three AA corps.

5710: 5695: 5569: 5541: 5536: 5451: 4520: 3882: 2481: 2407:, which can be fired from submerged anti-aircraft weapon systems 2316: 2308: 2250: 2152: 1890:

air power faced off against powerful SAM systems, like the 1980s

1764: 1673: 1376: 1012:

2 lb HE shell. The following year they decided to adopt the

637: 2841:

Israel and the US Air Force, in conjunction with the members of

2215:

surface-to-air missiles provide for its defensive capabilities.

367:

Self-defence by ground forces using their organic weapons, AAAD.

336:

NATO calls these rules "weapon control orders" (WCO), they are:

182:, a term that remained in general use into the 1950s. After the 47: 4735: 2600: 2386: 2013: 1940:

CS/AA3 35 mm twin anti-aircraft gun system along with its FW-2

1891: 1789: 1593: 1555: 1332: 1252: 981:

but ballistic performance was unchanged. In the late 1930s the

279: 3991:"Israeli jet crashes after attacking Iranian targets in Syria" 2051:

The interceptor aircraft (or simply interceptor) is a type of

1944:

system behind. CS/AA3 is a Chinese variant of the Oerlikon GDF

1863:

were used by British special forces. Both sides also used the

1739:. Incoming targets were acquired and automatically tracked by 2884:

during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the Cold War.

2817: 2803: 2412: 2276: 2275:

Another potential weapon system for anti-aircraft use is the

2261: 2212: 2087: 2021: 1836: 1309: 1287: 1272: 1248: 1210: 1109:

The United States was still emerging from the effects of the

558: 349:: weapons may be fired only at targets recognised as hostile. 74: 4543:

The Red God of War – Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces

4348: 3212: 2283:

can be used in the anti-aircraft and anti-missile role. The

1627: 5715: 5670: 3961:"Israeli jet shot down after bombing Iranian site in Syria" 2920: 2899:

in March 2002 in Afghanistan. Taliban insurgents defending

2842: 2395: 2363: 2339: 2335: 2307:

The future of projectile based weapons may be found in the

2080: 1251:, designed in collaboration with their Swedish counterpart 1115: 490: 78: 4704: 4044:"Syria shoots down Israeli warplane as conflict escalates" 3534: 3512: 3510: 3474: 3462: 2595:

Armies typically have air defence in depth, from integral

2128:

Unmanned aerial vehicle § Counter unmanned air system

329:(IFF) electronic devices originally introduced during the 107:

In some countries, such as Britain and Germany during the

4230:"U.S. military drone shot down over Yemen, officials say" 3934:"Israeli F-16 jet shot down by Syria fire, says military" 3909:

Cruise Missile Defence: Defending Antwerp against the V-1

3450: 3306: 3304: 2159:(also called "suicide drones"). Larger UCAVs such as the 1957:, originally intended for air-to-ground use, and heavier 1921:. The Gepard is an autonomous all-weather-capable German 1672:(literally "aircraft fist") rocket launcher as the first 858:" is believed to have been shot down by an anti-aircraft 4325:"Did A Turkish Combat Laser Shoot Down A Chinese Drone?" 3132: 2366:

also had a separate strategic rocket force in charge of

2047:(formerly Petrograd, now called St. Petersburg) in 1941. 4695:

Japanese Anti-aircraft land/vessel doctrines in 1943–44

4679: 3679: 3621: 3609: 3597: 3558: 3522: 3507: 3495: 2690:

in the British Army, for instance) and Air Forces (the

2063:

capabilities. A number of jet interceptors such as the

2004:

during the late World War II with missiles such as the

1700:

Another aspect of anti-aircraft defence was the use of

1576:, some more than six stories high, which were known as 227:(MANPADS). Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called 4107:"What's Really the Best the Way to Take Down a Drone?" 3429: 3417: 3301: 3289: 3191: 2315:, but at a fraction of the cost. In February 2008 the 2249:(RCS). In addition, side-looking radars, high-powered 363:

Ground-based air defence is deployed in several ways:

4139:"AUDS Counter UAV System by Blighter spoted [ 3959:

Lubell, Maayan; Barrington, Lisa (10 February 2018).

3179: 3074: 2895:

Another example of using RPGs against helicopters is

246:

Non-English terms for air defence include the German

131:, often combined in one system with rotary cannons). 4227: 3788:

Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No.245, pp. 54–60.

2706:, where the objective was to cover populated areas. 2627:

or all-in-one surface-to-air missile platforms like

869:

The No. 1 Mark III Predictor that was used with the

792:

British pom-poms had only contact-fused ammunition.

561:

mounted a modified 1-pounder (37 mm) gun – the

4691:

by Kenneth P. Werrell (book available for download)

3154:

Heavy water and the wartime race for nuclear energy

3058:. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Archived from 2686:), have historically been operated by both armies ( 2666:Air defence by air forces is typically provided by 2039:anti-aircraft guns deployed in the neighborhood of 1743:,. Output from the gun-laying radar was fed to the 691:

A Canadian anti-aircraft unit of 1918 "taking post"

3817:"USA 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 and Mark 2 - NavWeaps" 3546: 1643:and 3-inch, which was fired in large numbers from 1600:in 1945. The British built structures such as the 1572:The Germans developed massive reinforced-concrete 30:Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see 4204:"Air Force: Lost Predator was shot down in Syria" 2449:in the defence of the Continental United States. 2438:overhead to intercept incoming airborne threats. 5748: 4373: 3958: 3878:"Le Grand Veneur Keerbergen operation Antwerp X" 3648: 3322: 3110: 3038:Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation 2136:(AUDS) is a system for defence against military 4700:2nd/3rd Australian Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment 4351:The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces 3651:"Uncle Sam's Latest Weapons For War in the Air" 3343:"How was the first military airplane shot down" 3113:"Huge Ear Locates Planes and Tells Their Speed" 922:Height finding by long-base optical instruments 3936:. aljazeera.com. Aljazeera. 10 February 2018. 3923:, R.J. Backus, LTC, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1971 3921:The Defense of Antwerp Against the V-1 Missile 2623:(SPAAGs), integrated air-defence systems like 1024:was officially known, was introduced with it. 881:Shooting with anti-aircraft gun in Sweden 1934 711:On the 30th of September, 1915, troops of the 683:1909 vintage Krupp 9-pounder anti-aircraft gun 5634: 4720: 3717: 3715: 3696: 3694: 1616:stations, while another became the base of a 1387:), which were often mounted on the back of a 630:20 mm Becker-Oerlikon Model 1917 AA-gun 282:') systems. In French, air defence is called 3993:. france24.com. France24. 10 February 2018. 3867:Silverstone 1968 pp. 112, 212, 215, 276, 303 2907:For insurgents the most effective method of 1343:, in the form of a mechanical computer, the 4650:I bunker di Vienna", Abitare 2/2006, Milano 4464:"Investigation Confirms RPG Downed Chinook" 2753:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2563:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 919:Higher rates of fire assisted by automation 258:, 'aircraft defence cannon', also cited as 5641: 5627: 4727: 4713: 4285: 4100: 4098: 4020:. timesofisrael.com. The times of Israel. 3712: 3691: 2818:Air defence versus air defence suppression 715:observed three enemy aircraft approaching 4623: 4201: 4104: 4015: 3685: 3540: 3528: 3516: 3501: 3480: 3468: 3456: 3435: 3423: 3310: 3295: 3218: 3138: 2845:, have developed significant tactics for 2773:Learn how and when to remove this message 2583:Learn how and when to remove this message 1527:conversions received two guns; the "APD" 1243:flak gun in action against Allied bombers 1176:Learn how and when to remove this message 660:that could be used in various mountings. 658:Vickers 1-pounder quick firing "pom-poms" 4555: 4376:"Will the New Submarines Rule the Seas?" 4173:"Blighter® AUDS Anti-UAV Defence System" 4068: 3843:"USA 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12 - NavWeaps" 2821: 2784: 2649: 2471: 2394: 2380: 2165: 2030: 1932: 1908: 1810: 1754: 1684: 1626: 1560: 1541: 1438: 1397: 1349: 1322: 1303: 1281: 1234: 876: 864: 761: 694: 686: 678: 469:for air defence of the British Isles in 46: 4540: 4095: 4046:. bbc.com. BBC News. 10 February 2018. 3760:from the original on 17 September 2018. 3197: 3185: 3080: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2992: 1867:. British naval missiles used included 1651:in 1943. Facing the threat of Japanese 170:was probably first used by the UK when 14: 5749: 4558:Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns & Gunnery 4502: 3849:from the original on 28 September 2017 3823:from the original on 30 September 2018 2517:, which is usually a radar-controlled 2467: 2447:Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System 2182: 1917:in motion at the 2015 Military Day in 1830:, Alaska, as part of Red Flag – Alaska 301: 211:'s line "Archibald, certainly not!"). 53:Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command 27:Measures to combat enemy aerial forces 5648: 5622: 4708: 4349:Col. Y Udaya Chandar (Retd.) (2017). 4083:from the original on 14 December 2016 4071:"Lasers Technology Targets Mini-UAVs" 4024:from the original on 13 February 2018 3997:from the original on 18 December 2018 3890:from the original on 15 November 2016 2980: 2422:for point defence. Some vessels like 1904: 1315:hit by flak over Italy, 10 April 1945 1064:The USSR introduced a new 76 mm 952:From the early 1930s eight countries 4597: 4490:"ODIN - OE Data Integration Network" 4322: 3627: 3615: 3603: 3564: 3552: 3261:, Greenwood Publishing Group, page 9 3150: 2989: 2869: 2810:between the US and Vietnam with the 2751:adding citations to reliable sources 2718: 2561:adding citations to reliable sources 2528: 2480:surface to air missile intercepts a 2452:Some modern submarines, such as the 2121: 2059:, usually relying on high speed and 1763:anti-aircraft missile, fired from a 1271:including both search and targeting 1158:adding citations to reliable sources 1129: 4537:AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Terms. 2009. 4382:. Hearst Magazines. pp. 74–78. 4279: 3405:from the original on 12 August 2015 3353:from the original on 31 August 2015 3253:James D. Crabtree: On air defense, 2953:Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon 2702:missile batteries during the first 2677: 2371:intercontinental ballistic missiles 2323: 1125: 460:Joint Force Air Component Commander 24: 4323:Peck, Michael (1 September 2019). 4183:from the original on 12 March 2017 4153:from the original on 15 March 2017 4119:from the original on 13 March 2017 4036: 4009: 3983: 3952: 3926: 3649:Hearst Magazines (December 1931). 3447:The Ministry of Munitions pg 40–41 3323:Hearst Magazines (December 1911). 3157:. Bristol : Institute of Physics. 3111:Hearst Magazines (December 1930). 3044:from the original on 3 March 2009. 2958:The bomber will always get through 1794:NATO Integrated Air Defence System 1383:weapon (as a direct answer to the 906:Anti-Aircraft Experimental Section 674: 25: 5778: 4662: 4624:Routledge, Brigadier NW. (1994). 4603:German Artillery of World War Two 4202:Everstine, Brian (29 June 2015). 4050:from the original on 6 April 2019 3971:from the original on 3 March 2019 3806:Friedman, 2014 Location 8956-8620 2621:self-propelled anti-aircraft guns 2294:allegedly used to destroy one of 1993:40 mm autocannon from Bofors 1565:A British North Sea World War II 1406:in an anti-aircraft mount in 1941 1259:. First used in Spain during the 910:Textbook of Anti-Aircraft Gunnery 885: 822:(HRF), the first model being the 284:Défense contre les aéronefs (DCA) 199:, and believed to derive via the 5603: 5602: 4654:Flavia Foradini, Edoardo Conte: 4374:Hearst Magazines (August 1953). 4105:Schechter, Erik (5 April 2016). 3940:from the original on 21 May 2019 3657:. Hearst Magazines. p. 944. 3375:. Amanet Society. Archived from 3331:. Hearst Magazines. p. 776. 3119:. Hearst Magazines. p. 895. 2913:September 2012 Camp Bastion raid 2723: 2597:man-portable air-defense systems 2533: 2350:or as part of artillery. In the 2201:RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile 1923:self-propelled anti-aircraft gun 1804:after the introduction of their 1668:. Unguided systems involved the 1134: 1095: 623: 604: 589: 574: 4496: 4482: 4456: 4424: 4399: 4386: 4367: 4342: 4316: 4247: 4221: 4195: 4165: 4131: 4069:Sweetman, Bill (2 April 2015). 4062: 3914: 3902: 3870: 3861: 3835: 3809: 3800: 3791: 3782: 3773: 3764: 3742: 3733: 3724: 3703: 3670: 3661: 3642: 3633: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3492:The Ministry of Munitions pg 11 3486: 3441: 3391: 3365: 3335: 3316: 3280: 3264: 3247: 3233: 3224: 3203: 3144: 3123: 3092:le petit Larousse 2013 p20–p306 2241:such as those that incorporate 2012:faced with growing threat from 1393:M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage 1145:needs additional citations for 958:sound-locating acoustic devices 521: 424: 225:man-portable air-defense system 4016:Toi Staff (11 February 2018). 3104: 3095: 3086: 3048: 3026: 3007: 2974: 2178:are advanced air defence ships 2118:support to combat operations. 1953:. Adaptations of the standard 1716:cruise missiles (V stands for 828:optical coincident rangefinder 134: 13: 1: 4503:Kaaman, Hugo (18 May 2018). 4432:"Operation Anaconda Overview" 3325:"New American Aerial Weapons" 3129:Checkland and Holwell pg. 127 3034:"Air Vice-Marshal A E Borton" 2963: 2948:List of anti-aircraft weapons 2923:against landing helicopters. 2800:transporter/erector/launchers 2390:CIWS (close-in weapon system) 745:Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve 703:near Paris. From the journal 73:). It may be used to protect 4396:. Lexington Institute. p. 15 4286:Carlo Kopp (November 2003). 3797:Friedman, 2014 Location 8620 3779:Friedman, 2014 Location 8713 3770:Friedman, 2014 Location 8687 3401:. Pečat. 30 September 2014. 2968: 2849:. Dedicated weapons such as 2645: 1849:Oerlikon GDF-002 twin cannon 803:gunnery expert, Admiral Sir 755:(37 mm versions of the 565:(Balloon defence cannon) or 456:Air Defense Artillery Branch 327:identification friend or foe 172:Air Defence of Great Britain 7: 5017:National Revolutionary Army 4734: 3911:, Lt. Col. John A. Hamilton 2926: 2714: 2497:aircraft combined with the 2330:Category:Air defence forces 2146:Battle of Mosul (2016–2017) 2026:identified as friend or foe 1997:8.8 cm FlaK 18, 36 gun 1750: 1666:guided and unguided systems 1313:Consolidated B-24 Liberator 777:13-pdr QF 6 cwt Mk III 237:Raytheon Standard Missile 6 10: 5783: 4829:War of the Triple Alliance 4530: 4407:"Stacked Up Over Anaconda" 3667:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 127–130 3639:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 115–117 3594:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 108–110 3585:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 114–119 2859:electronic countermeasures 2709: 2327: 2281:Tactical High Energy Laser 2125: 1286:German soldier manning an 998:4.5-inch (113 mm) gun 873:was a mechanical computer. 516: 450:At the other extreme, the 268:Protivovozdushnaya oborona 40:Anti-Aircraft (video game) 29: 5656: 5598: 5562: 5332: 5285: 5184: 5026: 4980: 4857: 4849:Pre-20th century firearms 4789: 4751: 4742: 4556:Friedman, Norman (2014). 4255:"Anti-Stealth Technology" 3576:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 97–107 3019:24 September 2015 at the 2886:Rocket-propelled grenades 2829:under the fuselage ofn a 2256:, and sky-scanning, high- 1690:Flak in the Balkans, 1942 1510:(Mark 9) on "flush-deck" 1290:anti-aircraft gun in WWII 1116:High Angle Control System 1018:twin barrel Vickers 2-pdr 971:Radar, Gun Laying, Mark I 614:on the Prussian corvette 5237:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 5227:South African Border War 5009:Second Sino-Japanese War 2983:A Dictionary of Aviation 2981:Wragg, David W. (1973). 2890:1993 Battle of Mogadishu 2855:electronics intelligence 2195:30 mm seven-barrel 2138:unmanned aerial vehicles 1402:Indian troops manning a 946:stereoscopic rangefinder 749:Royal Garrison Artillery 174:(ADGB) was created as a 36:Ack Ack (disambiguation) 5217:Portuguese Colonial War 4541:Bellamy, Chris (1986). 3750:"The Battle of Britain" 3014:"ack-ack, adj. and n.". 2851:anti-radiation missiles 2847:air defence suppression 2692:United States Air Force 2524: 2503:surface-to-air missiles 2420:radar-controlled cannon 2399:Model of the multirole 2376: 2211:rotary canon and eight 2134:anti-UAV defence system 1925:system armed with twin 1622:Principality of Sealand 1230:QF 5.25-inch naval guns 1192:in the summer of 1940. 1074:37 mm M1939 (61-K) 1068:in 1937, an 85 mm 753:QF 1-pounder "pom-pom"s 487:United States Air Force 266:, and the Russian term 229:surface-to-air missiles 221:short range air defense 191:), "ack-ack" (from the 121:close-in weapon systems 102:surface-to-air missiles 18:Anti-aircraft artillery 5585:Civilian gun ownership 3676:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 131 2838: 2794: 2663: 2599:(MANPADS) such as the 2489: 2462:anti-submarine warfare 2408: 2392: 2288:directed-energy weapon 2179: 2048: 1945: 1930: 1888:2008 South Ossetia war 1875:longer range systems, 1831: 1828:Eielson Air Force Base 1826:during an exercise at 1767: 1697: 1649:Bethnal Green disaster 1636: 1569: 1558: 1470: 1407: 1404:Bren light machine gun 1355: 1336: 1316: 1291: 1244: 882: 874: 767: 708: 692: 684: 473:. However, during the 139:It may also be called 123:, which typically use 55: 5757:Anti-aircraft warfare 5262:Nicaraguan Revolution 5212:Araguaia Guerilla War 4781:Early thermal weapons 4628:. London: Brassey's. 4329:The National Interest 3151:Dahl, Per F. (1999). 2985:. Osprey. p. 37. 2825: 2788: 2688:Anti-Aircraft Command 2653: 2475: 2428:Carrier battle groups 2398: 2384: 2239:thermographic cameras 2169: 2034: 2010:anti-aircraft systems 1936: 1912: 1814: 1758: 1688: 1630: 1564: 1545: 1529:high-speed transports 1442: 1401: 1364:quadruple-20 mm- 1353: 1326: 1307: 1285: 1238: 1086:unrotated projectiles 880: 868: 765: 698: 690: 682: 669:3-inch/23 caliber gun 656:AA guns and also had 495:Anti-Aircraft Command 493:. The British Army's 320:Anti-Aircraft Command 59:Anti-aircraft warfare 50: 32:Flak (disambiguation) 5267:Salvadoran Civil War 4834:Spanish–American War 4809:American Indian Wars 4545:. London: Brassey's. 4392:Naval Strike Forum. 4297:: 30. Archived from 4143:] in Mosul Iraq" 3754:raf100schools.org.uk 2747:improve this section 2557:improve this section 2235:low-frequency radars 2041:St Isaac's Cathedral 1154:improve this article 983:10.5 cm FlaK 38 978:Treaty of Versailles 850:were adding various 511:British Army general 290:meaning 'aircraft'. 278:(i.e., 'pointing to 217:all-arms air defence 189:Flugzeugabwehrkanone 5320:Russo-Ukrainian War 5257:Dominican Civil War 5232:Cambodian Civil War 5193:First Indochina War 4295:Australian Aviation 3886:. 25 January 2014. 3347:National Geographic 3241:"Turco-Italian War" 2909:countering aircraft 2672:air-to-air missiles 2468:Layered air defence 2454:Type 212 submarines 2417:fire-control system 2260:, high sensitivity 2247:radar cross-section 2183:Future developments 2157:loitering munitions 1582:'high bunkers' or " 1454:fire directed from 1202:RAF Fighter Command 1194:QF 3.7-inch AA guns 1047:3.7 cm FlaK 18 860:Vickers machine gun 820:height/range finder 781:13-pr QF 9 cwt 545:of 1870. After the 543:Franco-Prussian War 302:General description 256:Fliegerabwehrkanone 157:layered air defence 129:air-to-air missiles 5310:Russo-Georgian War 5252:Lebanese Civil War 5222:Rhodesian Bush War 4839:Mexican Revolution 4824:American Civil War 4814:War of the Pacific 4804:Napoleonic Warfare 4468:Air Force Magazine 4444:on 10 October 2015 4411:Air Force Magazine 4267:on 4 November 2011 3630:, p. 155–156. 3618:, p. 150–152. 3606:, p. 144–147. 3567:, p. 162–177. 3373:"Ljutovac, Radoje" 3221:, p. 396–397. 3209:Beckett 2008, 178. 3101:Hogg WW2 pg 99–100 2933:Air defence forces 2897:Operation Anaconda 2839: 2795: 2664: 2662:air to air missile 2490: 2409: 2393: 2227:stealth technology 2180: 2176:Type 45 destroyers 2144:drones during the 2096:weather formations 2065:F-102 Delta Dagger 2049: 2045:Siege of Leningrad 1951:ground attack role 1946: 1942:fire control radar 1931: 1905:AA warfare systems 1832: 1768: 1698: 1637: 1570: 1559: 1508:4"/50 caliber guns 1471: 1426:United States Navy 1408: 1356: 1345:Kerrison Predictor 1337: 1317: 1292: 1245: 1072:and developed the 1022:Kerrison Predictor 883: 875: 871:QF 3.7-inch AA gun 768: 743:December 1914 the 709: 693: 685: 612:Ballonabwehrkanone 597:Ballonabwehrkanone 582:Ballonabwehrkanone 563:Ballonabwehrkanone 551:Paris was besieged 485:this included the 452:United States Army 262:), whence English 201:Royal Flying Corps 161:air defence forces 125:rotary autocannons 67:submarine launched 61:is the counter to 56: 38:, and 5762:Military aviation 5744: 5743: 5650:Military branches 5616: 5615: 5328: 5327: 5272:Soviet–Afghan War 5247:Laotian Civil War 4995:Spanish Civil War 4648:Flavia Foradini: 4470:. 14 October 2011 4380:Popular Mechanics 4288:"Asia's new SAMs" 4112:Popular Mechanics 3655:Popular Mechanics 3379:on 6 October 2014 3329:Popular Mechanics 3117:Popular Mechanics 2901:Shah-i-Kot Valley 2870:Insurgent tactics 2783: 2782: 2775: 2593: 2592: 2585: 2436:combat air patrol 2191:, which uses the 2122:Anti-UAV defences 2116:weather reporting 2077:strategic bombing 1976:, time-delay, or 1706:Normandy invasion 1537:"DMS" minesweeper 1521:-class destroyers 1496:submarine chasers 1488:destroyer escorts 1467:Battle of Okinawa 1339:The solution was 1261:Spanish Civil War 1206:Bofors 40 mm guns 1190:Battle of Britain 1186: 1185: 1178: 1042:2 cm FlaK 30 1014:Bofors 40 mm 987:12.8 cm FlaK 942:Barr & Stroud 938:analogue computer 826:UB2, a two-metre 824:Barr & Stroud 547:disaster at Sedan 536:Italo-Turkish war 193:spelling alphabet 16:(Redirected from 5774: 5643: 5636: 5629: 5620: 5619: 5606: 5605: 5482:Mass destruction 5390:Blunt instrument 5315:Syrian Civil War 4749: 4748: 4729: 4722: 4715: 4706: 4705: 4671: 4639: 4620: 4571: 4546: 4525: 4524: 4518: 4516: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4486: 4480: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4460: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4443: 4437:. Archived from 4436: 4428: 4422: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4403: 4397: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4353:. Notion Press. 4346: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4311: 4309: 4303: 4292: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4274: 4272: 4266: 4260:. Archived from 4259: 4251: 4245: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4199: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4177:www.blighter.com 4169: 4163: 4162: 4160: 4158: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4102: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4013: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3874: 3868: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3839: 3833: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3813: 3807: 3804: 3798: 3795: 3789: 3786: 3780: 3777: 3771: 3768: 3762: 3761: 3746: 3740: 3737: 3731: 3728: 3722: 3719: 3710: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3689: 3683: 3677: 3674: 3668: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3646: 3640: 3637: 3631: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3543:, p. 95-97. 3538: 3532: 3526: 3520: 3514: 3505: 3499: 3493: 3490: 3484: 3483:, p. 14–20. 3478: 3472: 3471:, p. 14–15. 3466: 3460: 3454: 3448: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3369: 3363: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3339: 3333: 3332: 3320: 3314: 3308: 3299: 3293: 3287: 3284: 3278: 3268: 3262: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3207: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3148: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3108: 3102: 3099: 3093: 3090: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3030: 3024: 3011: 3005: 3002: 2987: 2986: 2978: 2917:Syrian Civil War 2875:Stinger missiles 2778: 2771: 2767: 2764: 2758: 2727: 2719: 2678:Area air defence 2588: 2581: 2577: 2574: 2568: 2537: 2529: 2324:Force structures 2266:radio telescopes 2220:stealth aircraft 2069:F-106 Delta Dart 2053:fighter aircraft 1865:Blowpipe missile 1730: 1718:Vergeltungswaffe 1702:barrage balloons 1694:Helmuth Ellgaard 1659:or the American 1598:Battle of Berlin 1588: 1419:stratosphere gun 1198:QF 3-inch 20 cwt 1181: 1174: 1170: 1167: 1161: 1138: 1130: 1126:Second World War 1111:Great Depression 1078:25 mm M1939 1055:John M. Browning 838:By the start of 809:QF 3-inch 20 cwt 735:artillery fire. 729:First Balkan War 627: 608: 593: 578: 475:Second World War 398:barrage balloons 331:Second World War 260:Flugabwehrkanone 109:Second World War 87:homeland defence 71:barrage balloons 21: 5782: 5781: 5777: 5776: 5775: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5767:Warfare by type 5747: 5746: 5745: 5740: 5726:Security forces 5706:Military police 5701:Missile defence 5661:Airborne forces 5652: 5647: 5617: 5612: 5594: 5590:Science fiction 5558: 5430:Directed-energy 5324: 5300:Afghanistan War 5281: 5180: 5022: 4982:Interwar period 4976: 4877:Austria-Hungary 4853: 4785: 4738: 4733: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4636: 4617: 4607:Greenhill Books 4568: 4533: 4528: 4514: 4512: 4501: 4497: 4488: 4487: 4483: 4473: 4471: 4462: 4461: 4457: 4447: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4430: 4429: 4425: 4415: 4413: 4405: 4404: 4400: 4391: 4387: 4372: 4368: 4361: 4347: 4343: 4333: 4331: 4321: 4317: 4307: 4305: 4304:on 23 July 2006 4301: 4290: 4284: 4280: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4253: 4252: 4248: 4238: 4236: 4226: 4222: 4212: 4210: 4208:Air Force Times 4200: 4196: 4186: 4184: 4171: 4170: 4166: 4156: 4154: 4137: 4136: 4132: 4122: 4120: 4103: 4096: 4086: 4084: 4067: 4063: 4053: 4051: 4042: 4041: 4037: 4027: 4025: 4014: 4010: 4000: 3998: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3974: 3972: 3967:. reuters.com. 3957: 3953: 3943: 3941: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3919: 3915: 3907: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3876: 3875: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3852: 3850: 3841: 3840: 3836: 3826: 3824: 3815: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3801: 3796: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3774: 3769: 3765: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3729: 3725: 3720: 3713: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3692: 3684: 3680: 3675: 3671: 3666: 3662: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3634: 3626: 3622: 3614: 3610: 3602: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3563: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3539: 3535: 3527: 3523: 3515: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3479: 3475: 3467: 3463: 3459:, p. 8–17. 3455: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3382: 3380: 3371: 3370: 3366: 3356: 3354: 3341: 3340: 3336: 3321: 3317: 3309: 3302: 3294: 3290: 3286:Bethel pg 56–80 3285: 3281: 3269: 3265: 3252: 3248: 3239: 3238: 3234: 3229: 3225: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3204: 3196: 3192: 3184: 3180: 3165: 3149: 3145: 3137: 3133: 3128: 3124: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3079: 3075: 3065: 3063: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3032: 3031: 3027: 3021:Wayback Machine 3012: 3008: 3003: 2990: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2966: 2929: 2872: 2836:Panavia Tornado 2820: 2779: 2768: 2762: 2759: 2744: 2728: 2717: 2712: 2700:MIM-104 Patriot 2680: 2648: 2589: 2578: 2572: 2569: 2554: 2538: 2527: 2507:RIM-67 Standard 2470: 2385:Soviet/Russian 2379: 2332: 2326: 2231:bistatic radars 2189:Goalkeeper CIWS 2185: 2130: 2124: 2112:instrumentation 2092:electromagnetic 1938:Bangladesh Army 1907: 1815:A three-person 1753: 1745:M9 gun director 1724: 1722:Le Grand Veneur 1586: 1525:seaplane tender 1492:patrol frigates 1431:5"/38 naval gun 1268:Dambusters raid 1226:QF 4.5-inch gun 1182: 1171: 1165: 1162: 1151: 1139: 1128: 1098: 994:QF 3.7-inch gun 954:developed radar 888: 724:Radoje Ljutovac 677: 675:First World War 665:Admiral Twining 631: 628: 619: 609: 600: 594: 585: 579: 524: 519: 427: 316:optoelectronics 304: 233:RIM-66 Standard 223:" (SHORAD) and 184:First World War 176:Royal Air Force 137: 91:Missile defence 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5780: 5770: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5742: 5741: 5739: 5738: 5736:Special forces 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5657: 5654: 5653: 5646: 5645: 5638: 5631: 5623: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5610: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5566: 5564: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5556: 5555: 5554: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5448: 5447: 5442: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5365:Anti-personnel 5362: 5360:Anti-ballistic 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5336: 5334: 5330: 5329: 5326: 5325: 5323: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5291: 5289: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5190: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5161:United Kingdom 5158: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5076:Czechoslovakia 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5032: 5030: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5020: 5006: 4992: 4986: 4984: 4978: 4977: 4975: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4962:United Kingdom 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4863: 4861: 4855: 4854: 4852: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4795: 4793: 4787: 4786: 4784: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4757: 4755: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4732: 4731: 4724: 4717: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4684: 4677: 4664: 4663:External links 4661: 4659: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4643: 4640: 4634: 4621: 4615: 4595: 4585: 4575: 4572: 4566: 4553: 4550: 4547: 4538: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4526: 4495: 4481: 4455: 4423: 4398: 4385: 4366: 4359: 4341: 4315: 4278: 4246: 4220: 4194: 4164: 4130: 4094: 4061: 4035: 4008: 3982: 3951: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3869: 3860: 3834: 3808: 3799: 3790: 3781: 3772: 3763: 3741: 3732: 3723: 3711: 3702: 3690: 3686:Routledge 1994 3678: 3669: 3660: 3641: 3632: 3620: 3608: 3596: 3587: 3578: 3569: 3557: 3545: 3541:Routledge 1994 3533: 3529:Routledge 1994 3521: 3517:Routledge 1994 3506: 3502:Routledge 1994 3494: 3485: 3481:Routledge 1994 3473: 3469:Routledge 1994 3461: 3457:Routledge 1994 3449: 3440: 3436:Routledge 1994 3428: 3424:Routledge 1994 3416: 3390: 3364: 3334: 3315: 3311:Routledge 1994 3300: 3296:Routledge 1994 3288: 3279: 3263: 3246: 3232: 3223: 3219:Routledge 1994 3211: 3202: 3200:, p. 213. 3190: 3178: 3163: 3143: 3141:, p. 456. 3139:Routledge 1994 3131: 3122: 3103: 3094: 3085: 3083:, p. 219. 3073: 3062:on 14 May 2008 3047: 3040:. Rafweb.org. 3025: 3006: 2988: 2972: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2961: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2928: 2925: 2919:is the use of 2871: 2868: 2819: 2816: 2812:SA-2 Guideline 2781: 2780: 2731: 2729: 2722: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2679: 2676: 2647: 2644: 2591: 2590: 2541: 2539: 2532: 2526: 2523: 2469: 2466: 2378: 2375: 2325: 2322: 2184: 2181: 2123: 2120: 2104:reconnaissance 1906: 1903: 1871:and the older 1861:FIM-92 Stinger 1853:Roland missile 1806:SA-2 Guideline 1752: 1749: 1737:proximity fuse 1610:Thames Estuary 1602:Maunsell Forts 1184: 1183: 1142: 1140: 1133: 1127: 1124: 1097: 1094: 967:Würzburg radar 962:Observer Corps 930: 929: 926: 923: 920: 917: 887: 886:Interwar years 884: 740:New York Times 676: 673: 633: 632: 629: 622: 620: 610: 603: 601: 595: 588: 586: 580: 573: 523: 520: 518: 515: 426: 423: 418: 417: 410: 404: 401: 390: 389: 374: 371: 368: 357: 356: 350: 344: 303: 300: 136: 133: 63:aerial warfare 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5779: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5754: 5752: 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5295:Yugoslav Wars 5293: 5292: 5290: 5288: 5287:Post-Cold War 5284: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5242:Iran–Iraq War 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5192: 5191: 5189: 5187: 5183: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5166:United States 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5033: 5031: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4987: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4967:United States 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4856: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4799:Early Warfare 4797: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4788: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4754: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4730: 4725: 4723: 4718: 4716: 4711: 4710: 4707: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4690: 4689: 4685: 4683: 4682: 4678: 4676: 4672: 4670:"Flak (1943)" 4667: 4666: 4657: 4653: 4651: 4647: 4644: 4641: 4637: 4635:1-85753-099-3 4631: 4627: 4622: 4618: 4616:1-85367-261-0 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4594: 4593:1-86126-104-7 4590: 4586: 4584: 4583:1-86126-165-9 4580: 4576: 4573: 4569: 4567:9781473852846 4563: 4559: 4554: 4551: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4522: 4510: 4506: 4499: 4491: 4485: 4469: 4465: 4459: 4440: 4433: 4427: 4412: 4408: 4402: 4395: 4389: 4381: 4377: 4370: 4362: 4360:9781946983794 4356: 4352: 4345: 4330: 4326: 4319: 4300: 4296: 4289: 4282: 4263: 4256: 4250: 4235: 4231: 4224: 4209: 4205: 4198: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4168: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4142: 4134: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4108: 4101: 4099: 4082: 4078: 4077: 4076:Aviation Week 4072: 4065: 4049: 4045: 4039: 4023: 4019: 4012: 3996: 3992: 3986: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3955: 3939: 3935: 3929: 3922: 3917: 3910: 3905: 3889: 3885: 3884: 3879: 3873: 3864: 3848: 3844: 3838: 3822: 3818: 3812: 3803: 3794: 3785: 3776: 3767: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3745: 3736: 3727: 3718: 3716: 3706: 3697: 3695: 3688:, p. 56. 3687: 3682: 3673: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3636: 3629: 3624: 3617: 3612: 3605: 3600: 3591: 3582: 3573: 3566: 3561: 3555:, p. 14. 3554: 3549: 3542: 3537: 3531:, p. 50. 3530: 3525: 3519:, p. 49. 3518: 3513: 3511: 3504:, p. 48. 3503: 3498: 3489: 3482: 3477: 3470: 3465: 3458: 3453: 3444: 3437: 3432: 3425: 3420: 3404: 3400: 3394: 3378: 3374: 3368: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3338: 3330: 3326: 3319: 3312: 3307: 3305: 3297: 3292: 3283: 3277: 3276:0-8021-1772-4 3273: 3267: 3260: 3256: 3250: 3242: 3236: 3227: 3220: 3215: 3206: 3199: 3194: 3188:, p. 82. 3187: 3182: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3164:0-585-25449-4 3160: 3156: 3155: 3147: 3140: 3135: 3126: 3118: 3114: 3107: 3098: 3089: 3082: 3077: 3061: 3057: 3051: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3029: 3022: 3018: 3015: 3010: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2984: 2977: 2973: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2938:Air supremacy 2936: 2934: 2931: 2930: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2882: 2876: 2867: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2853:and advanced 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2828: 2824: 2815: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2792: 2787: 2777: 2774: 2766: 2763:February 2024 2756: 2752: 2748: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2732:This section 2730: 2726: 2721: 2720: 2707: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2696:CIM-10 Bomarc 2693: 2689: 2685: 2684:point defence 2675: 2673: 2669: 2661: 2657: 2652: 2643: 2641: 2636: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2625:2K22 Tunguska 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2587: 2584: 2576: 2573:February 2024 2566: 2562: 2558: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2542:This section 2540: 2536: 2531: 2530: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2465: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2397: 2391: 2388: 2383: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2356:Pakistan Army 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2331: 2321: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2299:Wing Loong II 2297: 2293: 2289: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2223: 2221: 2216: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2193:GAU-8 Avenger 2190: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2162: 2161:MQ-1 Predator 2158: 2154: 2149: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2129: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1962: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1902: 1900: 1899:Golan Heights 1895: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1845:Falklands War 1841: 1838: 1829: 1825: 1822: 1818: 1813: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1782: 1776: 1774: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1741:SCR-584 radar 1738: 1734: 1728: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1710: 1707: 1703: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1658: 1657:Fairey Stooge 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1634: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1581: 1580: 1575: 1568: 1567:Maunsell Fort 1563: 1557: 1553: 1550:built during 1549: 1546:One of eight 1544: 1540: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1520: 1515: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1502:, some fleet 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1484: (BB-35) 1483: 1477: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1459: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1416:120 mm M1 gun 1413: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1381:M45 Quadmount 1378: 1375: 1371: 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Retrieved 3060:the original 3050: 3037: 3028: 3009: 2982: 2976: 2906: 2894: 2880: 2873: 2840: 2831: 2796: 2789:The Russian 2769: 2760: 2745:Please help 2733: 2681: 2668:fighter jets 2665: 2656:F-22A Raptor 2640:Project Nike 2637: 2594: 2579: 2570: 2555:Please help 2543: 2511:RIM-162 ESSM 2491: 2451: 2443:radar picket 2440: 2432:fighter jets 2410: 2401:IDAS missile 2352:British Army 2348:separate arm 2333: 2306: 2274: 2225:However, as 2224: 2217: 2205:Kashtan CIWS 2186: 2150: 2133: 2131: 2090:systems use 2085: 2050: 2018: 2002:Nazi Germany 1990: 1982:rate of fire 1963: 1947: 1927:Oerlikon GDF 1896: 1885: 1879:and the new 1843:In the 1982 1842: 1833: 1798: 1777: 1773:nuclear bomb 1769: 1759:A 1970s-era 1717: 1711: 1699: 1692:(drawing by 1689: 1677: 1670:Fliegerfaust 1644: 1638: 1614:pirate radio 1583: 1577: 1571: 1552:World War II 1518: 1512: 1500:minesweepers 1481: 1472: 1457: 1435: 1423: 1418: 1412:90 mm M3 gun 1409: 1391:to form the 1385:Flakvierling 1384: 1361:Flakvierling 1360: 1357: 1338: 1318: 1296: 1293: 1265: 1246: 1223: 1187: 1172: 1163: 1152:Please help 1147:verification 1144: 1120: 1108: 1099: 1082: 1069: 1065: 1063: 1059:37 mm gun M1 1052: 1038: 1029:Swedish Navy 1026: 1010: 1007: 1003: 991: 975: 951: 935: 931: 909: 902: 898: 889: 848: 837: 833: 817: 813: 798: 786: 773:British Army 769: 739: 737: 713:Serbian Army 710: 704: 662: 647: 634: 611: 596: 581: 566: 562: 540: 533: 525: 522:Earliest use 507: 503: 479:RAF Regiment 464: 449: 444: 440: 434: 431: 428: 425:Organization 419: 407:Searchlights 391: 362: 358: 353:Weapons hold 352: 346: 341:Weapons free 340: 335: 324: 313: 309: 305: 296: 292: 287: 283: 275: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 245: 216: 213: 209:George Robey 197:Amyas Borton 188: 179: 167: 165: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 138: 117: 113:Soviet Union 106: 95: 58: 57: 44: 5731:Space force 5691:Gendarmerie 5686:Coast guard 5676:Air defence 5415:Crew-served 5375:Area denial 5207:Six-Day War 5202:Vietnam War 5131:New Zealand 5126:Netherlands 4999:Nationalist 4932:New Zealand 4859:World War I 4819:Crimean War 4515:31 December 4239:18 November 4213:18 November 2827:AGM-88 HARM 2808:Vietnam war 2519:Gatling gun 2486:White Sands 2458:German Navy 2405:German Navy 2197:Gatling gun 2043:during the 1886:During the 1821:Type 91 Kai 1725: [ 1645:Z batteries 1618:micronation 1590:flak towers 1574:blockhouses 1548:flak towers 1377:.50 caliber 1329:QF 3.7-inch 1101:controlled 852:machine-gun 840:World War I 805:Percy Scott 640:Maxim, and 471:World War I 441:PVO Strany, 381:MIM-23 Hawk 203:, from the 168:air defence 141:counter-air 135:Terminology 98:autocannons 5751:Categories 5492:Non-lethal 5472:Insurgency 5467:Incendiary 5462:Improvised 5395:Ceremonial 5385:Biological 5345:Amphibious 5197:Korean War 5171:Yugoslavia 5003:Republican 4927:Montenegro 4605:. London: 4448:27 January 3259:0275947920 2964:References 2943:Gun laying 2881:mujahideen 2791:Pantsir-S1 2658:firing an 2633:SA-8 Gecko 2415:-directed 2360:PVO Strany 2328:See also: 2254:satellites 2172:Royal Navy 2126:See also: 2108:navigation 2071:, and the 2006:Wasserfall 1986:20 mm 1974:barometric 1955:autocannon 1781:Skysweeper 1733:Keerbergen 1679:Wasserfall 1579:Hochbunker 1533:minelayers 1504:submarines 1458:New Mexico 1452:20 mm 1448:40 mm 1389:half-track 1366:autocannon 1341:automation 1277:hydraulics 1266:After the 1215:Suez Canal 801:Royal Navy 717:Kragujevac 467:Royal Navy 436:Voyska PVO 241:MBDA Aster 205:music-hall 83:air forces 5666:Air force 5512:Pneumatic 5502:Offensive 5435:Explosive 5380:Artillery 5370:Anti-tank 5350:Ancillary 5036:Australia 4990:Chaco War 4872:Australia 4753:Premodern 4474:2 October 4416:2 October 4271:15 August 3628:Hogg 1997 3616:Hogg 1997 3604:Hogg 1997 3565:Hogg 1997 3553:Hogg 1997 2969:Citations 2832:Luftwaffe 2734:does not 2670:carrying 2646:Air force 2544:does not 2495:AEW&C 2484:drone at 2344:air force 1978:proximity 1959:artillery 1919:Uffenheim 1808:systems. 1786:Nike Ajax 1641:2-inch RP 1606:North Sea 1584:Flaktürme 1480:USS 1219:Singapore 1166:July 2013 1090:Z battery 893:Gotha G.V 856:Red Baron 794:Zeppelins 757:Maxim Gun 654:QF 4-inch 650:QF 3-inch 642:Schneider 557:. 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