492:(PMTs) to detect individual photons. From the timing of the photons, it is possible to determine the time and place of the neutrino interaction. If the neutrino creates a muon during its interaction, then the muon will travel in a line, creating a "track" of Cherenkov photons. The data from this track can be used to reconstruct the directionality of the muon. For high-energy interactions, the neutrino and muon directions are the same, so it's possible to tell where the neutrino came from. This is pointing direction is important in extra-solar system neutrino astronomy. Along with time, position, and possibly direction, it's possible to infer the energy of the neutrino from the interactions. The number of photons emitted is related to the neutrino energy, and neutrino energy is important for measuring the fluxes from solar and geo-neutrinos.
554:). In a core collapse supernova, ninety-nine percent of the energy released will be in neutrinos. While photons can be trapped in the dense supernova for hours, neutrinos are able to escape on the order of seconds. Since neutrinos travel at roughly the speed of light, they can reach Earth before photons do. If two or more of SNEWS detectors observe a coincidence of an increased flux of neutrinos, an alert is sent to professional and amateur astronomers to be on the lookout for supernova light. By using the distance between detectors and the time difference between detections, the alert can also include directionality as to the supernova's location in the sky.
229:. Holes 60 cm in diameter were drilled with pressurized hot water in which strings with optical modules were deployed before the water refroze. The depth proved to be insufficient to be able to reconstruct the trajectory due to the scattering of light on air bubbles. A second group of 4 strings were added in 1995/96 to a depth of about 2000 m that was sufficient for track reconstruction. The AMANDA array was subsequently upgraded until January 2000 when it consisted of 19 strings with a total of 667 optical modules at a depth range between 1500 m and 2000 m. AMANDA would eventually be the predecessor to
271:(NEutrino Mediterranean Observatory) was pursued by Italian groups to investigate the feasibility of a cubic-kilometer scale deep-sea detector. A suitable site at a depth of 3.5 km about 100 km off Capo Passero at the South-Eastern coast of Sicily has been identified. From 2007 to 2011 the first prototyping phase tested a "mini-tower" with 4 bars deployed for several weeks near Catania at a depth of 2 km. The second phase as well as plans to deploy the full-size prototype tower will be pursued in the KM3NeT framework.
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producing two 511keV photons. The neutron will attach to another nucleus and give off a gamma with an energy of a few MeV. In general, neutrinos can interact through neutral-current and charged-current interactions. In neutral-current interactions, the neutrino interacts with a nucleus or electron and the neutrino retains its original flavor. In charged-current interactions, the neutrino is absorbed by the nucleus and produces a lepton corresponding to the neutrino's flavor (
692:, which emits an anti-neutrino. The energies of these anti-neutrinos are dependent on the parent nucleus. Therefore, by detecting the anti-neutrino flux as a function of energy, we can obtain the relative compositions of these elements and set a limit on the total power output of Earth's geo-reactor. Most of our current data about the core and mantle of Earth comes from seismic data, which does not provide any information as to the nuclear composition of these layers.
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able to penetrate to the depths of our detectors. Detectors must include ways of dealing with data from muons so as to not confuse them with neutrinos. Along with more complicated measures, if a muon track is first detected outside of the desired "fiducial" volume, the event is treated as a muon and not considered. Ignoring events outside the fiducial volume also decreases the signal from radiation outside the detector.
563:
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517:, are studied using light, only the surface of the object can be directly observed. Any light produced in the core of a star will interact with gas particles in the outer layers of the star, taking hundreds of thousands of years to make it to the surface, making it impossible to observe the core directly. Since neutrinos are also created in the cores of stars (as a result of
838:
is directly related to density. If the initial flux is known (as it is in the case of atmospheric neutrinos), then detecting the final flux provides information about the interactions that occurred. The density can then be extrapolated from knowledge of these interactions. This can provide an independent check on the information obtained from seismic data.
74:"ghost particles". That's why neutrino detectors are placed many hundreds of meter underground, usually at the bottom of mines. There a neutrino detection liquid such as a Chlorine-rich solution is placed; the neutrinos react with a Chlorine isotope and can create radioactive Argon. Gallium to Germanium conversion has also been used. The
871:
To perform astronomy of distant objects, a strong angular resolution is required. Neutrinos are electrically neutral and interact weakly, so they travel mostly unperturbed in straight lines. If the neutrino interacts within a detector and produces a muon, the muon will produce an observable track.
854:
data. The values determined for the total mass of Earth, the mass of the core, and the moment of inertia all agree with the data obtained from seismic and gravitational data. With the current data, the uncertainties on these values are still large, but future data from IceCube and KM3NeT will place
495:
Due to the rareness of neutrino interactions, it is important to maintain a low background signal. For this reason, most neutrino detectors are constructed under a rock or water overburden. This overburden shields against most cosmic rays in the atmosphere; only some of the highest-energy muons are
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and kaons in the atmosphere. As these hadrons decay, they produce neutrinos (called atmospheric neutrinos). At low energies, the flux of atmospheric neutrinos is many times greater than astrophysical neutrinos. At high energies, the pions and kaons have a longer lifetime (due to relativistic time
837:
Neutrino tomography also provides insight into the interior of Earth. For neutrinos with energies of a few TeV, the interaction probability becomes non-negligible when passing through Earth. The interaction probability will depend on the number of nucleons the neutrino passed along its path, which
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Each step in the process has an allowed spectra of energy for the neutrino (or a discrete energy for electron capture processes). The relative rates of the Sun's nuclear processes can be determined by observations in its flux at different energies. This would shed insight into the Sun's properties,
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was installed in 2004 to a depth of 4 km and operated for one month until a failure of the cable to shore forced it to be terminated. The data taken still successfully demonstrated the detector's functionality and provided a measurement of the atmospheric muon flux. The proof of concept will be
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in
Ukraine at a depth of more than 100 m. It was created in the Department of High Energy Leptons and Neutrino Astrophysics of the Institute of Nuclear Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1969 to study antineutrino fluxes from collapsing stars in the Galaxy, as well as the spectrum and
98:
Since neutrinos interact weakly, neutrino detectors must have large target masses (often thousands of tons). The detectors also must use shielding and effective software to remove background signal. Since neutrinos are very difficult to detect, the only bodies that have been studied in this way are
875:
These high-energy neutrinos are either the primary or secondary cosmic rays produced by energetic astrophysical processes. Observing neutrinos could provide insights into these processes beyond what is observable with electromagnetic radiation. In the case of the neutrino detected from a distant
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each with an energy of 511keV (the rest mass of an electron). The neutron will later be captured by another nucleus, which will lead to a 2.22MeV gamma-ray as the nucleus de-excites. This process on average takes on the order of 256 microseconds. By searching for time and spatial coincidence of
73:
Neutrinos are very hard to detect due to their non-interactive nature. In order to detect neutrinos, scientists have to shield the detectors from cosmic rays, which can penetrate hundreds of meters of rock. Neutrinos, on the other hand, can go through the entire planet without being absorbed, like
78:
built in 2010 in the south pole is the biggest neutrino detector, consisting of thousands of optical sensors buried 500 meters underneath a cubic kilometer of deep, ultra-transparent ice, detects light emitted by charged particles that are produced when a single neutrino collides with a proton or
65:
hit atoms in the atmosphere. Neutrinos rarely interact with matter (only via the weak nuclear force), travel at nearly the speed of light in straight lines, pass through large amounts of matter without any notable absorption or without being deflected by magnetic fields. Unlike photons, neutrinos
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In 2018, one year worth of IceCube data was evaluated to perform neutrino tomography. The analysis studied upward going muons, which provide both the energy and directionality of the neutrinos after passing through the Earth. A model of Earth with five layers of constant density was fit to the
574:
There are two main processes for stellar nuclear fusion. The first is the Proton-Proton (PP) chain, in which protons are fused together into helium, sometimes temporarily creating the heavier elements of lithium, beryllium, and boron along the way. The second is the CNO cycle, in which carbon,
570:
The Sun, like other stars, is powered by nuclear fusion in its core. The core is incredibly large, meaning that photons produced in the core will take a long time to diffuse outward. Therefore, neutrinos are the only way that we can obtain real-time data about the nuclear processes in the Sun.
586:
Borexino is one of the detectors studying solar neutrinos. In 2018, they found 5σ significance for the existence of neutrinos from the fusing of two protons with an electron (pep neutrinos). In 2020, they found for the first time evidence of CNO neutrinos in the Sun. Improvements on the CNO
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The method of neutrino detection depends on the energy and type of the neutrino. A famous example is that anti-electron neutrinos can interact with a nucleus in the detector by inverse beta decay and produce a positron and a neutron. The positron immediately will annihilate with an electron,
525:
released by supernovae- have been detected. Several neutrino experiments have formed the
Supernova Early Warning System (SNEWS), where they search for an increase of neutrino flux that could signal a supernova event. There are currently goals to detect neutrinos from other sources, such as
378:
Neutrinos interact incredibly rarely with matter, so the vast majority of neutrinos will pass through a detector without interacting. If a neutrino does interact, it will only do so once. Therefore, to perform neutrino astronomy, large detectors must be used to obtain enough statistics.
70:, such as reactions in the Sun's core. Neutrinos that are created in the Sun’s core are barely absorbed, so a large quantity of them escape from the Sun and reach the Earth. Neutrinos can also offer a very strong pointing direction compared to charged particle cosmic rays.
499:
Despite shielding efforts, it is inevitable that some background will make it into the detector, many times in the form of radioactive impurities within the detector itself. At this point, if it is impossible to differentiate between the background and true signal, the a
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dilation). The hadrons are now more likely to interact before they decay. Because of this, the astrophysical neutrino flux will dominate at high energies (~100TeV). To perform neutrino astronomy of high-energy objects, experiments rely on the highest energy neutrinos.
264:
was anchored to the sea floor in the region off Toulon at the French
Mediterranean coast. It consists of 12 strings, each carrying 25 "storeys" equipped with three optical modules, an electronic container, and calibration devices down to a maximum depth of 2475 m.
114:, origins of ultra-high-energy neutrinos, neutrino properties (such as neutrino mass hierarchy), dark matter properties, etc. It will become an integral part of multi-messenger astronomy, complementing gravitational astronomy and traditional telescopic astronomy.
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blazar, multi-wavelength astronomy was used to show spatial coincidence, confirming the blazar as the source. In the future, neutrinos could be used to supplement electromagnetic and gravitational observations, leading to multi-messenger astronomy.
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nitrogen, and oxygen are fused with protons, and then undergo alpha decay (helium nucleus emission) to begin the cycle again. The PP chain is the primary process in the Sun, while the CNO cycle is more dominant in stars more massive than the Sun.
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in Russia. The detector is located at a depth of 1.1 km and began surveys in 1980. In 1993, it was the first to deploy three strings to reconstruct the muon trajectories as well as the first to record atmospheric neutrinos underwater.
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286:, located at the South Pole and incorporating its predecessor AMANDA, was completed in December 2010. It currently consists of 5160 digital optical modules installed on 86 strings at depths of 1450 to 2550 m in the Antarctic ice. The
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interactions of muons of cosmic rays with energies up to 10 ^ 13 eV. A feature of the detector is a 100-ton scintillation tank with dimensions on the order of the length of an electromagnetic shower with an initial energy of 100 GeV.
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project. DUMAND stands for Deep
Underwater Muon and Neutrino Detector. The project began in 1976 and although it was eventually cancelled in 1995, it acted as a precursor to many of the following telescopes in the following decades.
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are in their preparatory/prototyping phase. IceCube instruments 1 km of ice. GVD is also planned to cover 1 km but at a much higher energy threshold. KM3NeT is planned to cover several km and have two components; ARCA
340:
In
November 2022, the IceCube collaboration made another significant progress towards identifying the origin of cosmic rays, reporting the observation of 79 neutrinos with an energy over 1 TeV originated from the nearby galaxy
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IceCube
Collaboration; Abbasi, R.; Ackermann, M.; Adams, J.; Aguilar, J. A.; Ahlers, M.; Ahrens, M.; Alameddine, J. M.; Alispach, C.; Alves, A. A.; Amin, N. M.; Andeen, K.; Anderson, T.; Anton, G.; Argüelles, C. (2022-11-04).
66:
rarely scatter along their trajectory. But like photons, neutrinos are some of the most common particles in the universe. Because of this, neutrinos offer a unique opportunity to observe processes that are inaccessible to
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mine at an equivalent water depth of 7.5 km. Although the KGF group detected neutrino candidates two months later than Reines CWI, they were given formal priority due to publishing their findings two weeks earlier.
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must be used to model the background. While it may be unknown if an individual event is background or signal, it is possible to detect an excess about the background, signifying existence of the desired signal.
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the sun and the supernova SN1987A, which exploded in 1987. Scientist predicted that supernova explosions would produce bursts of neutrinos, and a similar burst was actually detected from
Supernova 1987A.
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Ashikhmin, V. V.; Enikeev, R. I.; Pokropivny, A. V.; Ryazhskaya, O. G.; Ryasny, V. G. (2013). "Search for neutrino radiation from collapsing stars with the artyomovsk scintillation detector".
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The IceCube
Neutrino Detector at the South Pole. The PMTs are under more than a kilometer of ice, and will detect the photons from neutrino interactions within a cubic kilometer of ice
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were jointly awarded half of the 2002 Nobel Prize in
Physics "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos (the other half went to
434:
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Borexino
Collaboration; Agostini, M.; Altenmüller, K.; Appel, S.; Atroshchenko, V.; Bagdasarian, Z.; Basilico, D.; Bellini, G.; Benziger, J.; Bick, D.; Bonfini, G. (2020-01-21).
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IceCube Collaboration; Aartsen, M. G.; Ackermann, M.; Adams, J.; Aguilar, J. A.; Ahlers, M.; Ahrens, M.; Altmann, D.; Anderson, T.; Arguelles, C.; Arlen, T. C. (2014-09-02).
801:
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Neutrinos can either be primary cosmic rays (astrophysical neutrinos), or be produced from cosmic ray interactions. In the latter case, the primary cosmic ray will produce
624:
1503:
303:). Both KM3NeT and GVD have completed at least part of their construction and it is expected that these two along with IceCube will form a global neutrino observatory.
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1424:"It Came From a Black Hole, and Landed in Antarctica - For the first time, astronomers followed cosmic neutrinos into the fire-spitting heart of a supermassive blazar"
1603:"Neutrinos Build a Ghostly Map of the Milky Way - Astronomers for the first time detected neutrinos that originated within our local galaxy using a new technique"
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is the same as chondritic meteorites. The power output from uranium and thorium in Earth's mantle was found to be 14.2-35.7 TW with a 68% confidence interval.
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Using over 3,200 days of data, Borexino used geoneutrinos to place constraints on the composition and power output of the mantle. They found that the ratio of
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At high energies, the neutrino direction and muon direction are closely correlated, so it is possible to trace back the direction of the incoming neutrino.
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The interior of the Earth as we know it. Currently, our information comes only from seismic data. Neutrinos would be an independent check on this data
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23:
An optical module from a neutrino telescope. Neutrino telescopes consist of hundreds to thousands of optical modules distributed over a large volume.
30:
is the branch of astronomy that gathers information about astronomical objects by observing and studying neutrinos emitted by them with the help of
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neutron inside an atom. The resulting nuclear reaction produces secondary particles traveling at high speeds that give off a blue light called
702:
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The second generation of deep-sea neutrino telescope projects reach or even exceed the size originally conceived by the DUMAND pioneers.
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in South Africa at an 8.8 km water depth equivalent. The other was a Bombay-Osaka-Durham collaboration that operated in the Indian
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218:
969:
Cowan, C. L. Jr.; Reines, F.; Harrison, F. B.; Kruse, H. W.; McGuire, A. D. (1956). "Detection of the free neutrino: A Confirmation".
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After the decline of DUMAND the participating groups split into three branches to explore deep sea options in the Mediterranean Sea.
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The proton-proton fusion chain that occurs within the Sun. This process is responsible for the majority of the Sun's energy.
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in 1960 "...to install detectors deep in a lake or a sea and to determine the location of charged particles with the help of
2023:
Davis, Jonathan H. (2016-11-15). "Projections for Measuring the Size of the Solar Core with Neutrino-Electron Scattering".
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The IceCube Collaboration; Fermi-LAT; MAGIC; AGILE; ASAS-SN; HAWC; H.E.S.S.; INTEGRAL; Kanata; Kiso; Kapteyn (2018-07-13).
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Markov, M. A. (1960). "On high-energy neutrino physics". In Sudarshan, E. C. G.; Tinlot, J. H.; Melissinos, A. C. (eds.).
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In the future neutrino astronomy promises to discover other aspects of the universe, including coincidental
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75:
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Achar, C. V.; et al. (1965). "Detection of muons produced by cosmic ray neutrinos deep underground".
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In June 2023, astronomers reported using a new technique to detect, for the first time, the release of
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1878:"Multimessenger observations of a flaring blazar coincident with high-energy neutrino IceCube-170922A"
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that hit their Antarctica-based research station in September 2017 back to its point of origin in the
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for corresponding pioneering contributions which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources)."
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employing a nearby nuclear reactor as a neutrino source. Their discovery was acknowledged with a
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Katz, U. F.; Spiering, C. (2011). "High-Energy Neutrino Astrophysics: Status and Perspectives".
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226:
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Reines, F.; et al. (1965). "Evidence for high-energy cosmic-ray neutrino interactions".
326:
35:
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Davis, R. Jr.; Harmer, D. S.; Hoffman, K. C. (1968). "A search for neutrinos from the Sun".
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who operated a liquid scintillator - the Case-Witwatersrand-Irvine or CWI detector - in the
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521:), the core can be observed using neutrino astronomy. Other sources of neutrinos- such as
8:
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The first generation of undersea neutrino telescope projects began with the proposal by
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764:. The resulting positron will immediately annihilate with an electron and produce two
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221:(Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array) used the 3 km thick ice layer at the
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providing insights into the high-energy and non-thermal processes in the universe.
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2404:"Observation of High-Energy Astrophysical Neutrinos in Three Years of IceCube Data"
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1504:"IceCube neutrinos give us first glimpse into the inner depths of an active galaxy"
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1952:"Experimental evidence of neutrinos produced in the CNO fusion cycle in the Sun"
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1985:
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Proceedings of the 1960 Annual International Conference on High-Energy Physics
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measurement will be especially helpful in determining the Sun's metallicity.
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481:, etc.). If the charged resultants are moving fast enough, they can create
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2001:
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1000:
550:, Daya Bay, and HALO) work together as the Supernova Early Warning System (
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of this galaxy, as well as serving as a baseline for future observations.
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1526:
1451:"Neutrino that struck Antarctica traced to galaxy 3.7bn light years away"
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Donini, Andrea; Palomares-Ruiz, Sergio; Salvado, Jordi (January 2019).
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1530:"Evidence for neutrino emission from the nearby active galaxy NGC 1068"
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these gamma rays, the experimenters can be certain there was an event.
689:
345:. These findings in a well-known object are expected to help study the
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Neutrinos are nearly massless and electrically neutral or chargeless
19:
2090:"Through Neutrino Eyes: Ghostly Particles Become Astronomical Tools"
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757:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\bar {\nu }}+p^{+}\longrightarrow e^{+}{+n}}}}
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1968:
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Reddy, Sanjay; Prakash, Madappa; Lattimer, James M. (1998-05-28).
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in the Mediterranean are some other important neutrino detectors.
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has been used to locate an object in space and that a source of
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Spiering, C. (2012). "Towards High-Energy Neutrino Astronomy".
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1636:"Observation of high-energy neutrinos from the Galactic plane"
538:. Neutrino astronomy may also indirectly detect dark matter.
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The interior of Earth contains radioactive elements such as
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Seven neutrino experiments (Super-K, LVD, IceCube, KamLAND,
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in 1965 by two groups almost simultaneously. One was led by
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in special Earth observatories. It is an emerging field in
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1949:
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announced that they have traced an extremely-high-energy
54:
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Arns, Robert G. (2001-09-01). "Detecting the Neutrino".
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2209:"Comprehensive measurement of pp-chain solar neutrinos"
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successfully detected the first solar neutrinos in the
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1395:"Russia deploys giant space telescope in Lake Baikal"
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The first underwater neutrino telescope began as the
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Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences: Physics
2131:Vigorito, C; the SNEWS Working Group (2011-08-10).
858:
45:. They are created as a result of certain types of
1716:"Comprehensive geoneutrino analysis with Borexino"
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583:, which is the composition of heavier elements.
488:To observe neutrino interactions, detectors use
297:Astroparticle Research with Cosmics in the Abyss
236:An example of an early neutrino detector is the
225:and was located several hundred meters from the
1818:"Neutrino interactions in hot and dense matter"
301:Oscillations Research with Cosmics in the Abyss
474:{\displaystyle {\ce {\nu_{\mu}-> \mu^{-}}}}
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2098:. Vol. 302, no. 5. pp. 38–45.
2133:"SNEWS - The Supernova Early Warning System"
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1594:
1477:"Source of cosmic 'ghost' particle revealed"
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850:data, and the resulting density agreed with
2207:The Borexino Collaboration (October 2018).
903:
325:away in the direction of the constellation
57:or high energy astrophysical phenomena, in
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1967:
1950:The Borexino Collaboration (2020-11-26).
1911:
1893:
1833:
1749:
1731:
1653:
1545:
1282:
1138:
1271:Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics
1122:
840:
561:
429:{\displaystyle {\ce {\nu_{e}-> e^-}}}
381:
18:
2283:Bellini, G.; et al. (2010-04-19).
1418:
1251:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
176:. Davis, along with Japanese physicist
3262:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1634:IceCube Collaboration (29 June 2023).
1238:
937:
908:, Oxford University Press, p. 326
513:When astronomical bodies, such as the
2485:
2397:
2395:
2278:
2276:
2202:
2200:
2137:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
2077:
2022:
1871:
1869:
1600:
1501:
1365:
1363:
279:implemented in the KM3Net framework.
210:is installed in the southern part of
53:such as those that take place in the
3243:
1764:
1105:
557:
541:
367:
146:first atmospheric neutrino detection
16:Observing low-mass stellar particles
1936:
1698:
912:
855:tighter restrictions on this data.
13:
2392:
2273:
2197:
1866:
1360:
924:American Museum of Natural History
591:Composition and structure of Earth
14:
3286:
2463:
2104:10.1038/scientificamerican0510-38
1686:from the original on 30 June 2023
1615:from the original on 29 June 2023
1216:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2002"
1015:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1995"
290:in the Mediterranean Sea and the
238:Artyomovsk Scintillation Detector
3242:
3231:
3230:
3001:Southern African Large Telescope
2469:
859:High-energy astrophysical events
827:{\displaystyle {\ce {^{232}Th}}}
681:{\displaystyle {\ce {^{232}Th}}}
329:. This is the first time that a
2335:
2173:
2124:
2088:; Weiler, T. J. (18 May 2010).
2016:
1809:
1758:
1601:Chang, Kenneth (29 June 2023).
1520:
1495:
1469:
1443:
1387:
1315:
1232:
1208:
796:{\displaystyle {\ce {^{238}U}}}
650:{\displaystyle {\ce {^{238}U}}}
508:
255:
125:were first recorded in 1956 by
2438:10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.101101
2344:"Neutrino tomography of Earth"
2320:10.1016/j.physletb.2010.03.051
2285:"Observation of geo-neutrinos"
2158:10.1088/1742-6596/309/1/012026
2055:10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.211101
1171:
1068:
1031:
1007:
962:
897:
732:
713:
619:{\displaystyle {\ce {^{40}K}}}
457:
412:
1:
2511:
891:
3275:Astronomical sub-disciplines
1099:10.1016/0031-9163(65)90712-2
993:10.1126/science.124.3212.103
949:IceCube Neutrino Observatory
945:"Frequently Asked Questions"
886:List of neutrino experiments
695:Borexino has detected these
688:. These elements decay via
308:IceCube Neutrino Observatory
76:IceCube Neutrino Observatory
7:
1751:10.1103/PhysRevD.101.012009
1202:10.1103/PhysRevLett.20.1205
1126:European Physical Journal H
879:
10:
3291:
1852:10.1103/PhysRevD.58.013009
1301:10.1016/j.ppnp.2011.12.001
1157:10.1140/epjh/e2012-30014-2
1062:10.1103/PhysRevLett.15.429
371:
117:
112:cosmic neutrino background
3225:
3017:
2994:Large Binocular Telescope
2959:Extremely Large Telescope
2952:Extremely large telescope
2925:
2808:
2748:
2669:
2631:
2592:
2585:
2519:
2370:10.1038/s41567-018-0319-1
2233:10.1038/s41586-018-0624-y
1986:10.1038/s41586-020-2934-0
1502:Staff (3 November 2022).
1346:10.3103/S1062873813110051
906:A Dictionary of Astronomy
904:Ian Ridpath, ed. (2012),
822:
791:
676:
645:
614:
208:Baikal Neutrino Telescope
144:This was followed by the
2966:Gran Telescopio Canarias
920:"Neutrino Observatories"
817:
811:
786:
780:
671:
665:
640:
634:
626:and the decay chains of
609:
603:
3061:Astrology and astronomy
2771:Gravitational radiation
2408:Physical Review Letters
2025:Physical Review Letters
1913:10.1126/science.aat1378
1672:10.1126/science.adc9818
1564:10.1126/science.abg3395
1245:University of Rochester
1181:Physical Review Letters
1041:Physical Review Letters
139:Nobel Prize for physics
2980:Hubble Space Telescope
1767:Physics in Perspective
846:
828:
797:
758:
682:
651:
620:
567:
528:active galactic nuclei
502:Monte Carlo simulation
475:
430:
387:
247:(ASD), located in the
227:Amundsen-Scott station
24:
3084:Astroparticle physics
2819:Australian Aboriginal
844:
829:
798:
759:
683:
652:
621:
565:
490:photomultiplier tubes
476:
431:
385:
337:has been identified.
36:astroparticle physics
22:
3076:Astronomers Monument
3008:Very Large Telescope
2555:Astronomical symbols
2478:at Wikimedia Commons
807:
776:
703:
699:through the process
661:
630:
599:
440:
395:
321:located 3.7 billion
174:Homestake experiment
43:elementary particles
3149:List of astronomers
2562:Astronomical object
2430:2014PhRvL.113j1101A
2311:2010PhLB..687..299B
2225:2018Natur.562..505B
2149:2011JPhCS.309a2026V
2095:Scientific American
2047:2016PhRvL.117u1101D
1978:2020Natur.587..577B
1904:2018Sci...361.1378I
1844:1998PhRvD..58a3009R
1779:2001PhP.....3..314A
1742:2020PhRvD.101a2009A
1664:2023Sci...380.1338I
1648:(6652): 1338–1343.
1556:2022Sci...378..538I
1338:2013BRASP..77.1333A
1293:2012PrPNP..67..651K
1194:1968PhRvL..20.1205D
1149:2012EPJH...37..515S
1091:1965PhL....18..196A
1054:1965PhRvL..15..429R
985:1956Sci...124..103C
456:
411:
193:Cherenkov radiation
154:East Rand gold mine
104:gravitational waves
81:Cherenkov radiation
3270:Neutrino astronomy
3135:Physical cosmology
2476:Neutrino astronomy
1888:(6398): eaat1378.
1787:10.1007/PL00000535
1608:The New York Times
1429:The New York Times
847:
824:
793:
754:
678:
647:
616:
568:
536:starburst galaxies
530:(AGN), as well as
471:
444:
426:
399:
388:
306:In July 2018, the
166:Raymond Davis, Jr.
68:optical telescopes
32:neutrino detectors
28:Neutrino astronomy
25:
3257:
3256:
3142:Quantum cosmology
3128:Planetary geology
2921:
2920:
2632:Celestial subject
2474:Media related to
2289:Physics Letters B
2219:(7728): 505–510.
1962:(7835): 577–582.
1822:Physical Review D
1720:Physical Review D
1540:(6619): 538–543.
1332:(11): 1333–1335.
1188:(21): 1205–1209.
979:(3124): 103–104.
818:
816:
815:
814:
787:
785:
784:
783:
751:
738:
725:
716:
672:
670:
669:
668:
641:
639:
638:
637:
610:
608:
607:
606:
558:Stellar processes
542:Supernova warning
418:
406:
374:Neutrino detector
368:Detection methods
360:of the Milky Way
331:neutrino detector
249:Soledar Salt Mine
182:Riccardo Giacconi
178:Masatoshi Koshiba
51:nuclear reactions
47:radioactive decay
3282:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3238:
3234:
3233:
3218:
3209:
3202:
3195:
3188:
3179:
3172:
3165:
3163:Medieval Islamic
3158:
3151:
3144:
3137:
3130:
3123:
3116:
3107:
3100:
3093:
3086:
3079:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3049:
3047:Astroinformatics
3042:
3035:
3028:
3026:Archaeoastronomy
3010:
3003:
2996:
2989:
2987:Keck Observatory
2982:
2975:
2968:
2961:
2954:
2947:
2940:
2914:
2905:
2898:
2891:
2884:
2882:Medieval Islamic
2877:
2870:
2863:
2856:
2849:
2842:
2835:
2828:
2821:
2801:
2794:
2787:
2780:
2773:
2766:
2759:
2741:
2732:
2725:
2718:
2711:
2709:
2701:
2699:
2687:
2680:
2660:
2653:
2646:
2624:
2617:
2610:
2603:
2590:
2589:
2578:
2571:
2564:
2557:
2550:
2541:
2534:
2527:
2506:
2499:
2492:
2483:
2482:
2473:
2458:
2457:
2423:
2399:
2390:
2389:
2363:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2322:
2304:
2295:(4–5): 299–304.
2280:
2271:
2270:
2244:
2204:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2181:"What is SNEWS?"
2177:
2171:
2170:
2160:
2128:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2084:Gelmini, G. B.;
2081:
2075:
2074:
2040:
2020:
2014:
2013:
1971:
1947:
1934:
1933:
1915:
1897:
1873:
1864:
1863:
1837:
1835:astro-ph/9710115
1813:
1807:
1806:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1735:
1711:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1657:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1549:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1422:(12 July 2018).
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1406:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1367:
1358:
1357:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1286:
1266:
1249:
1248:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1227:
1226:
1220:Nobel Foundation
1212:
1206:
1205:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1142:
1120:
1103:
1102:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1025:
1019:Nobel Foundation
1011:
1005:
1004:
966:
960:
959:
957:
955:
941:
935:
934:
932:
930:
916:
910:
909:
901:
833:
831:
830:
825:
823:
812:
802:
800:
799:
794:
792:
781:
763:
761:
760:
755:
753:
752:
749:
744:
743:
736:
731:
730:
723:
718:
717:
709:
687:
685:
684:
679:
677:
666:
656:
654:
653:
648:
646:
635:
625:
623:
622:
617:
615:
604:
532:gamma-ray bursts
480:
478:
477:
472:
470:
469:
468:
455:
452:
435:
433:
432:
427:
425:
424:
423:
416:
410:
407:
404:
246:
158:Kolar Gold Field
150:Frederick Reines
131:Frederick Reines
108:gamma ray bursts
85:Super-Kamiokande
59:nuclear reactors
3290:
3289:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3253:
3241:
3229:
3221:
3214:
3205:
3198:
3193:X-ray telescope
3191:
3184:
3175:
3168:
3161:
3154:
3147:
3140:
3133:
3126:
3119:
3112:
3103:
3096:
3089:
3082:
3073:
3066:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3038:
3031:
3024:
3013:
3006:
2999:
2992:
2985:
2978:
2971:
2964:
2957:
2950:
2943:
2936:
2928:
2917:
2910:
2901:
2894:
2887:
2880:
2873:
2866:
2859:
2852:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2824:
2817:
2804:
2799:Multi-messenger
2797:
2790:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2755:
2744:
2737:
2728:
2721:
2714:
2707:
2704:
2695:
2690:
2683:
2676:
2665:
2656:
2649:
2638:
2627:
2622:Space telescope
2620:
2613:
2606:
2599:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2560:
2553:
2546:
2537:
2530:
2523:
2515:
2510:
2466:
2461:
2400:
2393:
2340:
2336:
2281:
2274:
2205:
2198:
2189:
2187:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2129:
2125:
2116:
2114:
2082:
2078:
2021:
2017:
1948:
1937:
1874:
1867:
1814:
1810:
1763:
1759:
1712:
1699:
1689:
1687:
1632:
1628:
1618:
1616:
1599:
1595:
1525:
1521:
1512:
1510:
1500:
1496:
1486:
1484:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1460:
1458:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1432:
1420:Overbye, Dennis
1417:
1413:
1404:
1402:
1393:
1392:
1388:
1379:
1377:
1369:
1368:
1361:
1320:
1316:
1267:
1252:
1237:
1233:
1224:
1222:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1176:
1172:
1121:
1106:
1078:Physics Letters
1073:
1069:
1036:
1032:
1023:
1021:
1013:
1012:
1008:
967:
963:
953:
951:
943:
942:
938:
928:
926:
918:
917:
913:
902:
898:
894:
882:
861:
810:
808:
805:
804:
779:
777:
774:
773:
745:
739:
735:
726:
722:
708:
707:
706:
704:
701:
700:
664:
662:
659:
658:
633:
631:
628:
627:
602:
600:
597:
596:
593:
560:
544:
511:
483:Cherenkov light
464:
460:
453:
448:
443:
441:
438:
437:
419:
415:
408:
403:
398:
396:
393:
392:
376:
370:
258:
240:
170:John N. Bahcall
120:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3288:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3239:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3219:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3203:
3196:
3182:
3181:
3180:
3173:
3166:
3159:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3117:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3094:
3087:
3080:
3071:
3064:
3057:
3050:
3043:
3040:Astrochemistry
3036:
3029:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3004:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2976:
2973:Hale Telescope
2969:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2933:
2931:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2915:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2892:
2885:
2878:
2871:
2864:
2857:
2850:
2843:
2836:
2829:
2822:
2814:
2812:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2795:
2788:
2781:
2774:
2767:
2760:
2752:
2750:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2719:
2712:
2706:Visible-light
2702:
2688:
2681:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2661:
2647:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2618:
2611:
2604:
2596:
2594:
2587:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2579:
2572:
2565:
2558:
2551:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2528:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2509:
2508:
2501:
2494:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2465:
2464:External links
2462:
2460:
2459:
2414:(10): 101101.
2391:
2348:Nature Physics
2334:
2272:
2196:
2172:
2123:
2076:
2031:(21): 211101.
2015:
1935:
1865:
1808:
1773:(3): 314–334.
1757:
1697:
1626:
1593:
1519:
1494:
1483:. 12 July 2018
1468:
1457:. 12 July 2018
1442:
1411:
1386:
1359:
1314:
1277:(3): 651–704.
1250:
1247:. p. 578.
1231:
1207:
1170:
1133:(3): 515–565.
1104:
1085:(2): 196–199.
1067:
1048:(9): 429–433.
1030:
1006:
961:
936:
911:
895:
893:
890:
889:
888:
881:
878:
860:
857:
821:
790:
748:
742:
734:
729:
721:
715:
712:
675:
644:
613:
592:
589:
559:
556:
543:
540:
519:stellar fusion
510:
507:
467:
463:
459:
451:
447:
422:
414:
402:
372:Main article:
369:
366:
358:galactic plane
347:active nucleus
276:NESTOR Project
257:
254:
119:
116:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3287:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3249:
3240:
3237:
3228:
3227:
3224:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3178:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3164:
3160:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3098:Constellation
3095:
3092:
3088:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3051:
3048:
3044:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3005:
3002:
2998:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2924:
2913:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2893:
2890:
2886:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2865:
2862:
2858:
2855:
2851:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2807:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2779:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2761:
2758:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2749:Other methods
2747:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2685:Submillimetre
2682:
2679:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2659:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2644:Extragalactic
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3054:Astrophysics
3033:Astrobiology
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2697:Far-infrared
2651:Local system
2586:Astronomy by
2576:... in space
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2354:(1): 37–40.
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1455:The Guardian
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1401:. 2021-03-13
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3121:Planetarium
2778:High-energy
2764:Cosmic rays
2716:Ultraviolet
2086:Kusenko, A.
581:metallicity
335:cosmic rays
323:light-years
241: [
212:Lake Baikal
127:Clyde Cowan
63:cosmic rays
3264:Categories
3114:Photometry
3091:Binoculars
3068:Astrometry
2929:telescopes
2826:Babylonian
2670:EM methods
2548:Astronomer
2361:1803.05901
2190:2021-03-18
2117:2013-11-28
2038:1606.02558
1969:2006.15115
1895:1807.08816
1733:1909.02257
1655:2307.04427
1547:2211.09972
1513:2022-11-03
1405:2021-04-30
1380:2021-04-30
1371:"KM3NeT -"
1225:2013-01-24
1024:2013-01-24
892:References
766:gamma-rays
690:Beta decay
356:from the
223:South Pole
61:, or when
3186:Telescope
2792:Spherical
2739:Gamma-ray
2708:(optical)
2513:Astronomy
2454:220469354
2421:1405.5303
2386:119440531
2378:1745-2481
2329:0370-2693
2302:1003.0284
2251:0028-0836
2167:1742-6596
2010:227174644
1994:0028-0836
1922:0036-8075
1795:1422-6944
1588:253320297
1572:0036-8075
1399:France 24
1354:121385763
1284:1111.0507
1165:115134648
1140:1207.4952
733:⟶
714:¯
711:ν
523:neutrinos
466:−
462:μ
458:⟶
450:μ
446:ν
421:−
413:⟶
401:ν
354:neutrinos
233:in 2005.
164:In 1968,
141:in 1995.
123:Neutrinos
3236:Category
2945:Category
2840:Egyptian
2757:Neutrino
2692:Infrared
2640:Galactic
2615:Sidewalk
2569:Glossary
2539:Timeline
2446:25238345
2267:53026905
2259:30356186
2112:20443376
2071:22640563
2063:27911522
2002:33239797
1930:30002226
1860:18400234
1803:53488480
1684:Archived
1680:37384687
1613:Archived
1580:36378962
1309:53005415
1001:17796274
954:21 April
929:21 April
880:See also
579:such as
548:Borexino
312:neutrino
3248:Commons
3200:history
3170:Russian
3018:Related
2927:Optical
2912:Tibetan
2896:Serbian
2889:Persian
2833:Chinese
2810:Culture
2730:History
2601:Amateur
2532:History
2525:Outline
2426:Bibcode
2307:Bibcode
2221:Bibcode
2145:Bibcode
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1974:Bibcode
1900:Bibcode
1882:Science
1840:Bibcode
1775:Bibcode
1738:Bibcode
1690:30 June
1660:Bibcode
1641:Science
1619:30 June
1552:Bibcode
1534:Science
1508:IceCube
1487:12 July
1461:12 July
1435:13 July
1334:Bibcode
1289:Bibcode
1190:Bibcode
1145:Bibcode
1087:Bibcode
1050:Bibcode
981:Bibcode
972:Science
852:seismic
284:IceCube
262:ANTARES
231:IceCube
118:History
89:ANTARES
3216:Zodiac
3156:French
2861:Indian
2854:Hebrew
2593:Manner
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362:galaxy
316:blazar
288:KM3NeT
219:AMANDA
200:DUMAND
110:, the
93:KM3NeT
3207:lists
3177:Women
2868:Inuit
2847:Greek
2785:Radar
2723:X-ray
2678:Radio
2658:Solar
2450:S2CID
2416:arXiv
2382:S2CID
2356:arXiv
2297:arXiv
2263:S2CID
2067:S2CID
2033:arXiv
2006:S2CID
1964:arXiv
1890:arXiv
1856:S2CID
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1728:arXiv
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1584:S2CID
1542:arXiv
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1279:arXiv
1161:S2CID
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865:pions
552:SNEWS
327:Orion
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