428:
419:, and most of the hydrogen atoms of water have a single proton for a nucleus. Those protons can serve as targets for antineutrinos, so that simple water can serve as a primary detecting material. The hydrogen atoms are so weakly bound in water that they can be viewed as free protons for the neutrino interaction. The interaction mechanism of neutrinos with heavier nuclei, those with several protons and neutrons, is more complicated, since the constituent protons are strongly bound within the nuclei.
31:
630:
447:. The plan was to detonate a "20-kiloton nuclear bomb, comparable to that dropped on Hiroshima, Japan". The detector was proposed to be dropped at the moment of explosion into a hole 40 meters from the detonation site "to catch the flux at its maximum"; it was named "El Monstro". They eventually used a
92:
was to be preserved, beta decay had to be a three-body, rather than a two-body, decay. Therefore, in addition to an electron, Pauli suggested that another particle was emitted from the atomic nucleus in beta decay. This particle, the neutrino, had very small mass and no electric charge; it was not
83:
showed that their energy had a continuous distribution. If the process involved only the atomic nucleus and the electron, the electron's energy would have a single, narrow peak, rather than a continuous energy spectrum. Only the resulting electron was observed, so its varying energy suggested that
637:
In 1953, Cowan and Reines built a detector they dubbed "Herr Auge", "Mr. Eye" in German. They called the neutrino-searching experiment "Project
Poltergeist", because of "the neutrino’s ghostly nature". A preliminary experiment was performed in 1953 at the
408:) are detectable. The neutron can be detected by its capture by an appropriate nucleus, releasing a third gamma ray. The coincidence of the positron annihilation and neutron capture events gives a unique signature of an antineutrino interaction.
70:
emanating from a nearby nuclear reactor and a detector consisting of large tanks of water. Neutrino interactions with the protons of the water were observed, verifying the existence and basic properties of this particle for the first time.
2058:
601:
The arrangement was such that after a neutrino interaction event, the two gamma rays from the positron annihilation would be detected, followed by the gamma ray from the neutron absorption by cadmium several
435:
Given the small chance of interaction of a single neutrino with a proton, neutrinos could only be observed using a huge neutrino flux. Beginning in 1951, Cowan and Reines, both then scientists at
1987:
137:
One problem with the neutrino conjecture and Fermi's theory was that the neutrino appeared to have such weak interactions with other matter that it would never be observed. In a 1934 paper,
334:
2084:
1700:
1509:
128:. The theory, which proved to be remarkably successful, relied on the existence of the hypothetical neutrino. Fermi first submitted his "tentative" theory of beta decay to the journal
431:
Group portrait of the “Project
Poltergeist” team searching for the neutrino; Frederick Reines holds the poster, Clyde Cowan is at far right; Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, c. 1953
443:
that were then occurring could provide the required flux. For a neutrino source, they proposed using an atomic bomb. Permission for this was obtained from the laboratory director,
195:
2053:
66:
processes in the 1930s. With neither mass nor charge, such particles appeared to be impossible to detect. The experiment exploited a huge flux of (then hypothetical) electron
661:
After months of data collection, the accumulated data showed about three neutrino interactions per hour in the detector. To be absolutely sure that they were seeing
270:
2063:
489:
The additional detection of the neutron from the neutrino interaction provided a second layer of certainty. Cowan and Reines detected the neutrons by dissolving
366:
Despite the low probability of the neutrino interaction, the signatures of the interaction are unique, making detection of the rare interactions possible. The
2028:
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events from the detection scheme described above, Cowan and Reines shut down the reactor to show that there was a difference in the rate of detected events.
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were created. The two gamma rays created by positron annihilation were detected by sandwiching the water tanks between tanks filled with liquid
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The experiment that Cowan and Reines devised used two tanks with a total of about 200 liters of water with about 40 kg of dissolved CdCl
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sources. A detector consisting of two tanks of water was employed, offering a huge number of potential targets in the protons of the water.
1356:
1196:
C. L. Cowan Jr.; F. Reines; F. B. Harrison; H. W. Kruse; A. D. McGuire (July 20, 1956). "Detection of the Free
Neutrino: a Confirmation".
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1514:
2018:
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1902:
482:. The scintillator material gives off flashes of light in response to the gamma rays, and these light flashes are detected by
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as a source of neutrinos, as advised by Los Alamos physics division leader J.M.B. Kellogg. The reactor had a neutrino flux of
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The chance of this reaction occurring was small. The probability for any given reaction to occur is in proportion to its
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2013:
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to attempt to resolve the issue by postulating the existence of the neutrino in 1930. If the fundamental principle of
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134:, which rejected it "because it contained speculations too remote from reality to be of interest to the reader."
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2008:
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757:. Neutrino oscillation shows that neutrinos are not massless, a profound development in particle physics.
718:, often water based, for neutrino research was exploited by several subsequent experiments, including the
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1342:
440:
1319:
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164:
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1162:"Ghost particles and Project Poltergeist: Long-ago Lab physicists studied science that haunted them"
145:
calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth without interactions with any matter.
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1334:
1314:
1304:
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from nuclear fusion in the solar core. Observatories such as these detected neutrino bursts from
340:
34:
Frederick Reines (far right) with Clyde Cowan (far left) and other members of
Project Poltergeist
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Frederick Reines, left, and Clyde Cowan, at the controls of the
Savannah River experiment, 1956
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is a highly effective neutron absorber and gives off a gamma ray when it absorbs a neutron.
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neutrinos per second per square centimeter, far higher than any flux attainable from other
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8:
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1504:
723:
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89:
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791:
Stuewer, Roger H. (1983). "The
Nuclear Electron Hypothesis". In Shea, William R. (ed.).
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The
Neutrino with Dr. Clyde L. Cowan (Lecture on Nobel Prize winning experiment)
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During the 1910s and 1920s, the observations of electrons from the nuclear
67:
753:, the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory was able to demonstrate the process of
343:. Cowan and Reines predicted a cross section for the reaction to be about
701:
658:. This shielded location was 11 m from the reactor and 12 m underground.
655:
603:
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and very small mass, had been conjectured to be an essential particle in
43:
104:
in 1933. The theory posits that the beta decay process consists of four
30:
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734:. The Homestake Experiment is a contemporary experiment which detected
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Cowan & Reines
Experiments: Poltergeist, Hanford, Savannah River
795:. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Riedel Publishing Company. pp. 19–67.
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1164:. Los Alamos National Lab. (LANL), Los Alamos, NM (United States).
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energy may not be conserved. This quandary and other factors led
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They had predicted a cross-section for the reaction to be about
108:
directly interacting with one another. By this interaction, the
2140:
1922:
1882:
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1801:
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1274:
Barger, Vernon; Marfatia, Danny; Whisnant, Kerry Lewis (2012).
198:
125:
1041:"The singing neutrino Nobel laureate who nearly bombed Nevada"
629:
27:
Institute of
Technology Experimental confirmation of neutrinos
1942:
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1842:
1725:
1720:
1695:
1544:
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351:. The usual unit for a cross section in nuclear physics is a
1641:
1636:
684:. The results were published in the July 20, 1956 issue of
1013:"The Reines-Cowan Experiments: Detecting the Poltergeist"
654:. The Savannah River site had better shielding against
466:
At those rare instances when neutrinos interacted with
1273:
281:
251:
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Clyde Cowan died in 1974 at the age of 54. In 1995,
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617:layers which contained 110 five-inch (127 mm)
50:in 1956. The experiment confirmed the existence of
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899:
439:, initially thought that neutrino bursts from the
328:
264:
189:
96:Pauli's suggestion was developed into a proposed
2158:
613:. The water tanks were sandwiched between three
1366:Neutrino detectors, experiments, and facilities
646:, but in late 1955 the experiment moved to the
816:Yang, C. N. (2012). "Fermi's β-decay Theory".
329:{\displaystyle {\bar {\nu }}_{e}+p\to n+e^{+}}
1350:
93:observed, but it carried the missing energy.
930:
157:, the predicted neutrino, more correctly an
906:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.
148:
2126:BNO (Baksan or Baxan Neutrino Observatory)
1357:
1343:
1160:Alcazar, Daniel Albir (18 November 2020).
891:
1110:"Ghost particles and Project Poltergeist"
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842:
793:Otto Hahn and the Rise of Nuclear Physics
386:each other. The two resulting coincident
836:
714:The basic strategy of employing massive
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29:
1159:
983:
981:
979:
875:
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14:
2159:
1264:This source reproduces the 1956 paper.
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1134:Sutton, Christine (July–August 2016).
1133:
1107:
1038:
869:
1338:
1032:
676:and their measured cross-section was
1320:Electron Neutrinos and Antineutrinos
1305:Cowan and Reines Neutrino Experiment
1081:Introduction to Elementary Particles
976:
897:
847:Introduction to Elementary Particles
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378:, quickly interacts with any nearby
363:and 20 orders of magnitudes larger.
24:
25:
2178:
2090:Long Baseline Neutrino Experiment
1298:
1108:Laboratory, Los Alamos National.
989:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1995"
415:is composed of an oxygen and two
190:{\displaystyle {\bar {\nu }}_{e}}
40:Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment
18:Cowan-Reines neutrino experiment
1234:
1189:
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1127:
1101:
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881:Theory of Fundamental Processes
818:Asia Pacific Physics Newsletter
1280:. Princeton University Press.
1114:Los Alamos National Laboratory
1039:Abbott, Alison (17 May 2021).
1005:
938:(5 May 1934). "The Neutrino".
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1:
1407:Lederman–Schwartz–Steinberger
777:
74:
2146:List of neutrino experiments
1220:10.1126/science.124.3212.103
1079:Griffiths, David J. (1987).
767:List of neutrino experiments
728:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
42:was conducted by physicists
7:
760:
120:(later determined to be an
10:
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1249:Cambridge University Press
1058:10.1038/d41586-021-01318-y
749:. Through observations of
720:Irvine–Michigan–Brookhaven
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197:), should interact with a
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1996:
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851:(2nd ed.). pp.
830:10.1142/s2251158x12000045
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1277:The Physics of Neutrinos
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149:Potential for experiment
1136:"Ghosts in the machine"
745:in 1987, the birth of
1241:Winter, Klaus (2000).
1177:Cite journal requires
898:Pais, Abraham (1986).
843:Griffiths, D. (2009).
634:
437:Los Alamos, New Mexico
432:
330:
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191:
112:decays directly to an
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1085:John Wiley & Sons
887:. Chapters 6 & 7.
700:was honored with the
652:Aiken, South Carolina
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430:
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267:
265:{\displaystyle e^{+}}
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159:electron antineutrino
98:theory for beta decay
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2167:Particle experiments
1461:Neutrino oscillation
1310:Decay of the Neutron
993:The Nobel Foundation
755:neutrino oscillation
732:Homestake Experiment
648:Savannah River Plant
441:atomic weapons tests
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165:
2131:Kamioka Observatory
1212:1956Sci...124..103C
954:1934Natur.133..689B
772:Subatomic particles
374:counterpart of the
90:energy conservation
56:subatomic particles
1021:Los Alamos Science
747:neutrino astronomy
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155:inverse beta decay
116:, the conjectured
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1888:Heidelberg-Moscow
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1612:ICARUS (Fermilab)
1287:978-0-691-12853-5
1258:978-0-521-65003-8
1094:978-0-471-60386-3
1051:(7859): 334–335.
917:978-0-19-851997-3
862:978-3-527-40601-2
802:978-90-277-1584-5
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16:(Redirected from
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1792:Hyper-Kamiokande
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1299:External links
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86:Wolfgang Pauli
76:
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26:
9:
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903:
894:
886:
882:
878:
877:Feynman, R.P.
872:
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831:
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342:
341:cross section
321:
317:
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296:
286:
275:
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257:
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222:
200:
182:
172:
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146:
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127:
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111:
107:
103:
99:
94:
91:
87:
82:
72:
69:
68:antineutrinos
65:
61:
57:
54:. Neutrinos,
53:
49:
45:
41:
32:
19:
2095:NEMO Project
1853:Double Chooz
1760:Construction
1492:Astronomical
1380:Cowan–Reines
1379:
1276:
1269:
1243:
1236:
1203:
1197:
1191:
1170:cite journal
1155:
1146:
1143:CERN Courier
1142:
1129:
1117:. Retrieved
1113:
1103:
1080:
1074:
1062:. Retrieved
1048:
1044:
1034:
1025:
1019:
1007:
996:. Retrieved
945:
939:
926:
902:Inward Bound
901:
893:
880:
871:
846:
838:
824:(1): 27–30.
821:
817:
811:
792:
786:
713:
695:
667:
660:
640:Hanford Site
636:
615:scintillator
608:
604:microseconds
600:
488:
480:scintillator
465:
434:
410:
365:
338:
152:
136:
129:
122:antineutrino
102:Enrico Fermi
95:
78:
39:
37:
1701:KamLAND-Zen
1600:Accelerator
1478:(divided by
1373:Discoveries
936:Peierls, R.
702:Nobel Prize
656:cosmic rays
461:radioactive
382:, and they
355:, which is
44:Clyde Cowan
1918:Kamiokande
1873:Gargamelle
1777:Baikal-GVD
1632:NA61/SHINE
1617:MicroBooNE
1315:Beta Decay
1028:: 3. 1997.
998:2018-08-24
778:References
724:Kamiokande
722:detector,
682:10 cm
674:10 cm
388:gamma rays
384:annihilate
372:antimatter
361:10 cm
349:10 cm
143:Hans Bethe
81:beta decay
75:Background
64:beta decay
2073:Cancelled
1893:Homestake
1843:Cuoricino
1807:SuperNEMO
1627:MiniBooNE
1476:Operating
932:Bethe, H.
740:supernova
736:neutrinos
716:detectors
476:positrons
308:→
290:¯
287:ν
176:¯
173:ν
52:neutrinos
2161:Category
2119:See also
2064:WATCHMAN
2014:JEM-EUSO
1997:Proposed
1983:Soudan 2
1973:SciBooNE
1706:MAJORANA
1656:Collider
1576:Daya Bay
1520:Borexino
1482:neutrino
1228:17796274
1149:(6): 17.
1119:6 August
1064:7 August
879:(1962).
761:See also
743:SN 1987A
730:and the
706:neutrino
663:neutrino
472:neutrons
380:electron
376:electron
368:positron
243:positron
124:) and a
118:neutrino
114:electron
106:fermions
58:with no
2044:Nucifer
1863:EXO-200
1816:Retired
1772:ARIANNA
1668:SND@LHC
1622:MINERνA
1581:KamLAND
1569:Reactor
1535:IceCube
1505:ANTARES
1484:source)
1480:primary
1466:SN 1987
1208:Bibcode
1199:Science
970:4098234
950:Bibcode
709:physics
686:Science
625:Results
621:tubes.
606:later.
499:Cadmium
486:tubes.
468:protons
221:neutron
110:neutron
2141:SNOLAB
2085:LAGUNA
2029:LEGEND
1948:MINOS+
1923:KARMEN
1898:ICARUS
1868:GALLEX
1823:AMANDA
1802:KM3NeT
1742:KATRIN
1716:PandaX
1591:STEREO
1451:τ
1446:ν
1424:μ
1419:ν
1392:ν
1284:
1255:
1226:
1091:
1045:Nature
968:
941:Nature
914:
859:
855:–315.
799:
726:, the
692:Legacy
589:γ
493:, CdCl
399:γ
370:, the
241:) and
199:proton
131:Nature
126:proton
2110:BOREX
2049:P-ONE
2019:GRAND
2004:CUPID
1963:OPERA
1943:MINOS
1938:MACRO
1878:GERDA
1848:DONUT
1833:Chooz
1747:WITCH
1735:Other
1726:XMASS
1696:CUORE
1691:COBRA
1686:AMoRE
1663:FASER
1607:ANNIE
1560:SNEWS
1545:NEVOD
1515:BDUNT
1500:ANITA
1434:DONUT
1139:(PDF)
1016:(PDF)
966:S2CID
650:near
423:Setup
2136:LNGS
2054:SBND
2034:LENA
2009:nEXO
1988:Utah
1968:RICE
1958:NEMO
1953:NARC
1933:LSND
1903:IGEX
1858:ERPM
1838:CNGS
1828:CDHS
1797:JUNO
1787:DUNE
1782:BEST
1721:SNO+
1711:NEXT
1678:0νββ
1642:NuMI
1637:NOvA
1586:RENO
1550:SAGE
1530:HALO
1525:BUST
1282:ISBN
1253:ISBN
1224:PMID
1183:help
1121:2023
1089:ISBN
1066:2023
912:ISBN
857:ISBN
797:ISBN
474:and
353:barn
141:and
46:and
38:The
2105:SOX
2059:UNO
2024:INO
1978:SNO
1928:KGF
1913:K2K
1908:IMB
1883:GNO
1767:ARA
1647:T2K
1540:LVD
1510:ASD
1216:doi
1204:124
1053:doi
1049:593
958:doi
946:133
908:418
853:314
826:doi
678:6.3
642:in
272:),
153:By
100:by
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1172:}}
1168:{{
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1141:.
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1043:.
1026:25
1024:.
1018:.
991:.
978:^
964:.
956:.
944:.
934:;
910:.
883:.
820:.
711:.
688:.
580:+
571:Cd
562:→
552:Cd
542:→
532:Cd
522:+
457:10
411:A
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1436:(
1430:)
1409:(
1403:)
1397:e
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1358:e
1351:t
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1261:.
1230:.
1218::
1210::
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1181:(
1123:.
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1068:.
1055::
1001:.
972:.
960::
952::
920:.
865:.
832:.
828::
822:1
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680:×
672:×
670:6
611:2
513:n
495:2
455:×
453:5
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359:×
357:1
347:×
345:6
322:+
318:e
314:+
311:n
305:p
302:+
297:e
258:+
254:e
245:(
232:n
223:(
210:p
201:(
183:e
161:(
20:)
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