48:
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for some, an ancient
Mediterranean custom brought by the Spaniards, while unmarried men are encouraged to experiment before they marry. This follows from the fact that "paternity is uncertainty." Women always know a child is their own, but a man cannot be so sure. Thus men need assurance of paternity to be willing to put in decades of support for a child. Within marriage, the degree to which women are able to exercise agency depends on the husband. Some women are very free and have the ability to do as they wish, while others may have very controlling husbands; either way, however, women's freedom is determined by their spouse. "While some men jealously guarded their wives (even insisting on driving them to the marketplace), others their wives and daughters considerable independence." The issue of domestic violence is not necessarily commonplace.
481:
553:"In general, the women are considered productively inferior to men. Their ability to contribute to the economy and family are respected but, they are believed to be less capable than men as managers and their work is looked upon as insignificant. In consequence Yaletecos do not see the manufacturing industry as an industry. Although shirt making like other women's work is visible in itself, it is not an industry, but is perceived as part of the category of women's work comprising weaving, sewing, and embroidery. In contrast, men's occupations are identifiable, and a man is known by the type of work he performs."
322:
During this period, the
Zapotecs established a significant system of governance over the population of the region. The Monte Alban periods, of which five have been categorized, lasted from 500 BCE to the time of conquest in 1521 CE. Yet archaeological evidence from the site of Monte Alban, "the first city in ancient Mesoamerica" has revealed settlement of the region as far back as 1150 BCE. Scholars have been able to correlate with the Formative, Classic, and post-Classic periods of civilization in the region within the greater Mesoamerican history through these discoveries.
519:"In the past during an agriculturally dominant time, most agricultural activities associated with planting and harvesting are carried out directly by men, women also participate in the agricultural production. In particular, female household workers help with weeding and harvesting. Seldom is a female seen planting or plowing. When no male labor is available, however, women also work in planting. The majority of female labor was directed toward supplying male workers with food during agricultural activities and providing supplemental labor during weeding and harvesting."
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money for their families, and still are able to maintain the additional work they do at home which has no monetary value. As men are migrating for other, mostly industrial, work opportunities and agrarian work is decreasing, women have come to dominate the textile industry, which caters mainly to tourists. Weaving and factory life has become a way of life for many
Zapotec women in Oaxaca.
346:
326:
the rise of social and political structures in the
Zapotec civilization. This period also saw a surge in religious activity within the state leadership of the society. Later, during the "Militaristic stage" of Monte Alban IV–V from around 900 to 1521 CE, a rise in military influence common among Mesoamerican societies led states to become mired in warfare and "cults of war".
544:"While women in the community have common social roles based on their gendered positions as wives, mothers, and daughters, these roles are modified by the position of their household as workers or merchants. In their discussions of differences among themselves, women particularly emphasized merchant or worker status, specifically in the role of each in local labor relations."
489:
hindered as a result. "Most women in the community, whether old or young, are concerned with protecting their sexual reputations. Many girls are still strictly watched and not allowed to walk the streets alone after the age of ten or eleven." Though this is seen as a way to protect the women, it nevertheless restricts their behavior.
561:, are being absorbed into the U.S. consumer market and shifting the local economy of Oaxaca from a small community of workers and merchants and blending them into the global marketplace. The women are producing goods which are being bought and sold not only in Mexico, but also in the United States and the rest of the world.
549:'women's work'. Furthermore, even though the manufacturing industry has been thriving on a global scale, because of the gender separation of labor, there is a lower value placed on the work. Local industry is not seen as a glorious business in the Zapotec community because it is essentially controlled by women.
377:, some of their ancient beliefs and practices, such as the burial of the dead with valuables, still survive. Some images of local Catholic saints resemble the old gods of the Zapotecs. One example is of San Pedro who resembles the Zapotec rain god Cocijo. The first missionaries among the Zapotecs were
492:
Women are generally free to choose romantic partners; monogamy is valued, but having multiple sexual partners is not. However, for men and women this differs slightly; again for women virginity is regarded as important, even to the extent of publicly displaying the bloody sheet from the wedding night
501:
In addition to playing an important role in the family as wives and daughters, another important role for the
Zapotec women is that of the mother. Childbearing and rearing are female duties. It is the women's job to take on the responsibility of the children, while she is also expected to be the one
400:
Notably, while the Virgen de
Guadalupe is a notable Catholic figure in most of Mexico and Latin America, the Virgen de Juquila is a Catholic Marian devotion founded in the town of Santa Catarina Juquila, in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. Many Zapotec Catholic people participate in an annual pilgrimage
488:
Much of
Zapotec social life is strongly segregated by sex. Men and women often work separately, coming together to eat in the morning and evening, and during ritual occasions, they remain separate except when dancing." The purity of women is highly valued and their sexual and social autonomy can be
325:
The
Formative stage, from about 500 BCE to 200 CE of which the periods of Monte Alban I and II are attributed to, is characterized by a shift to sedentary settlements and the practice of agriculture for subsistence. From 200 to 900 CE in the Monte Alban III period, the Classic stage witnessed
321:
Although several theories of the origin of the
Zapotec peoples exist, including some possibly influenced in the post-conquest period, scholars largely agree the Zapotecs inhabited the Central Valley of Oaxaca as early as 500 to 300 BCE, during what is considered the Monte Alban I period.
523:
However, with the onset of globalized industry and Mexico's transition from an agricultural economy to one revolving around services and manufacturing, the ideas about women and work have been shifting dramatically. Women now see a way that they can participate in the market economy to make extra
471:
play a variety of social roles in their families and communities. As is true for many other cultures, Zapotec women have historically had a different place in society than men. These roles are in the context of marriage, childbearing, and work. Within them, they make up a vital part of the fabric
422:
great seer, who was likened to the Pope in the
Catholic church by Spanish accounts of the sixteenth century. However, the ouija-tĂ o did not live in Monte Alban, but rather in one of the other urban centers of the Zapotecs in the sub-valley area of Mitla. As a polytheistic religion, the Zapotecs
595:
for example, rug weaving on floor looms is done primarily by men, though women also weave rugs. Women's contributions are becoming greater and many women have a certain degree of independence and autonomy through their income from weaving. But feeding, clothing and taking care of the family is
548:
The merchant has come to symbolize a higher class status than the worker because they are the individuals who essentially control the market. For Zapotec communities, occupations are divided by gender. While men have a place in the industry as overseers, it is still primarily considered to be
417:
who were mostly selected from the nobility, were provided their religious training before taking a position among the religious hierarchy. Commoners were also selected and trained to join the priesthood, but they were only allowed to join the lower ranks. The highest position was held by the
583:, where the industry is based around more expensive goods, such as automotive production or electronics manufacturing, men typically command factories and are engineers and directors, while women are usually in the lower positions of line workers and assistants. In villages such as
536:
The industry has had a significant impact on the wage-earning opportunity of Zapotec women. Workers in Teotitlan's textile industry employ a variety of strategies and systems of production piecework production...increased direct control over production and distribution...weaving
506:. In addition to all of this, many poor women are also expected to work to help support the family. "Women, therefore, must work to contribute to their family income, in addition to attending to their traditional household tasks of child care and food."
404:
At the time of the Spanish conquest of the New World, church and state were not separate in Zapotec society. In fact, the Zapotec lord was trained in religious practice as a requirement prior to taking power. There were large temples built called
532:. Shortly after that, women who since pre-Columbian times had contributed to the subsistence of their families by weaving, began to make and design men's ready-made shirts and trousers for sale in the local market and the global markets."
514:
In Zapotec Oaxaca, the gendered implications of labor give different tasks to men and women. Because women are also responsible for caring for the children and the home, the outside work they do must revolve around those duties.
540:
As women are increasingly working and involved in the market because of their contribution to the industry, the role they have in society is changing in relation to other aspects of their lives.
1085:
O'Nell, Carl W.; Selby, Henry A. (1968). "Sex Differences in the Incidence of Susto in Two Zapotec Pueblos: An Analysis of the Relationships between Sex Role Expectations and a Folk Illness".
528:"Clothing is a relatively new industry which began about 1960. Sewing on treadle-type sewing machines has been practiced in since about 1940, when they were brought into the area by the
568:, the Zapotec villages often have a specific craft associated with them. In those villages, most of the people of that village will be makers of that particular product. In
164:, but Zapotec communities also exist in neighboring states. The present-day population is estimated at 400,000 to 650,000, many of whom are monolingual in one of the Native
587:, where back-strap weaving is done, the weaving is done by women. These are usually lightweight fabrics used for table runners, purses and smaller items. In Teotitlán,
413:, or life force, lived within various natural elements including wind, breath and was believed to be the spirit, or vital force, of all beings. The priests, known as
600:, fly shuttle weaving, of light-weight, but large-scale, fabrics are also more often done by men than by women, probably because of the physical effort required.
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Although there are very specifically defined gender roles regarding industrial production, it varies by city and by technique. In larger cities, such as
47:
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cooperatives...establishment of households and small businesses in Oaxaca... subcontracting of weaving in Teotitlan and surrounding communities."
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Many people of Zapotec ancestry have emigrated to the United States over several decades. They maintain their own social organizations in the
233:; the southern Zapotec, who live in the southern mountains of the Sierra Sur; and the Central Valley Zapotec, who live in and around the
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attributed several elements of the natural world to their gods. In the religious practice of the Valley Zapotecs, the primary god was
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Monoghan, John; Cohen, Jeffery (2000). "Thirty Years of Oaxacan Ethnography". In Monaghan, John; Edmonson, Barbara (eds.).
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word and should be written Zapochteca or Zaapochteca and comes from "za / zaa" (cloud) and "pochteca" (merchant).
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The Zapotecan language group is composed of over 60 variants of Zapotecan, as well as the closely related
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the house of the vital force, in which the priests performed religious rites. In the spiritual realm the
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153:
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Teotiteco industrial exports, such as textiles, clothing and manufactured goods such as electronics and
349:
Map showing the location of the Zapotec Civilization, developed in the Pre-Columbian Era in Mesoamerica.
894:
Jopling, Carol F. (1974). "Women's Work: A Mexican Case Study of Low Status as a Tactical Advantage".
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Malinowski, Sharon; Sheets, Anna (1998). "Zapotec". In Malinowski, Sharon; Sheets, Anna (eds.).
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620:: Born in Oaxaca to Zapotec parents, Benito Juarez was a liberal politician and leader of
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902:(2). University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education: 187–195.
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the goddess of man and animals as well as children, also considered the Mother goddess;
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1093:(1). University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education: 95–105.
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973:(2). University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education: 89–106.
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Diccionario del Nahuatl en el Español de México, Carlos Montemayor. UNAM (2007), p. 304
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624:(The Reform) in Mexico. He was the first president of Mexico of Indigenous origin.
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1005:"Identity, Gender, and Myth: Expressions of Mesoamerican Change and Continuity"
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Browner, C. H. (1986). "Gender Roles and Social Change: A Mexican Case Study".
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to visit the statue during festivities lasting from December 7 to December 9.
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1071:. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 317–344.
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317:, capital of the Zapotec civilization between the 8th and 14th centuries CE.
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Zapotec Civilization: how urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley
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Statue of La Tehuana Zapotec Woman adorned in traditional Zapotec attire
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people are known for their carved and brightly painted wooden figures.
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361:, which is spoken on the Pacific coastal plain of Southern Oaxaca's
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Stephen, Lynn (2002). "Sexualities and Genders in Zapotec Oaxaca".
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who was associated with maize and agriculture. Other gods include,
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to take care of the household in terms of the cooking, cleaning,
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Zapotec Women: Gender, Class, and Ethnicity in Globalized Oaxaca
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1080:. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. pp. 150–178.
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156:. Their population is primarily concentrated in the southern
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996:
The Isthmus Zapotecs: Women's Roles in Cultural Context
867:"Female Aggression among the Zapotec of Oaxaca, Mexico"
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Becoming an Ancestor: The Isthmus Zapotec Way of Death
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1015:(2). The Latin American Studies Association: 204–215.
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the creator of man, animals and the god of ancestors;
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769:
1724:
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1048:The Gale Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes
940:(2nd ed.). Durham: Duke University Press.
874:Of Mice and Women: Aspects of Female Aggression
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431:the god of rain and lightning (similar to the
1599:
1160:
451:god of the underworld, death, and the earth;
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1138:(including variants, in English and Spanish)
805:The Zapotecs: Princes, Priests, and Peasants
728:The Zapotecs: Princes, Priests, and Peasants
283:), which means "inhabitants of the place of
229:, who live in the northern mountains of the
209:There are four basic groups of Zapotec: the
183:was one of the highly developed cultures of
725:
1606:
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572:, they are known for their black pottery.
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701:Marcus, Joyce; Flannery, Kent V. (1996).
596:usually their primary responsibility. In
389:priest, who was killed by the natives in
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467:Zapotec women in the Mexican state of
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830:(2). Sage Publications, Inc.: 41–59.
655:"Indigenous Zapotec People in Mexico"
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397:for having "overthrown their idols".
256:For decades it was believed that the
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373:Though the Zapotecs are now largely
68:Regions with significant populations
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864:
858:
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24:
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743:Human: The Definitive Visual Guide
25:
1744:
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998:. New York: Rinehart and Winston.
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459:god of love, dreams, and excess.
287:". Recent studies carried out by
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705:. London: Thames & Hudson.
1009:Latin American Research Review
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677:e.g. see the documentary film
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13:
1:
1114:Royce, Anya Peterson (2011).
1055:Mann, James Saumarez (1911).
1050:. Detroit, MI: Gale Research.
741:Winston, Robert, ed. (2004).
640:
253:, which means “The People.”
245:The Zapotecs call themselves
60:
1176:Indigenous peoples of Mexico
726:Whitecotton, Joseph (1977).
635:Indigenous peoples of Oaxaca
455:the Sun god and god of war;
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270:
248:
7:
824:Latin American Perspectives
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604:Notable Zapotecs in History
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217:, who live in the southern
154:Indigenous people of Mexico
27:Indigenous people of Mexico
10:
1749:
1003:Hopgood, James F. (2000).
836:10.1177/0094582X0202900203
770:MacEarlean, A. A. (1913).
564:In the central valleys of
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1118:. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
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612:Benito Juarez (1806-1872)
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1183:More than 100,000 people
1132:(in English and Spanish)
994:Chinas, Beverly (1973).
865:Fry, Douglas P. (1992).
773:"Zapoteca Indians"
659:www.prmapping.res.ku.edu
472:that is Zapotec Oaxaca.
107:Albarradas Sign Language
1299:20,000 – 100,000 people
1068:Encyclopædia Britannica
357:. The major variant is
291:argue that it may be a
240:
1471:Less than 1,000 people
936:Stephen, Lynn (2005).
790:Marcus & Flannery
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363:Isthmus of Tehuantepec
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231:Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
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219:Isthmus of Tehuantepec
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1385:1,000 – 20,000 people
778:Catholic Encyclopedia
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570:San Bartolo Coyotepec
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348:
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127:Related ethnic groups
122:, traditional beliefs
803:Whitecotton, Joseph
792:Zapotec Civilization
585:San Bartolo Yautepec
574:San MartĂn Tilcajete
305:Zapotec civilization
181:Zapotec civilization
876:. pp. 187–199.
589:Santa Ana del Valle
385:, and Juan DĂaz, a
379:Bartolomé de Olmeda
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1622:Indigenous peoples
747:Dorling Kindersley
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497:Household function
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1543:Motozintleco
1316:Chontal Maya
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662:. Retrieved
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30:Ethnic group
559:white goods
415:Copa pitĂ o,
383:Mercedarian
279:tzapotēcatl
196:Los Angeles
187:that had a
185:Mesoamerica
179:times, the
1647:Chinanteco
1483:Chiricahua
1447:QĘĽanjobĘĽal
1427:Mexicanero
664:2021-02-14
641:References
622:La Reforma
420:ouija-tĂ o,
313:Palace of
275:(singular
271:tzapotēcah
204:California
1657:Cuicateco
1652:Chochotec
1538:Mezcalero
1508:Kaqchikel
1498:Ixcatecos
1442:Pima Bajo
1356:Tojolabal
1240:Purépecha
1190:Chinantec
1087:Ethnology
1078:Ethnology
1039:252741005
967:Ethnology
896:Ethnology
852:145808692
504:et cetera
407:yo hopèe,
375:Catholics
202:areas of
191:system.
152:) are an
89:Languages
18:Zapotecas
1727:Category
1692:Popoluca
1672:Mazateco
1478:Awakatek
1452:QĘĽeqchiĘĽ
1432:Ocuiltec
1422:Lacandon
1417:Jakaltek
1412:Guarijio
1366:Wixarika
1351:Tepehuán
1346:Popoluca
1326:Cuicatec
1250:Tlapanec
1245:Rarámuri
629:See also
453:Copijcha
391:Quechula
369:Religion
335:Language
225:serranos
213:istmeños
170:dialects
133:Chatinos
113:Religion
1707:Zapotec
1697:Tacuate
1667:Ixcatec
1642:Chatino
1513:KĘĽicheĘĽ
1488:CochimĂ
1462:Tepehua
1457:Tacuate
1311:Chatino
1270:Zapotec
1265:Tzotzil
1260:Tzeltal
1255:Totonac
1215:Mazatec
1210:Mazahua
1200:Huastec
1107:3772812
1065:(ed.).
1031:2692140
987:3773662
916:3773111
844:3185126
395:Tepeaca
387:secular
330:Culture
299:History
266:Nahuatl
262:Zapotec
142:Zapotec
103:English
99:Spanish
95:Zapotec
34:Zapotec
1702:Trique
1682:Mixtec
1637:Amuzgo
1626:Oaxaca
1553:Paipai
1528:Kumiai
1523:Kiliwa
1518:KikapĂş
1493:Cucapá
1402:Chocho
1392:Akatek
1361:Triqui
1306:Amuzgo
1225:Mixtec
1105:
1037:
1029:
985:
944:
914:
850:
842:
753:
709:
581:Oaxaca
566:Oaxaca
469:Oaxaca
437:Tlaloc
433:Toltec
429:Cocijo
293:hybrid
285:sapote
258:exonym
249:BĂ«n Za
221:, the
162:Oaxaca
150:BĂ«n za
82:Mexico
79:
40:BĂ«n za
1712:Zoque
1662:Huave
1548:Opata
1533:Lipán
1376:Zoque
1371:Yaqui
1331:Huave
1235:Otomi
1230:Nahua
1195:ChĘĽol
1103:JSTOR
1061:. In
1035:S2CID
1027:JSTOR
983:JSTOR
912:JSTOR
870:(PDF)
848:S2CID
840:JSTOR
598:Mitla
435:god,
393:near
315:Mitla
260:name
158:state
1677:Mixe
1563:Teko
1558:Seri
1503:Ixil
1437:Pame
1407:Chuj
1341:Mayo
1321:Cora
1220:Mixe
1205:Maya
942:ISBN
807:1977
794:1996
751:ISBN
707:ISBN
591:and
381:, a
289:UNAM
241:Name
198:and
168:and
140:The
1624:of
1336:Mam
1095:doi
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175:In
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144:(
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