550:
is considered the most important disease of cabbage and other crucifers because Xcc infections may not become apparent until the warm summer months (well after planting), the pathogen spreads rapidly, and losses due to the disease may exceed 50% in warm, wet climates. The importance of using disease-free seed and/or transplants is highlighted by the fact that "as few as three infected seeds in 10,000 (0.03%) can cause black rot epidemics in a field." In transplant beds, an initial infection level of 0.5% can rise to 65% in just three weeks. In fact more recent work indicates that spread can be much more rapid than this: with overhead gantry irrigation, spread of the pathogen greatly exceeded symptom spread to the extent that in one experiment almost 100% of the transplants were infested in a block of 15 module trays (around 4500 plants) six weeks after sowing from a single primary infector. Modelling of the rate of spread in transplants indicates that the widely used tolerance standard for seed health testing (0·01%) should be revised to 0·004%.
353:
378:
42:
333:. In contrast to black rot, in which the pathogen invades leaf margins and causes chlorotic to necrotic symptoms that progress downwards in the plant, fusarium wilt symptoms first develop in the lower portions of the plant and move upwards. Furthermore, leaf veins invaded by Xcc turn black compared to the dark brown vein discoloration found in fusarium wilt.
267:, and other cultural practices are the primary means of control of black rot. However, in developing countries such as those in South and Eastern Africa, black rot remains the greatest impediment to cabbage cultivation due to unreliable "clean" seed, multiple croppings annually, and high susceptibility of popular local cultivars to the disease.
402:, though leaf wounds caused by insects and plant roots may also be portals of entry. Occasionally, infections occur through stomata. Hydathodes provide the pathogen a direct path from the leaf margins to the plant vascular system and thus systemic host infection. Invasion of the suture vein leads to production of Xcc infected seed.
549:
Cabbage-family cultivation is a multi-billion dollar industry worldwide, reflecting its value as a vegetable crop, source of vegetable oil, component of fodder crop for livestock feed, and ingredient in condiments and spices. In 2007, the cabbage crop in the US exceed $ 413M (1.4M+ tons). Black rot
295:
Host infection by Xcc causes V-shaped chlorotic to necrotic foliar lesions, vascular blackening, wilting, stunted growth, and stem rot symptoms. As the pathogen proceeds from the leaf margins towards the veins, water stress and chlorotic symptoms develop due to occlusion of water-conducting vessels
1147:
Roberts SJ (2009) Transmission and spread of
Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris in brassica transplants: implications for seed health standards. In: Biddle AJ; Cockerell V; Tomkins M; Cottey A; Cook R; Holmes W; Roberts SJ; Vickers R, Seed Treatment and Production in a Changing Environment. pp
340:
causes black or brown specks, scratched leaf margins, black veins, and discolored curds. Additionally, the severity of symptoms and aggressiveness of the disease varies between different strains of the Xcc pathogen. The isolates can be differentiated into races based on the reaction of several
394:
and cotyledons may develop blackened margins, shrivel, and drop. The bacteria progress through the vascular system to the young stems and leaves, where the disease manifests as V-shaped chlorotic to necrotic lesions extending from the leaf margins. Under humid conditions, bacteria present in
420:
The optimum temperature range for bacterial growth and host symptom development is between 25° and 30 °C. A slower rate of growth is observed at temperatures as low as 5 °C and up to 35 °C. However, infected hosts are symptomless below 18 °C.
341:
Brassica lines after inoculation. A race structure including 5 races (0 to 4) was first proposed in 1992; a revised classification model with 6 races was proposed in 2001 and, more recently, the model was expanded to include nine races.
300:
and components of degraded plant cell walls. The darkening of vascular tissues following bacterial invasion gives the black rot disease its name. Lesions produced by Xcc may serve as portals of entry for other soft-rot pathogens such as
255:
worldwide. This disease was first described by botanist and entomologist
Harrison Garman in Lexington, Kentucky, US in 1889. Since then, it has been found in nearly every country in which vegetable brassicas are commercially cultivated.
259:
Host infection by Xcc can occur at any stage of the plant life cycle. Characteristic symptoms of black rot caused by Xcc are V-shaped chlorotic to necrotic lesions extending from the leaf margins and blackening of vascular tissues.
464:
The development and use of black rot resistant cultivars has long been recognised as an important method of control, but in practice has had limited success. Resistance to the most important pathogenic races of Xcc is rare in
1255:
Qian W, Jia Y, Ren SX, He YQ, Feng JX, Lu LF, Sun Q, Ying G, Tang DJ, Tang H, Wu W, Hao P, Wang L, Jiang BL, Zeng S, Gu WY, Lu G, Rong L, Tian Y, Yao Z, Fu G, Chen B, Fang R, Qiang B, Chen Z, Zhao GP, Tang JL, He C (2005).
1215:
Vorhölter FJ, Schneiker S, Goesmann A, Krause L, Bekel T, Kaiser O, Linke B, Patschkowski T, Rückert C, Schmid J, Sidhu VK, Sieber V, Tauch A, Watt SA, Weisshaar B, Becker A, Niehaus K, Pühler A (2008). "The genome of
413:
Warm and wet conditions favor plant infection by Xcc and the development of disease. Free moisture is required for host invasion, considering that the natural route of infection is through the
405:
Xcc can survive in plant debris in soil for up to 2 years, but not more than 6 weeks in free soil. Bacteria present in plant debris can serve as a source of secondary inoculum.
439:
Hot water treatment of non-certified seeds; chemical treatments with sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and hot cupuric acetate or zinc sulfate may also be used
566:
is an exopolysaccharide produced by Xcc. Commercially produced xanthan is used as a thickening food additive and lubricant, amongst other industrial applications.
469:(e.g., cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower); the most common and potentially useful sources of black rot resistance occur in other brassica genomes including
695:
Massomo SM, Mabagala RB, Swai IS, Hockenhull J, Mortensen CN (2004). "Evaluation of varietal resistance in cabbage against the black rot pathogen,
1404:
1349:
755:
1371:
848:
Miller SA, Sahin F, and Rowe RC. "Black rot of crucifers." Extension fact sheet HYG-3125-96. Ohio State
University Extension. 1996.
779:
251:), is considered the most important and most destructive disease of crucifers, infecting all cultivated varieties of
839:"Black rot of cabbage and other crucifers." Integrated Pest Management. University of Illinois Extension. Dec 1999.
390:
The primary source of inoculum is Xcc infected seed. During germination, the seedling becomes infected through the
811:
574:
The genomes of three Xcc strains—ATCC 33913, B100, and 8004—have been fully sequenced and are publicly available.
1376:
1220:
pv. campestris B100 and its use for the reconstruction of metabolic pathways involved in xanthan biosynthesis".
395:
guttation droplets can be spread by wind, rain, water splashes, and mechanical equipment to neighboring plants.
1102:
336:
Symptoms of black rot may vary widely among different species of crucifers. On cauliflower, Xcc infection via
263:
The pathogen thrives in warm and humid climates and is rapidly disseminated in the field. Use of clean seed,
1149:
356:
V-shaped chlorotic to necrotic lesion on cabbage leaf, symptomatic of infection by the black rot pathogen
147:
41:
303:
283:), which includes cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, turnip, oilseed rape, mustard, radish, and the
325:
These symptoms may be confused with fusarium wilt of cabbage (fusarium yellows), caused by the fungus
1117:"Modelling the spread of Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris in module-raised brassica transplants"
1399:
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117:
1103:
U.S. Cabbage
Statistics - U.S. fresh cabbage: Area, yield, production, & value, 1960-2007.
858:
Kamoun S, Kamdar HV, Tola E, Kado CI (1992). "Incompatible interactions between crucifers and
1173:
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8:
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Alvarez AM. "Black rot of crucifers." In: Slusarenko AJ, Fraser RSS, van Loon LC (Eds.)
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1258:"Comparative and functional genomic analyses of the pathogenicity of phytopathogen
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Government of Canada. Horticultural
Research and Development Centre. 1999.
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636:
Williams PH (1980). "Black rot: a continuing threat to world crucifers".
451:
Control of cruciferous weeds that may serve as reservoir for the pathogen
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Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. pp 21-52.
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New Delhi, India : Discovery
Publishing House, 2006. p. 132-133.
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da Silva AC, et al. (2002). "Comparison of the genomes of two
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New York State
Cooperative Extension. Cornell University. Jan 1979.
814:
UK Cooperative
Extension Service. University of Kentucky. Feb 2008.
391:
252:
53:
360:
pv. campestris. Photo by David B. Langston, University of
Georgia.
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Sanitation (e.g., clean equipment, avoiding work in wet fields,
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Management of black rot relies heavily on cultural practices:
941:
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Jensen BD, Vicente JG, Manandhar HK, Roberts SJ (2010).
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involve a vascular hypersensitive response: Role of the
445:
Crop rotation with non-cruciferous plants (3–4 years)
1049:
Taylor JD, Conway J, Roberts SJ, Vicente JG (2002).
1035:
Carisse O, Wellman-Desbiens E, Toussaint V, Otis T.
893:
Vicente JG, Conway J, Roberts SJ, Taylor JD (2001).
857:
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The natural route of invasion by Xcc is through the
1114:
663:Garman H (1890). "A bacterial disease of cabbage".
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Use of certified disease-free seeds and transplants
997:into three pathovars and reveal nine races within
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828:"Fusarium yellows of cabbage and related crops."
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1101:United States. Department of Agriculture.
993:"Pathogenicity assays restrict the species
765:University of Illinois Extension. Dec 1999.
753:"Black rot of cabbage and other crucifers."
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613:Mechanisms of Resistance to Plant Diseases.
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1115:Roberts SJ, Brough J, Hunter PJ (2006).
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952:in vegetable brassica fields in Nepal"
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1350:Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris
1320:Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris
1310:
1309:
1051:"Sources and origin of resistance to
785:. The Ohio State University Extension
381:Life cycle of the black rot pathogen
270:
868:Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions
778:Miller SA, Sahin F, Rowe RC (1996).
448:Removal of crop debris after harvest
797:
683:Manual of Vegetable Plant Diseases.
16:Bacterial variant causing black rot
13:
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810:Seebold K, Bachi P, and Beale J.
681:Chupp C. “Black rot of cabbage.”
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492:Resistant or tolerant cabbage
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1:
1234:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2007.12.013
991:Fargier E, Manceau C (2007).
944:"Occurrence and diversity of
699:pv. campestris in Tanzania".
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903:races and related pathovars"
721:10.1016/j.cropro.2003.09.001
275:Members of the plant family
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1080:10.1094/PHYTO.2002.92.1.105
920:10.1094/phyto.2001.91.5.492
763:Integrated Pest Management.
665:Kentucky Agric Exp Stat Rep
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292:are affected by black rot.
10:
1426:
812:"Black rot of crucifers ."
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496:are available and include:
385:pv. campestris by G. Kwan.
304:Pectobacterium carotovorum
237:, caused by the bacterium
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165:(Pammel 1895) Dowson 1939
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37:Scientific classification
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24:
1222:Journal of Biotechnology
780:"Black rot of crucifers"
1037:"Preventing black rot."
211:(Pammel) Chester (1897)
1260:Xanthomonas campestris
1218:Xanthomonas campestris
1053:Xanthomonas campestris
995:Xanthomonas campestris
969:10.1094/PDIS-94-3-0298
946:Xanthomonas campestris
897:Xanthomonas campestris
860:Xanthomonas campestris
758:July 31, 2010, at the
697:Xanthomonas campestris
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383:Xanthomonas campestris
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358:Xanthomonas campestris
319:Pseudomonas marginalis
240:Xanthomonas campestris
225:(Pammel) Dowson (1939)
222:Xanthomonas campestris
218:(Pammel) Bergey (1923)
201:Pseudomonas campestris
156:Xanthomonas campestris
26:Xanthomonas campestris
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355:
215:Phytomonas campestris
204:(Pammel) Smith (1897)
289:Arabidopsis thaliana
208:Bacterium campestris
1178:2002Natur.417..459D
713:2004CrPro..23..315M
194:Bacillus campestris
74:Gammaproteobacteria
1278:10.1101/gr.3378705
880:10.1094/mpmi-5-022
442:Control of insects
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327:Fusarium oxysporum
298:exopolysaccharides
271:Hosts and symptoms
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650:10.1094/pd-64-736
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637:
612:
573:
562:
548:
540:Significance
491:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
463:
455:
428:
419:
412:
404:
397:
388:
382:
357:
335:
331:conglutinans
330:
326:
324:
317:
313:
308:
302:
294:
287:
277:Brassicaceae
274:
262:
258:
248:
243:
239:
238:
232:
221:
214:
207:
200:
193:
192:
159:
155:
154:
138:
134:
133:
116:
104:
29:
25:
18:
1344:Wikispecies
1162:Xanthomonas
483:B. carinata
467:B. oleracea
409:Environment
172:Type strain
105:Xanthomonas
1394:Categories
1057:campestris
1003:campestris
950:campestris
901:campestris
826:Sherf, A.
578:References
425:Management
415:hydathodes
400:hydathodes
314:carotovora
307:(formerly
281:Cruciferae
244:campestris
160:campestris
139:campestris
129:Pathovar:
30:campestris
1410:Pathovars
1105:May 2008.
874:: 22–33.
524:Gladiator
494:cultivars
487:B. juncea
253:brassicas
235:Black rot
179:NCPPB 528
112:Species:
1335:Q8043055
1329:Wikidata
1296:15899963
1242:18304669
1194:12024217
1089:18944146
1063:genomes"
1061:Brassica
978:30754254
929:18943594
866:locus".
756:Archived
671:: 43–46.
570:Genomics
527:Guardian
518:Defender
503:Atlantis
479:B. napus
475:B. nigra
392:epicotyl
186:Synonyms
90:Family:
60:Phylum:
54:Bacteria
50:Domain:
1287:1142466
1202:4302762
1174:Bibcode
789:19 July
709:Bibcode
564:Xanthan
559:Xanthan
530:Hancock
521:Dynasty
506:Blueboy
471:B. rapa
338:stomata
329:f. sp.
310:Erwinia
100:Genus:
80:Order:
70:Class:
1364:XANTCA
1294:
1284:
1240:
1200:
1192:
1166:Nature
1148:82-85.
1087:
976:
927:
533:Ramada
515:Cecile
512:Bronco
316:) and
1198:S2CID
783:(PDF)
509:Bravo
1372:NCBI
1359:EPPO
1292:PMID
1238:PMID
1190:PMID
1085:PMID
1055:pv.
1001:pv.
974:PMID
948:pv.
925:PMID
899:pv.
864:hrpX
791:2016
485:and
456:etc.
242:pv.
1377:340
1282:PMC
1274:doi
1230:doi
1226:134
1182:doi
1170:417
1129:doi
1075:doi
1059:in
1017:doi
964:doi
915:doi
876:doi
717:doi
646:doi
249:Xcc
1396::
1374::
1361::
1346::
1331::
1290:.
1280:.
1270:15
1268:.
1264:.
1236:.
1224:.
1196:.
1188:.
1180:.
1168:.
1125:56
1123:.
1119:.
1083:.
1071:92
1069:.
1065:.
1013:56
1011:.
1007:.
972:.
960:94
958:.
954:.
923:.
911:91
909:.
905:.
870:.
819:^
799:^
770:^
729:^
715:.
705:23
703:.
667:.
642:64
640:.
620:^
586:^
489:.
481:,
477:,
473:,
417:.
322:.
1298:.
1276::
1244:.
1232::
1204:.
1184::
1176::
1137:.
1131::
1091:.
1077::
1025:.
1019::
1005:"
980:.
966::
931:.
917::
882:.
878::
872:5
793:.
723:.
719::
711::
669:3
652:.
648::
458:)
279:(
247:(
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