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line, but sometimes the Lalpha line, suffices to identify the element. The existence of a particular line betrays the existence of an element, and the intensity is proportional to the amount of the particular element in the specimen. The characteristic lines are reflected from a crystal, the analyzer, under an angle that is given by the Bragg condition. The crystal samples all the diffraction angles theta by rotation, while the detector rotates over the corresponding angle 2-theta. With a sensitive detector, the X-ray photons are counted individually. By stepping the detectors along the angle, and leaving it in position for a known time, the number of counts at each angular position gives the line intensity. These counts may be plotted on a curve by an appropriate display unit. The characteristic X-rays come out at specific angles, and since the angular position for every X-ray spectral line is known and recorded, it is easy to find the sample's composition.
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instrumentation. It included a sales staff, a manufacturing group, an engineering department and an applications lab. Dr. Miller was transferred from the lab to head up the engineering department. The sales staff sponsored three schools a year, one in Mount Vernon, one in Denver, and one in San
Francisco. The week-long school curricula reviewed the basics of X-ray instrumentation and the specific application of Norelco products. The faculty were members of the engineering department and academic consultants. The schools were well attended by academic and industrial R&D scientists. The engineering department was also a new product development group. It added an X-ray spectrograph to the product line very quickly and contributed other related products for the next 8 years.
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of the world's largest R&D labs. In 1940, the
Netherlands was overrun by Hitler’s Germany. The company was able to transfer a substantial sum of money to a company that it set up as an R&D laboratory in an estate in Irvington on the Hudson in NY. As an extension to their work on light bulbs, the Dutch company had developed a line of X-ray tubes for medical applications that were powered by transformers. These X-ray tubes could also be used in scientific X-ray instrumentations, but there was very little commercial demand for the latter. As a result, management decided to try to develop this market and they set up development groups in their research labs in both Holland and the United States.
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of doing this analysis by physics instrumentation was considered suspect. To overcome this bias, the salesman would ask a prospective customer for a task the customer was doing by “wet methods”. The task would be given to the applications lab and they would demonstrate how accurately and quickly it could be done using the X-ray units. This proved to be a very strong sales tool, particularly when the results were published in the
Norelco Reporter, a technical journal issued monthly by the company with wide distribution to commercial and academic institutions.
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can show that this is equivalent to a
Fourier transformed spectrum as a function of frequency. The highest recordable frequency of such a spectrum is dependent on the minimum step size chosen in the scan and the frequency resolution (i.e. how well a certain wave can be defined in terms of its frequency) depends on the maximum path length difference achieved. The latter feature allows a much more compact design for achieving high resolution than for a grating spectrometer because x-ray wavelengths are small compared to attainable path length differences.
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527:. Such units were not commercially available, so each investigator had do try to make their own. Dr Parrish decided this would be a good device to use to generate an instrumental market, so his group designed and learned how to manufacture a goniometer. This market developed quickly and, with the readily available tubes and power supplies, a complete diffraction unit was made available and was successfully marketed.
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Louis. Dr. Duffendack also hired Dr. Bill Parish, a well known researcher in X-ray diffraction, to head up the section of the lab on X-ray instrumental development. X-ray diffraction units were widely used in academic research departments to do crystal analysis. An essential component of a diffraction unit was a very accurate angle measuring device known as a
311:, which are then collected by a detector. By moving the diffraction crystal and detector relative to each other, a wide region of the spectrum can be observed. To observe a large spectral range, three of four different single crystals may be needed. In contrast to EDS, WDS is a method of sequential spectrum acquisition. While WDS is slower than EDS and more
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distance) at the same angle and are diffracted according to their wavelength. A second parabolic mirror then collects the diffracted rays at a certain angle and creates an image on a detector. A spectrum within a certain wavelength range can be recorded simultaneously by using a two-dimensional position-sensitive detector such as a microchannel
455:(1848–1901) devised an instrument that allowed the use of a single optical element that combines diffraction and focusing: a spherical grating. Reflectivity of X-rays is low, regardless of the used material and therefore, grazing incidence upon the grating is necessary. X-ray beams impinging on a smooth surface at a few degrees
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The continuous X-spectrum emitted from the tube irradiates the specimen and excites the characteristic spectral X-ray lines in the specimen. Each of the 92 elements emits a characteristic spectrum. Unlike the optical spectrum, the X-ray spectrum is quite simple. The strongest line, usually the Kalpha
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produces qualitative results about the elemental composition of the specimen. Comparison of the specimen's spectrum with the spectra of samples of known composition produces quantitative results (after some mathematical corrections for absorption, fluorescence and atomic number). Atoms can be excited
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They hired Dr. Ira
Duffendack, a professor at University of Michigan and a world expert on infrared research to head the lab and to hire a staff. In 1951 he hired Dr. David Miller as Assistant Director of Research. Dr. Miller had done research on X-ray instrumentation at Washington University in St.
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Philips
Gloeilampen Fabrieken, headquartered in Eindhoven in the Netherlands, got its start as a manufacturer of light bulbs, but quickly evolved until it is now one of the leading manufacturers of electrical apparatus, electronics, and related products including X-ray equipment. It also has had one
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Instead of using the concept of multiple beam interference that gratings produce, the two rays may simply interfere. By recording the intensity of two such co-linearly at some fixed point and changing their relative phase one obtains an intensity spectrum as a function of path length difference. One
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Similar to optical spectrometers, a plane grating spectrometer first needs optics that turns the divergent rays emitted by the x-ray source into a parallel beam. This may be achieved by using a parabolic mirror. The parallel rays emerging from this mirror strike a plane grating (with constant groove
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Usually X-ray diffraction in spectrometers is achieved on crystals, but in
Grating spectrometers, the X-rays emerging from a sample must pass a source-defining slit, then optical elements (mirrors and/or gratings) disperse them by diffraction according to their wavelength and, finally, a detector is
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The applications lab was an essential sales tool. When the spectrograph was introduced as a quick and accurate analytical chemistry device, it was met with widespread skepticism. All research facilities had a chemistry department and analytical analysis was done by “wet chemistry” methods. The idea
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In 1961, during the development of the
Autrometer, Norelco was given a sub-contract from the Jet Propulsion Lab. The Lab was working on the instrument package for the Surveyor spaceship. The composition of the Moon’s surface was of major interest and the use of an X-ray detection instrument was
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When an electron from the inner shell of an atom is excited by the energy of a photon, it moves to a higher energy level. When it returns to the low energy level, the energy which it previously gained by the excitation is emitted as a photon which has a wavelength that is characteristic for the
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An X-ray spectrograph consists of a high voltage power supply (50 kV or 100 kV), a broad band X-ray tube, usually with a tungsten anode and a beryllium window, a specimen holder, an analyzing crystal, a goniometer, and an X-ray detector device. These are arranged as shown in Fig. 1.
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Due to the wide separation of orbital energies of the core levels, it is possible to select a certain atom of interest. The small spatial extent of core level orbitals forces the RIXS process to reflect the electronic structure in close vicinity of the chosen atom. Thus, RIXS experiments give
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The
Norelco efforts faded but the use of X-ray spectroscopy in units known as XRF instruments continued to grow. With a boost from NASA, units were finally reduced to handheld size and are seeing widespread use. Units are available from Bruker, Thermo Scientific, Elvatech Ltd. and SPECTRA.
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The U.S. management did not want the laboratory to be converted to a manufacturing unit so it decided to set up a commercial unit to further develop the X-ray instrumentation market. In 1953 Norelco
Electronics was established in Mount Vernon, NY, dedicated to the sale and support of X-ray
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viewed as a possible solution. Working with a power limit of 30 watts was very challenging, and a device was delivered but it wasn’t used. Later NASA developments did lead to an X-ray spectrographic unit that did make the desired moon soil analysis.
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In an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer, a semiconductor detector measures energy of incoming photons. To maintain detector integrity and resolution it should be cooled with liquid nitrogen or by Peltier cooling. EDS is widely employed in
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for such instruments is the spectral throughput, i.e. the product of detected intensity and spectral resolving power. Usually, it is possible to change these parameters within a certain range while keeping their product constant.
353:, which was used by both father and son to investigate the structure of crystals, can be seen at the Science Museum, London. Jointly they measured the X-ray wavelengths of many elements to high precision, using high-energy
323:(where X-ray microanalysis is the main task) and in XRF; it is widely used in the field of X-ray diffraction to calculate various data such as interplanar spacing and wavelength of the incident X-ray using Bragg's law.
380:. In a material, the X-rays may suffer an energy loss compared to the incoming beam. This energy loss of the re-emerging beam reflects an internal excitation of the atomic system, an X-ray analogue to the well-known
560:
A chart for a scan of a Molybdenum specimen is shown in Fig. 2. The tall peak on the left side is the characteristic alpha line at a two theta of 12 degrees. Second and third order lines also appear.
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Soon after the Autrometer was introduced, Philips decided to stop marketing X-ray instruments developed in both the U.S. and Europe and settled on offering only the Eindhoven line of instruments.
391:; this is in contrast with the optical region, where the energy loss is often due to changes in the state of the rotational or vibrational degrees of freedom). For instance, in the ultra
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X- ray spectrographic instrument line was the Autrometer. This device could be programmed to automatically read at any desired two theta angle for any desired time interval.
238:, or XRF or also recently in transmission XRT). These methods enable elements from the entire periodic table to be analysed, with the exception of H, He and Li. In
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valuable information about the local electronic structure of complex systems, and theoretical calculations are relatively simple to perform.
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was the method used to pass electrons through a crystal of numerous elements. They also painstakingly produced numerous diamond-ruled glass
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an electron beam excites X-rays; there are two main techniques for analysis of spectra of characteristic X-ray radiation:
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is resonantly enhanced by many orders of magnitude. This type of X-ray emission spectroscopy is often referred to as
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There exist several efficient designs for analyzing an X-ray emission spectrum in the ultra soft X-ray region. The
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The photon-in-photon-out process may be thought of as a scattering event. When the x-ray energy corresponds to the
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Since the alpha line is often the only line of interest in many industrial applications, the final device in the
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In the X-ray region there is sufficient energy to probe changes in the electronic state (transitions between
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beam, and beams of all diffraction orders, that come into focus at certain points on the same circle.
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element (there could be several characteristic wavelengths per element). Analysis of the X-ray
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New perspectives of explosive detection based on CdTe/CDZnTe spectrometric detectors
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which is taken advantage of to enhance the instrumental efficiency substantially.
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tangent to the center of the grating surface. This small circle is called the
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plate or an X-ray sensitive CCD chip (film plates are also possible to use).
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250:(WDS). In X-Ray Transmission (XRT), the equivalent atomic composition (Z
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Intense and wavelength-tunable X-rays are now typically generated with
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for their spectrometers. The law of diffraction of a crystal is called
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725:"The Cathode Ray Tube in X-Ray Spectroscopy and Quantitative Analysis"
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to the positioning of the sample in the spectrometer, it has superior
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by a high-energy beam of charged particles such as electrons (in an
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of a spherical grating. Imagine a circle with half the radius
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30:"X-ray spectrometry" redirects here. For the journal, see
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Technique to characterize materials using X-ray radiation
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techniques for characterization of materials by using
670:"Structural biology: How proteins got their close-up"
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215:
722:Fonda, Gorton R.; Collins, George B. (1931-01-01).
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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303:In a wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectrometer, a
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514:Early history of X-ray spectroscopy in the U.S.
705:"Bragg X-ray spectrometer, England, 1910-1926"
349:. An example of a spectrometer developed by
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847:Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules
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384:that is widely used in the optical region.
842:Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy
782:
768:
1215:Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
895:Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization
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127:Learn how and when to remove this message
983:Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
730:Journal of the American Chemical Society
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299:Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
293:Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
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248:wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
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319:and sensitivity. WDS is widely used in
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337:The father-and-son scientific team of
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668:Stoddart, Charlotte (1 March 2022).
272:Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
266:Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
244:energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
65:adding citations to reliable sources
36:
416:resonant inelastic X-ray scattering
307:diffracts the photons according to
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1200:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
952:Saturated absorption spectroscopy
607:X-ray magnetic circular dichroism
596:Other types of X-ray spectroscopy
216:Characteristic X-ray spectroscopy
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1205:Dual-polarization interferometry
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1220:Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
1195:Circular dichroism spectroscopy
1190:Acoustic resonance spectroscopy
709:Science Museum Group Collection
410:of a core-level electron, this
52:needs additional citations for
1149:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
837:Vibrational circular dichroism
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444:placed at their focal points.
403:give rise to the energy loss.
204:is a general term for several
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1:
947:Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
852:Thermal infrared spectroscopy
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602:X-ray absorption spectroscopy
194:Scanning tunneling microscopy
1081:Inelastic neutron scattering
32:X-Ray Spectrometry (journal)
7:
1142:Data collection, processing
1018:Photoelectron/photoemission
619:Auger electron spectroscopy
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347:X-ray emission spectroscopy
333:X-ray emission spectroscopy
327:X-ray emission spectroscopy
234:) or a beam of X-rays (see
230:for example), protons (see
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1227:Photoacoustic spectroscopy
1169:Time-resolved spectroscopy
357:as excitation source. The
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1253:Astronomical spectroscopy
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1232:Photothermal spectroscopy
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683:10.1146/knowable-022822-1
461:external total reflection
401:crystal field excitations
448:Spherical grating mounts
288:Bragg X-ray Spectrometer
1237:Pump–probe spectroscopy
1126:Ferromagnetic resonance
918:Laser-induced breakdown
395:region (below about 1 k
254:) is captured based on
933:Glow-discharge optical
913:Raman optical activity
827:Rotational–vibrational
453:Henry Augustus Rowland
339:William Lawrence Bragg
289:
1154:Hyperspectral imaging
459:of incidence undergo
439:Grating spectrometers
287:
906:Coherent anti-Stokes
861:UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"
652:"x ray spectroscopy"
492:Plane grating mounts
486:specularly reflected
367:diffraction gratings
279:electron microscopes
187:Quantum oscillations
76:"X-ray spectroscopy"
61:improve this article
1210:Hadron spectroscopy
1000:Conversion electron
961:X-ray and Gamma ray
868:Ultraviolet–visible
742:10.1021/ja01352a017
351:William Henry Bragg
343:William Henry Bragg
317:spectral resolution
240:electron microscopy
228:electron microscope
1316:X-ray spectroscopy
1258:Force spectroscopy
1183:Measured phenomena
1174:Video spectroscopy
878:Cold vapour atomic
625:X-Ray Spectrometry
412:scattering process
382:Raman spectroscopy
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236:X-ray fluorescence
202:X-ray spectroscopy
180:X-ray spectroscopy
173:Neutron scattering
18:X-ray spectrometer
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1159:Spectrophotometry
1086:Neutron spin echo
1060:Beta spectroscopy
973:Energy-dispersive
674:Knowable Magazine
223:emission spectrum
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72:Find sources:
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50:This article
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1292:
1280:
1260:(a misnomer)
1246:Applications
1164:Time-stretch
1055:paramagnetic
967:
873:Fluorescence
791:Spectroscopy
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687:. Retrieved
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59:Please help
54:verification
51:
832:Vibrational
466:Denoted by
371:Bragg's law
321:microprobes
309:Bragg's law
212:radiation.
1038:Two-photon
940:absorption
822:Rotational
638:References
525:goniometer
393:soft X-ray
363:x-ray tube
246:(EDS) and
87:newspapers
1116:Terahertz
1097:Radiowave
995:Mössbauer
750:0002-7863
627:(journal)
355:electrons
313:sensitive
262:effects.
117:July 2017
1310:Category
1282:Category
1011:Electron
978:Emission
928:emission
885:Vibronic
689:25 March
613:See also
418:(RIXS).
389:orbitals
1294:Commons
1121:ESR/EPR
1069:Nucleon
897:(REMPI)
711:. 2022.
579:Norelco
260:Compton
101:scholar
1135:Others
923:Atomic
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572:Fig. 2
551:Fig. 1
472:radius
361:or an
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1076:Alpha
1045:Auger
1023:X-ray
990:Gamma
968:X-ray
901:Raman
812:Raman
807:FT-IR
655:(PDF)
210:x-ray
159:ARPES
108:JSTOR
94:books
746:ISSN
691:2022
470:the
341:and
258:and
232:PIXE
166:ACAR
80:news
1104:NMR
738:doi
678:doi
399:),
252:eff
63:by
1312::
1109:2D
1028:UV
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