X-10 Graphite Reactor

980: 611:, Compton became convinced that a plutonium bomb was also feasible. In December, Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project, which was codenamed X-10. Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium, to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium, and to design and build an atomic bomb. It fell to Compton to decide which of the different types of reactor designs the scientists should pursue, even though a successful reactor had not yet been built. He felt that having teams at Columbia, Princeton, the University of Chicago and the University of California was creating too much duplication and not enough collaboration, and he concentrated the work at the 911:) was similar in its crystalline structure to plutonium phosphate, and plutonium would be carried with bismuth phosphate in a solution while other elements, including uranium, would be precipitated. The plutonium could be switched from being in solution to being precipitated by toggling its oxidation state. The plant consisted of six cells, separated from each other and the control room by thick concrete walls. The equipment was operated from the control room by remote control due to the radioactivity produced by fission products. Work was completed on November 26, 1943, but the plant could not operate until the reactor started producing irradiated uranium slugs. 1074: 823:

engineers about the corrosiveness of water had been overcome by the mounting difficulties of using helium, and all work on helium was terminated in February. At the same time, air cooling was chosen for the reactor at the pilot plant. Since it would be of a quite different design from the production reactors, the X-10 Graphite Reactor lost its value as a prototype, but its value as a working pilot facility remained, providing plutonium needed for research. It was hoped that problems would be found in time to deal with them in the production plants. The semiworks would also be used for training and for developing procedures.

714:(the head of its TNX Division, which was responsible for the company's role in the Manhattan Project), did not support this proposal. They felt that there would be insufficient space at Argonne and that there were disadvantages in having a site that was so accessible, as they were afraid that it would permit the research staff from the Metallurgical Laboratory to interfere unduly with the design and construction, which they considered their prerogative. A better location, they felt, would be with the remote production facilities at Hanford. In the end a compromise was reached. On January 12, 1943, Compton, Williams, and 746: 31: 844:

was an acute shortage of both common and skilled labor; the contractor had only three-quarters of the required workforce, and there was high turnover and absenteeism, mainly the result of poor accommodations and difficulties in commuting. The township of Oak Ridge was still under construction, and barracks were built to house workers. Special arrangements with individual workers increased their morale and reduced turnover. Furthermore, there was unusually heavy rainfall, with 9.3 inches (240 mm) falling in July 1943, more than twice the average of 4.3 inches (110 mm).

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research laboratories, a chemical separation plant, a waste storage area, a training facility for Hanford staff, and administrative and support facilities that included a laundry, cafeteria, first aid center, and fire station. Because of the subsequent decision to construct water-cooled reactors at Hanford, only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot. The semiworks eventually became known as the Clinton Laboratories and was operated by the University of Chicago as part of the Metallurgical Project.

920: 4078: 4018: 4066: 1164:, the reactor construction began in 1947 and reached criticality on August 22, 1950. The reactor consisted of a 700-short-ton (640 t), 25-foot (7.6 m) cube of graphite fueled by natural uranium. Its primary mission was applied nuclear research in medicine, biology, chemistry, physics and nuclear engineering. One of the most significant discoveries at this facility was the development of production of 3282: 1027:

laboratory's peacetime educational and research missions. All work was completed by December 1946, adding another $ 1,009,000 (equivalent to $ 12 million in 2023) to the cost of construction at X-10, and bringing the total cost to $ 13,041,000 (equivalent to $ 155 million in 2023). Operational costs added another $ 22,250,000 (equivalent to $ 265 million in 2023).

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loaded with between 24 and 54 fuel slugs. In its later life the reactor was operated with as much as 54 short tons (49 t). To load a channel, the radiation-absorbing shield plug was removed, and the slugs inserted manually in the front (east) end with long rods. To unload them, they were pushed all the way through to the far (west) end, where they fell onto a

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of plutonium were created. The reactor normally operated around the clock, with 10-hour weekly shutdowns for refueling. During startup, the safety rods and one shim rod were completely removed. The other shim rod was inserted at a predetermined position. When the desired power level was reached, the reactor was controlled by adjusting the partly inserted shim rod.

807:. From an engineering perspective, a water-cooled design was straightforward to design and build, while helium posed technological problems. Wigner's team produced a preliminary report on water cooling, designated CE-140 in April 1942, followed by a more detailed one, CE-197, titled "On a Plant with Water Cooling", in July 1942. 963:

The cooling system consisted of three electric fans running at 55,000 cubic feet per minute (1,600 m/min). Because it was cooled using outside air, the reactor could be run at a higher power level on cold days. After going through the reactor, the air was filtered to remove radioactive particles

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Construction work on the reactor had to wait until DuPont had completed the design. Excavation commenced on April 27, 1943. A large pocket of soft clay was soon discovered, necessitating additional foundations. Further delays occurred due to wartime difficulties in procuring building materials. There

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Both Compton and Groves proposed that DuPont operate the semiworks. Williams counter-proposed that the semiworks be operated by the Metallurgical Laboratory. He reasoned that it would primarily be a research and educational facility, and that expertise was to be found at the Metallurgical Laboratory.

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The X-10 chemical separation plant also verified the bismuth-phosphate process that was used in the full-scale separation facilities at Hanford. The reactor and chemical separation plant provided invaluable experience for engineers, technicians, reactor operators, and safety officials who then moved

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Supervised by Compton, Whitaker, and Fermi, the reactor went critical on November 4, 1943, with about 30 short tons (27 t) of uranium. A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons (33 t), raising its power generation to 500 kW, and by the end of the month the first 500 mg

670:

escaped. While security and safety concerns suggested a remote site, it still needed to be near sources of labor, and accessible by road and rail transportation. A mild climate that allowed construction to proceed throughout the year was desirable. Terrain separated by ridges would reduce the impact

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In August 1948, the reactor was used to produce the first electricity derived from nuclear power. Uranium slugs within an aluminum tube were irradiated within the reactor core. Water was circulated through the tube by means of an automatic feedwater system to generate steam. This steam was fed to a

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The first batch of canned slugs to be irradiated was received on December 20, 1943, allowing the first plutonium to be produced in early 1944. The slugs used pure metallic natural uranium, in air-tight aluminum cans 4.1 inches (100 mm) long and 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter. Each channel was

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to form a skeleton operating staff for X-10. Whitaker became the inaugural director of the Clinton Laboratories, as the semiworks became officially known in April 1943. The first permanent operating staff arrived from the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago in April 1943, by which time DuPont began

418:

with its first significant amounts of plutonium and its first reactor-bred product. Studies of these samples heavily influenced bomb design. The reactor and chemical separation plant provided invaluable experience for engineers, technicians, reactor operators, and safety officials who then moved on

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cubes, weighing around 1,500 short tons (1,400 t), that acted as a moderator. They were surrounded by seven feet (2.1 m) of high-density concrete as a radiation shield. In all, the reactor was 38 feet (12 m) wide, 47 feet (14 m) deep and 32 feet (9.8 m) high. There were 36

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deliberated on where they should be located. Moving directly to a megawatt production plant looked like a big step, given that many industrial processes do not easily scale from the laboratory to production size. An intermediate step of building a pilot plant was considered prudent. For the pilot

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Although the design of the reactor was not yet complete, DuPont began construction of the plutonium semiworks on February 2, 1943, on an isolated 112-acre (45.3 ha) site in Bethel Valley about 10 miles (16 km) southwest of Oak Ridge, officially known as the X-10 area. The site included

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The X-10 semiworks operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945, when it was turned over to research activities. By this time, 299 batches of irradiated slugs had been processed. A radioisotope building, a steam plant, and other structures were added in April 1946 to support the

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was higher than anticipated. This removed most of the objections to air-cooled and water-cooled reactor designs, and it greatly simplified other aspects of the design. Wigner's team submitted blueprints of a water-cooled reactor to DuPont in January 1943. By this time, the concerns of DuPont's

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By February 1944, the reactor was irradiating a ton of uranium every three days. Over the next five months, the efficiency of the separation process was improved, with the percentage of plutonium recovered increasing from 40 to 90 percent. Modifications over time raised the reactor's power to

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larger than 0.00004 inches (0.0010 mm) in diameter. This took care of over 99 percent of the radioactive particles. It was then vented through a 200-foot (61 m) chimney. The reactor was operated from a control room in the southeast corner on the second floor.

1191:, the United States would not supply it for nuclear weapons production, so in the end air cooling was chosen. Construction began in September 1947, and the two reactors became operational in October 1950 and June 1951. Both were decommissioned after the disastrous 423:. X-10 operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945, when it was turned over to research activities and the production of radioactive isotopes for scientific, medical, industrial and agricultural uses. It was shut down in 1963 and was designated a 784:) was 10 percent more than in the purest graphite, heavy water would be unavailable in sufficient quantities for at least a year. This left the choice of coolant, over which there was much discussion. A limiting factor was that the fuel slugs would be clad in 863:

that would occur if it came into contact with water and to prevent the venting of gaseous radioactive fission products that might be formed when they were irradiated. Aluminum was chosen because it transmitted heat well but did not absorb too many neutrons.

654:. By the S-1 Executive Committee meeting on September 13 and 14, it had become apparent that the pilot facilities would be too extensive for the Argonne site, so instead a research reactor would be built at Argonne, while the plutonium pilot facilities (a 4153: 646:, about 20 miles (32 km) southwest of Chicago. The full-scale production facilities would be co-located with other Manhattan Project facilities at a still more remote location in Tennessee. Some 1,000 acres (400 ha) of land was leased from 631:

plutonium separation plant, a site was wanted close to the Metallurgical Laboratory, where the research was being carried out, but for reasons of safety and security, it was not desirable to locate the facilities in a densely populated area like

927:

The X-10 Graphite Reactor was the world's second artificial nuclear reactor after Chicago Pile-1 and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation. It consisted of a huge block, 24 feet (7.3 m) long on each side, of

788:, so the operating temperature of the reactor could not exceed 200 °C (392 °F). The theoretical physicists in Wigner's group at the Metallurgical Laboratory developed several designs. In November 1942, the DuPont engineers chose 1168:/technetium-99m, used today in tens of millions of medical diagnostic procedures annually, making it the most commonly used medical radioisotope. The BNL Graphite Research Reactor was shut down in 1969 and fully decommissioned in 2012. 4158: 665:

The Oak Ridge site was selected on the basis of several criteria. The plutonium pilot facilities needed to be two to four miles (3.2 to 6.4 km) from the site boundary and any other installation, in case radioactive

1019:, one of many fission products produced from the uranium fuel, was not detected during the early operation of the X-10 Graphite Reactor. Xenon-135 subsequently caused problems with the startup of the Hanford 933:

horizontal rows of 35 holes. Behind each was a metal channel into which uranium fuel slugs could be inserted. An elevator provided access to those higher up. Only 800 (~64%) of the channels were ever used.

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Compton was shocked; the Metallurgical Laboratory was part of the University of Chicago, and therefore the university would be operating an industrial facility 500 miles (800 km) from its main campus.

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When Britain began planning to build nuclear reactors to produce plutonium for weapons in 1946, it was decided to build a pair of air-cooled graphite reactors similar to the X-10 Graphite Reactor at

1218:. Financed through the Belgian uranium export tax, and built with the help of British experts, the 4 MW research reactor went critical on May 11, 1956. It is used for scientific purposes, such as 4168: 875:

Construction commenced on the pilot separation plant before a chemical process for separating plutonium from uranium had been selected. Not until May 1943 would DuPont managers decide to use the

1187:

in the densely populated British Isles if the cooling system failed. Helium was again the preferred choice as a coolant gas, but the main source of it was the United States, and under the 1946

1117:#50, which drove a small generator that powered a single bulb. The engine and generator are on display at the reactor loading face, just below the staircase leading to the loading platform. 733:"wouldn't touch it with a ten-foot pole", but the University of Chicago's Vice President, Emery T. Filbey, took a different view and instructed Compton to accept. When University President 3893: 944:. Made from neutron-absorbing cadmium, these could restrict or halt the reaction. Three 8-foot (2.4 m) rods penetrated the reactor vertically, held in place by a clutch to form the 3028: 872:

and the Metallurgical Laboratory developed a new welding technique to seal the cans airtight, and the equipment for this was installed in the production line at Alcoa in October 1943.

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of uranium-235. At the time plutonium-239 had been produced in minute quantities using cyclotrons, but it was not possible to produce large quantities that way. Compton discussed with

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was toxic and hard to manufacture, while heavy water was unavailable. Use of water as a coolant was considered, but there were concerns about the possibility of a catastrophic

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needed to be firm enough to provide good foundations but not so rocky that it would hinder excavation work. It needed large amounts of electrical power (available from the

4118: 3955: 2370:"Brookhaven Lab Completes Decommissioning of Graphite Research Reactor: Reactor core and associated structures successfully removed; waste shipped offsite for disposal" 711: 706:. Compton and the staff at the Metallurgical Laboratory then reopened the question of building the plutonium semiworks at Argonne, but the engineers and management of 2620: 792:

gas as the coolant for the production plant, mainly on the basis that it did not absorb neutrons but also because it was inert, which removed the issue of corrosion.

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and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass. The Los Alamos Laboratory was thus forced to turn its development efforts to creating an

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slab and fell down a chute into a 20-foot-deep (6.1 m) pool of water that acted as a radiation shield. Following weeks of underwater storage to allow for

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Atomic Energy for Military Purposes; the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945

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where techniques and procedures could be developed and training conducted. The centerpiece of this was the X-10 Graphite Reactor. It was air-cooled, used

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at the University of Chicago, "went critical" on December 2, 1942. This graphite-moderated reactor only generated up to 200 W, but it demonstrated that

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After the war ended, the graphite reactor became the first facility in the world to produce radioactive isotopes for peacetime use. On August 2, 1946,

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would be reduced by about 3 percent, but he had sufficient confidence in his calculations that the water-cooled reactor would still be able to achieve

623:

By June 1942, the Manhattan Project had reached the stage where the construction of production facilities could be contemplated. On June 25, 1942, the

799:; but the major opponent was Wigner, who argued forcefully in favor of a water-cooled reactor design. He realized that since water absorbed neutrons, 4163: 499:

to co-sign it, lending his fame to the proposal. This resulted in support by the U.S. government for research into nuclear fission, which became the

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steel and horizontally penetrated the reactor from the north side. Two of them, known as "shim" rods, were hydraulically controlled. Sand-filled

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and other suppliers. These were extruded into cylindrical slugs and then canned. The fuel slugs were canned to protect the uranium metal from

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In December, it was decided that the plutonium production facilities would not be built at Oak Ridge after all, but at the even more remote

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required reactors a thousand times as powerful, along with facilities to chemically separate the plutonium bred in the reactors from

1160:(BNL) Graphite Research Reactor was the first nuclear reactor to be constructed in the United States following World War II. Led by 607:

The final draft of Compton's November 1941 report made no mention of using plutonium, but after discussing the latest research with

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As of 2016, another reactor of similar design to the X-10 Graphite Reactor is still in operation, the Belgian BR-1 reactor of the

384:. An intermediate step was considered prudent. The next step for the plutonium project, codenamed X-10, was the construction of a 643: 4128: 4098: 1906: 2700: 3163: 3141: 3109: 3084: 2980: 2949: 2911: 2877: 2755: 2710: 2669: 1145: 3227: 1223: 4108: 3267: 2627: 1125: 185: 1137: 979: 507: 2343: 368:

While Chicago Pile-1 demonstrated the feasibility of nuclear reactors, the Manhattan Project's goal of producing enough

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system. They were suspended from steel cables that were wound around a drum and held in place by an electromagnetic

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Not everyone agreed with the decision to use helium. Szilard, in particular, was an early proponent of using liquid

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for the pilot facilities, while an 83,000-acre (34,000 ha) site for the production facilities was selected at

3328: 2598: 2226: 2099: 721:, the director of the Manhattan Project, agreed that the semiworks would be built at the Clinton Engineer Works. 680: 2256: 737:

returned, he greeted Compton with "I see, Arthur, that while I was gone you doubled the size of my university".

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Salvetti, Carlo (2001). "The Birth of Nuclear Energy: Fermi's Pile". In Bernardini, C.; Bonolis, Luisa (eds.).

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Workers in the Graphite Reactor use a rod to push fresh uranium slugs into the reactor's concrete loading face.

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Snell, Arthur H.; Weinberg, Alvin M. (1964). "History and accomplishments of the Oak Ridge Graphite Reactor".

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transferring its technicians to the site. They were augmented by 100 technicians in uniform from the Army's

3960: 522:, to report on the uranium program. His report, submitted in May 1941, foresaw the prospects of developing 3928: 1219: 1200: 1129: 973: 476: 1120:

The X-10 Graphite Reactor was shut down on November 4, 1963, after 20 years of use. It was designated a

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An Atomic Empire : a Technical History of the Rise and Fall of the British Atomic Energy Programme

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in October 1957. They were the last major air-cooled plutonium-producing reactors; the UK's follow-on

778: 4070: 4046: 3903: 3898: 3008: 2179:"World's First Nuclear Power Generated Electricity from Jensen #50 on the X 10 Graphite Reactor 1948" 1141: 876: 952:. If power was lost, they would drop into the reactor, halting it. The other four rods were made of 3985: 3518: 3377: 2783: 612: 55: 2279: 960:

could be used in the event of a power failure. The other two rods were driven by electric motors.

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to the director of the Barnard Free Skin and Cancer Hospital, for medical use at the hospital in

1050: 848: 734: 627: 3101: 3095: 1222:, neutron physics experiments, calibration of nuclear measurement devices and the production of 3759: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3392: 1276: 659: 547: 515: 456: 407: 3263:"National Register Information System – X-10 Reactor, Oak Ridge National Laboratory" 3825: 3568: 3513: 3272: 2745: 1265: 1031: 957: 880: 745: 718: 692: 585: 519: 484: 415: 4154:

Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee

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Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945

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of accidental explosions, but they could not be so steep as to complicate construction. The

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Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy 1945–52, Volume II: Policy Execution

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The fundamental design decisions in building a reactor are the choice of fuel, coolant and

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L'uranium, la Belgique et les puissances: marché de dupes, ou, chef d'œuvre diplomatique?

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Helmreich, Jonathan E. (1996). "U.S. Foreign Policy and the Belgian Congo in the 1950s".

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National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: X-10 Reactor, Graphite Reactor

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and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos revealed that it contained impurities in the form of the

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Manhattan District History, Book IV, Volume 2 – Pile Project X-10 – Clinton Laboratories

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on November 4, 1943, and produced its first plutonium in early 1944. It supplied the

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was not available, and similarly graphite was chosen as a neutron moderator because

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rate than plutonium-239. This meant that it would be highly likely that a plutonium

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policy held that, as a rule, munitions facilities should not be located west of the

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Loading face, 2019. The model steam engine is in the acrylic box at the lower left.

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Plutonium Production Story at the Hanford Site: Processes and Facilities History

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as moderator the number of neutrons produced for every one absorbed (known as

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Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee

3119: 3004: 2959: 2828: 1522: 542:. In October he wrote another report on the practicality of an atomic bomb. 3990: 3872: 3729: 3674: 3654: 3639: 3543: 3367: 2848: 2691: 2657: 2541: 1215: 941: 856: 699: 468: 448: 420: 358: 350: 2779: 2736: 2196: 1003: 835: 753: 3820: 3774: 3739: 3714: 3659: 3563: 3553: 3437: 1211: 1188: 892: 815: 774: 647: 604:

how the plutonium produced in a reactor might be separated from uranium.

535: 488: 472: 452: 373: 2156:"Peacetime use of radioisotopes at Oak Ridge cited as Chemical Landmark" 847:

Some 700 short tons (640 t) of graphite blocks were purchased from

695:, or within 200 miles (320 km) of the Canadian or Mexican borders. 3923: 3867: 3604: 3594: 3523: 1094: 896: 543: 3203: 2872:. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. 983:

Exterior of the Graphite Reactor at the X-10 site in Oak Ridge in 1950

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with the first significant samples of plutonium. Studies of these by

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listed it as a landmark for its contributions to the advancement of

4005: 3838: 3372: 2999:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 2820: 2774:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 1936: 1934: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1180: 993: 899:(+6) state, with different chemical properties. Bismuth phosphate ( 814:

reactor, constructed under the west viewing stands of the original

770: 30: 3156:

The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer

2626:(in French). Belgian Nuclear Research Centre. 2006. Archived from 2055: 1797: 1770: 1599: 1587: 1479: 1406: 1404: 1105:, were for scientific, medical, industrial and agricultural uses. 1073: 919: 4149:

Energy infrastructure on the National Register of Historic Places

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in 1938, followed by its theoretical explanation (and naming) by

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National Register of Historic Places in Roane County, Tennessee

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Life Atomic: A History of Radioisotopes in Science and Medicine

2686:. Chicago: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. pp. 66–104. 2502: 2416: 2392: 1401: 1389: 1196: 976:. By March 1944, there were some 1,500 people working at X-10. 949: 789: 707: 403: 2928: 2127: 2115: 1999: 1836: 1710: 1626: 349:, it was the world's second artificial nuclear reactor (after 3040: 2684:

All In Our Time: The Reminiscences of Twelve Nuclear Pioneers

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Interactive map highlighting the location of the X-10 Reactor

1912:. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. ORNL/M-6589. Archived from 3943: 3412: 2523:"The Negotiation of the Belgian Uranium Export Tax of 1951" 2428: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1431: 773:

as a neutron moderator caused little debate. Although with

3100:. Bologna: Società Italiana di Fisica: Springer. pp. 2311:"Brookhaven Lab's Old Reactor Is Finally Being Dismantled" 1356: 1329: 475:

began exploring how this might be done. Szilard drafted a

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The Corps of Engineers: Construction in the United States

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commenced construction of the plutonium semiworks at the

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World War II on the National Register of Historic Places

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was available. The decision that the reactor would use

2404: 1907:"ORNL Metals and Ceramics Division History, 1946–1996" 1638: 1614: 1539: 1503: 1416: 1085:

director Eugene Wigner presented a small container of

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there in May 1941 and found that it had 1.7 times the

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Nuclear weapons infrastructure of the United States

1551: 1455: 1136:and technology, and in 2008 it was designated as a 1093:. Subsequent shipments of radioisotopes, primarily 3026: 2975:. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. 2937: 2724: 2682:(1975). "Assisting Fermi". In Wilson, Jane (ed.). 2078: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2017: 1952: 1940: 1890: 1791: 1764: 1747: 2966: 2597:. Belgian Nuclear Research Centre. Archived from 1632: 1593: 4090: 2698: 2508: 2346:. Brookhaven National Laboratory. Archived from 2859: 2079:Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). 2067: 2061: 2005: 1854: 1842: 1806: 1779: 1716: 1608: 1485: 1473: 1449: 1410: 1395: 883:. The bismuth phosphate process was devised by 765:. The choice of fuel was straightforward; only 495:. He convinced his old friend and collaborator 4184:Tourist attractions in Roane County, Tennessee 2705:(in French). De Boeck Supérieur. p. 120. 2344:"Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor History" 2158:. American Chemical Society. February 25, 2008 1901: 1899: 1012:4,000 kW in July 1944. The effect of the 410:in Oak Ridge on February 2, 1943. The reactor 3329: 2764: 2662:Windscale 1957: Anatomy of a Nuclear Accident 2219:"X-10 Reactor, Oak Ridge National Laboratory" 1569: 625:Office of Scientific Research and Development 2843: 2699:Buch, Pierre; Vandenlinden, Jacques (1995). 2434: 2422: 2398: 1332:"Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt" 1278:Accompanying three photos, interior, undated 550:had theorized that heavy isotopes with even 455:, opened up the possibility of a controlled 1896: 967:In September 1942, Compton asked physicist 576:produced 28 μg of plutonium in the 60-inch 16:Decommissioned nuclear reactor in Tennessee 3336: 3322: 2765:Fine, Lenore; Remington, Jesse A. (1972). 1023:that nearly halted the plutonium project. 29: 3228:"ORNL webpage about the Graphite Reactor" 3136:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2554: 2520: 2213: 2211: 186:U.S. National Register of Historic Places 4164:National Historic Landmarks in Tennessee 3150: 3093: 2944:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2678: 2308: 1680: 1437: 1425: 1072: 1002: 978: 918: 891:. Plutonium had two oxidation states; a 834: 752: 744: 3036:. Washington, D.C.: Manhattan District. 2993:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 2932:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; 2743: 2719: 2530:Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 2309:Cotsalas, Valerie (February 13, 2000). 2280:"U.S. lights new atomic pile for peace" 2225:. National Park Service. Archived from 2139: 1644: 1620: 1124:on December 21, 1965, and added to the 644:Forest Preserve District of Cook County 4144:Government buildings completed in 1943 4091: 3069: 3041:Oak Ridge National Laboratory (1963). 2801: 2656: 2458: 2446: 2410: 2259:from the original on December 22, 2015 2208: 2150: 2148: 2028: 2026: 1878: 1866: 1497: 1305: 1293: 1263: 1259: 3343: 3317: 3126: 2989: 2731:. New York: Oxford University Press. 1993: 1981: 1969: 1830: 1818: 1735: 1704: 1692: 1668: 1581: 1557: 1545: 1516: 1461: 1383: 1317: 1264:Rettig, Polly M. (December 8, 1975). 1257: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1239: 1146:American Museum of Science and Energy 596:how plutonium might be produced in a 4059:National Register of Historic Places 3268:National Register of Historic Places 2973:Argonne National Laboratory, 1946–96 2901: 2470: 2277: 1126:National Register of Historic Places 4139:1963 disestablishments in Tennessee 2223:National Historic Landmarks Program 2176: 2145: 2023: 1224:neutron transmutation doped silicon 1151: 1138:National Historic Chemical Landmark 508:National Defense Research Committee 78:Main parameters of the reactor core 13: 3801:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 3298:United States Department of Energy 3174: 2906:. London: Imperial College Press. 2813:United States Department of Energy 2569:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1996.tb00951.x 2378:United States Department of Energy 2374:Office of Environmental Management 2203:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1963 2042:United States Department of Energy 1657:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1963 1534:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1963 1236: 868:started canning on June 14, 1943. 14: 4195: 3220: 3097:Enrico Fermi: His Work and Legacy 2490:. Belgian Nuclear Research Centre 1128:on October 15, 1966. In 1969 the 618: 491:, and warning of the danger of a 106:Neutron energy spectrum 4134:1943 establishments in Tennessee 4124:History of the Manhattan Project 4076: 4064: 4052: 4040: 4017: 4016: 3285: This article incorporates 3280: 3079:. London: Simon & Schuster. 1357:The Atomic Heritage Foundation. 1330:The Atomic Heritage Foundation. 1068: 679:) and cooling water. Finally, a 554:and odd number of neutrons were 487:, explaining the possibility of 115:Primary control method 2750:. University of Chicago Press. 2613: 2583: 2548: 2521:Helmreich, Jonathan E. (1990). 2514: 2476: 2362: 2336: 2302: 2271: 2241: 2170: 2100:Gross Domestic Product deflator 1633:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 1594:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 1101:, carbon-14, and molybdenum-99/ 826: 638:Compton selected a site in the 273:less than 1 acre (0.40 ha) 195:U.S. National Historic Landmark 2744:Creager, Angela N. H. (2013). 2278:Mann, Martin (April 1, 1949). 1350: 1323: 1175:. Natural uranium was used as 1158:Brookhaven National Laboratory 615:at the University of Chicago. 481:President of the United States 287: 160:The world's second artificial 1: 4129:Military history of Tennessee 4099:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 3248:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 3232:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 3076:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 2863:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 2802:Gerber, Michele (June 1996). 2649: 2621:"2006 → 50th anniversary BR1" 2253:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2081:"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?" 1083:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1059:implosion-type nuclear weapon 493:German nuclear weapon project 335:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 217:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 3961:Oppenheimer security hearing 2509:Buch & Vandenlinden 1995 1061:—a far more difficult feat. 914: 7: 4109:Graphite moderated reactors 3027:Manhattan District (1947). 2062:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2006:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1855:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1843:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1807:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1780:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1717:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1609:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1486:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1474:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1450:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1411:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1396:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1359:"Pa, this requires action!" 1220:neutron activation analysis 1130:American Society for Metals 974:Special Engineer Detachment 879:in preference to one using 538:or the recently discovered 10: 4200: 2971:; Harris, Ruth R. (1997). 1122:National Historic Landmark 855:came from Metal Hydrides, 677:Tennessee Valley Authority 562:was likely to be fissile. 430: 425:National Historic Landmark 4114:Military nuclear reactors 4014: 3904:Bismuth phosphate process 3899:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 3886: 3855: 3788: 3577: 3446: 3360: 3351: 2591:"BR1 – Belgian Reactor 1" 2484:"Belgian Reactor 1 – BR1" 1570:Fine & Remington 1972 1142:American Chemical Society 1045:, which has a far higher 877:bismuth phosphate process 740: 518:physics professor at the 319: 311: 303: 298: 286:NRHP reference 285: 277: 269: 232: 222: 212: 205: 201: 192: 183: 176: 172: 168: 156: 148: 143: 135: 122: 114: 104: 96: 82: 77: 69: 61: 51: 40: 28: 23: 4104:Defunct nuclear reactors 2866:The New World, 1939–1946 2488:SCK•CEN Science Platform 2435:Gowing & Arnold 1974 2423:Gowing & Arnold 1974 2399:Gowing & Arnold 1974 1671:, pp. 107, 192–193. 1273:. National Park Service. 1229: 1065:on to the Hanford Site. 889:University of California 658:) would be built at the 613:Metallurgical Laboratory 574:University of California 400:in metal form for fuel. 341:. Formerly known as the 92:Metallic natural uranium 56:Metallurgical Laboratory 3981:S-1 Executive Committee 3929:Einstein–Szilard letter 3158:. New York: AIP Press. 2990:Jones, Vincent (1985). 2034:"X-10 Graphite Reactor" 2018:Manhattan District 1947 1953:Manhattan District 1947 1941:Manhattan District 1947 1891:Manhattan District 1947 1792:Manhattan District 1947 1765:Manhattan District 1947 1748:Manhattan District 1947 1051:gun-type nuclear weapon 839:X-10 under construction 628:S-1 Executive Committee 3423:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 3287:public domain material 2934:Westfall, Catherine L. 2542:10.3406/rbph.1990.3713 1078: 1008: 998:decay in radioactivity 984: 958:hydraulic accumulators 924: 840: 758: 750: 749:Diagram of the reactor 660:Clinton Engineer Works 457:nuclear chain reaction 408:Clinton Engineer Works 4001:X-10 Graphite Reactor 3956:Nobel Prize laureates 3826:509th Composite Group 3293:X-10 Graphite Reactor 3273:National Park Service 3044:ONRL Graphite Reactor 1076: 1032:Los Alamos Laboratory 1006: 982: 922: 838: 756: 748: 719:Leslie R. Groves, Jr. 693:Appalachian Mountains 520:University of Chicago 485:Franklin D. Roosevelt 416:Los Alamos Laboratory 327:X-10 Graphite Reactor 254:35.92806°N 84.31750°W 178:X-10 Graphite Reactor 52:Designed and built by 24:X-10 Graphite Reactor 3909:British contribution 3811:Operation Peppermint 3806:Operation Crossroads 3665:Maria Goeppert Mayer 3238:on January 12, 2010. 3057:on February 11, 2017 2902:Hill, C. N. (2013). 2855:. London: Macmillan. 2811:. Washington, D.C.: 2680:Anderson, Herbert L. 2128:Hoddeson et al. 1993 2116:Hoddeson et al. 1993 2038:Office of Management 1115:Jensen Steam Engines 652:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 594:Princeton University 524:radiological weapons 339:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 329:is a decommissioned 227:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 3670:George Kistiakowsky 3625:Charles Critchfield 3196:1964PhT....17h..32S 3128:Smyth, Henry DeWolf 2969:Hewlett, Richard G. 2861:Hewlett, Richard G. 2789:on February 1, 2017 2461:, pp. 122–123. 2425:, pp. 285–286. 2401:, pp. 277–278. 2380:. September 1, 2012 2130:, pp. 240–244. 2102:figures follow the 2064:, pp. 306–307. 1919:on January 28, 2015 1821:, pp. 146–147. 1809:, pp. 209–210. 1794:, pp. 2.7–2.8. 1782:, pp. 207–208. 1750:, pp. 2.4–2.6. 1738:, pp. 204–206. 1707:, pp. 204–205. 1695:, pp. 191–193. 1659:, pp. 3–4, 18. 1611:, pp. 190–193. 1584:, pp. 108–112. 1572:, pp. 134–135. 1500:, pp. 399–400. 1488:, pp. 180–181. 1440:, pp. 192–193. 1365:on October 29, 2012 1338:on October 27, 2012 1308:, pp. 256–263. 1296:, pp. 251–254. 1162:Lyle Benjamin Borst 1091:St. Louis, Missouri 1047:spontaneous fission 885:Stanley G. Thompson 516:Nobel-Prize-winning 506:In April 1941, the 477:confidential letter 465:Columbia University 439:by German chemists 312:Designated NHL 259:35.92806; -84.31750 250: / 4071:Nuclear technology 4047:History of Science 3735:Henry DeWolf Smyth 3514:Robert Oppenheimer 3469:Priscilla Duffield 3014:on October 7, 2014 2633:on August 16, 2006 2315:The New York Times 1111:model steam engine 1079: 1030:X-10 supplied the 1009: 985: 969:Martin D. Whitaker 925: 923:Loading fuel slugs 881:lanthanum fluoride 841: 759: 757:Under construction 751: 731:Harvard University 528:nuclear propulsion 47:(uranium/graphite) 4028: 4027: 3950:Los Alamos Primer 3939:Interim Committee 3894:African Americans 3846:The Great Artiste 3705:Isidor Isaac Rabi 3700:Norman Ramsey Jr. 3499:Franklin Matthias 3438:Heavy water sites 3345:Manhattan Project 3275:. April 15, 2008. 3204:10.1063/1.3051739 3165:978-1-56396-358-2 3143:978-0-8047-1722-9 3111:978-88-7438-015-2 3086:978-0-671-44133-3 2982:978-0-252-02341-5 2951:978-0-521-44132-2 2930:Hoddeson, Lillian 2913:978-1-908977-41-0 2879:978-0-520-07186-5 2757:978-0-226-01794-5 2712:978-2-8041-1993-5 2671:978-0-333-65036-3 2473:, pp. 18–20. 2350:on March 14, 2013 1683:, pp. 22–24. 1596:, pp. 20–21. 1548:, pp. 67–72. 1519:, pp. 46–47. 1476:, pp. 54–55. 1452:, pp. 50–51. 1413:, pp. 46–49. 1398:, pp. 36–38. 1386:, pp. 14–15. 1134:materials science 936:The reactor used 763:neutron moderator 716:Brigadier General 501:Manhattan Project 435:The discovery of 394:neutron moderator 363:Manhattan Project 323: 322: 315:December 21, 1965 299:Significant dates 124:Primary moderator 4191: 4081: 4080: 4079: 4069: 4068: 4067: 4057: 4056: 4055: 4045: 4044: 4043: 4036: 4020: 4019: 3971:Quebec Agreement 3755:John von Neumann 3695:George B. Pegram 3504:Dorothy McKibbin 3338: 3331: 3324: 3315: 3314: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3284: 3283: 3276: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3239: 3234:. Archived from 3215: 3169: 3147: 3123: 3090: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3056: 3050:. Archived from 3049: 3037: 3035: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3013: 3007:. Archived from 2998: 2986: 2963: 2943: 2925: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2871: 2856: 2845:Gowing, Margaret 2840: 2838: 2836: 2810: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2788: 2782:. 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Archived from 1354: 1348: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1334:. Archived from 1327: 1321: 1320:, pp. 8–10. 1315: 1309: 1303: 1297: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1274: 1272: 1261: 1185:nuclear meltdown 1177:enriched uranium 1152:Similar reactors 1007:Reactor controls 930:nuclear graphite 910: 909: 908: 895:(+4) state, and 870:General Electric 704:Washington state 668:fission products 445:Fritz Strassmann 390:nuclear graphite 382:fission products 307:October 15, 1966 289: 265: 264: 262: 261: 260: 255: 251: 248: 247: 246: 243: 129:Nuclear graphite 89: 86:fissile material 45:Research reactor 33: 21: 20: 4199: 4198: 4194: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4188: 4089: 4088: 4087: 4077: 4075: 4065: 4063: 4053: 4051: 4041: 4039: 4031: 4029: 4024: 4010: 3976:RaLa Experiment 3882: 3851: 3816:Project Alberta 3784: 3780:Chien-Shiung Wu 3710:James Rainwater 3645:Richard Feynman 3635:John R. Dunning 3610:Norris Bradbury 3573: 3559:Stafford Warren 3529:William Purnell 3509:Kenneth Nichols 3489:Ernest Lawrence 3464:James B. Conant 3442: 3356: 3347: 3342: 3311: 3302: 3300: 3290: 3281: 3261: 3252: 3250: 3242: 3226: 3223: 3218: 3181: 3177: 3175:Further reading 3172: 3166: 3152:Weinberg, Alvin 3144: 3112: 3087: 3071:Rhodes, Richard 3060: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3033: 3017: 3015: 3011: 2996: 2983: 2967:Holl, Jack M.; 2952: 2914: 2892: 2890: 2880: 2869: 2834: 2832: 2808: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2771: 2758: 2721:Compton, Arthur 2713: 2672: 2652: 2647: 2646: 2636: 2634: 2630: 2623: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2604: 2602: 2601:on July 4, 2013 2589: 2588: 2584: 2553: 2549: 2525: 2519: 2515: 2507: 2503: 2493: 2491: 2482: 2481: 2477: 2469: 2465: 2457: 2453: 2445: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2421: 2417: 2409: 2405: 2397: 2393: 2383: 2381: 2368: 2367: 2363: 2353: 2351: 2342: 2341: 2337: 2327: 2325: 2307: 2303: 2284:Popular Science 2276: 2272: 2262: 2260: 2247: 2246: 2242: 2232: 2230: 2217: 2216: 2209: 2201: 2197: 2187: 2185: 2175: 2171: 2161: 2159: 2154: 2153: 2146: 2138: 2134: 2126: 2122: 2114: 2110: 2091: 2089: 2077: 2068: 2060: 2056: 2046: 2044: 2032: 2031: 2024: 2016: 2012: 2004: 2000: 1992: 1988: 1980: 1976: 1968: 1959: 1951: 1947: 1939: 1932: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1909: 1905: 1904: 1897: 1889: 1885: 1877: 1873: 1865: 1861: 1853: 1849: 1841: 1837: 1829: 1825: 1817: 1813: 1805: 1798: 1790: 1786: 1778: 1771: 1763: 1754: 1746: 1742: 1734: 1723: 1715: 1711: 1703: 1699: 1691: 1687: 1679: 1675: 1667: 1663: 1655: 1651: 1643: 1639: 1631: 1627: 1619: 1615: 1607: 1600: 1592: 1588: 1580: 1576: 1568: 1564: 1556: 1552: 1544: 1540: 1536:, pp. 3–4. 1532: 1523: 1515: 1504: 1496: 1492: 1484: 1480: 1472: 1468: 1460: 1456: 1448: 1444: 1436: 1432: 1424: 1417: 1409: 1402: 1394: 1390: 1382: 1378: 1368: 1366: 1355: 1351: 1341: 1339: 1328: 1324: 1316: 1312: 1304: 1300: 1292: 1288: 1282: 1270: 1262: 1237: 1232: 1154: 1071: 1036:Emilio G. Segrè 917: 907: 904: 903: 902: 900: 849:National Carbon 829: 767:natural uranium 743: 735:Robert Hutchins 727:James B. Conant 710:, particularly 621: 609:Ernest Lawrence 598:nuclear reactor 582:thermal neutron 532:nuclear weapons 530:for ships, and 497:Albert Einstein 437:nuclear fission 433: 398:natural uranium 361:as part of the 331:nuclear reactor 258: 256: 252: 249: 244: 241: 239: 237: 236: 208: 197: 188: 179: 162:nuclear reactor 136:Primary coolant 100:Solid (pellets) 83: 41:Reactor concept 36: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4197: 4187: 4186: 4181: 4179:Atomic tourism 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4086: 4085: 4073: 4061: 4049: 4026: 4025: 4015: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3919:Chicago Pile-1 3916: 3914:Calutron Girls 3911: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3890: 3888: 3887:Related topics 3884: 3883: 3881: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3859: 3857: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3849: 3842: 3835: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3792: 3790: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3750:Stanisław Ulam 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3685:Edwin McMillan 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3630:Harry Daghlian 3627: 3622: 3620:John Cockcroft 3617: 3615:James Chadwick 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3581: 3579: 3575: 3574: 3572: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3539:Charles Thomas 3536: 3534:Frank Spedding 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3494:James Marshall 3491: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3474:Thomas Farrell 3471: 3466: 3461: 3459:Arthur Compton 3456: 3450: 3448: 3447:Administrators 3444: 3443: 3441: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3375: 3370: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3357: 3352: 3349: 3348: 3341: 3340: 3333: 3326: 3318: 3278: 3277: 3259: 3244:"Public Tours" 3240: 3222: 3221:External links 3219: 3217: 3216: 3178: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3170: 3164: 3148: 3142: 3124: 3110: 3091: 3085: 3067: 3038: 3024: 2987: 2981: 2964: 2950: 2926: 2912: 2899: 2878: 2857: 2841: 2821:10.2172/664389 2799: 2762: 2756: 2741: 2717: 2711: 2696: 2676: 2670: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2644: 2612: 2582: 2563:(2): 315–328. 2547: 2536:(2): 320–351. 2513: 2511:, p. 120. 2501: 2475: 2463: 2451: 2439: 2437:, p. 404. 2427: 2415: 2403: 2391: 2361: 2335: 2301: 2270: 2249:"Public Tours" 2240: 2229:on May 9, 2015 2207: 2195: 2177:Garceau, Gil. 2169: 2144: 2132: 2120: 2118:, p. 228. 2108: 2104:MeasuringWorth 2098:United States 2086:MeasuringWorth 2066: 2054: 2022: 2010: 2008:, p. 211. 1998: 1996:, p. 208. 1986: 1984:, p. 204. 1974: 1972:, p. 209. 1957: 1945: 1930: 1895: 1883: 1881:, p. 4-7. 1871: 1869:, p. 4-1. 1859: 1847: 1845:, p. 185. 1835: 1833:, p. 194. 1823: 1811: 1796: 1784: 1769: 1752: 1740: 1721: 1719:, p. 207. 1709: 1697: 1685: 1673: 1661: 1649: 1647:, p. 173. 1637: 1625: 1623:, p. 172. 1613: 1598: 1586: 1574: 1562: 1550: 1538: 1521: 1502: 1490: 1478: 1466: 1454: 1442: 1430: 1415: 1400: 1388: 1376: 1349: 1322: 1310: 1298: 1286: 1234: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1205:carbon dioxide 1193:Windscale fire 1153: 1150: 1103:technetium-99m 1070: 1067: 1014:neutron poison 916: 913: 905: 828: 825: 812:Chicago Pile-1 742: 739: 729:told him that 712:Roger Williams 691:, east of the 689:Cascade Ranges 681:War Department 662:in Tennessee. 642:, part of the 640:Argonne Forest 620: 619:Site selection 617: 558:. If so, then 552:atomic numbers 512:Arthur Compton 432: 429: 355:Chicago Pile-1 321: 320: 317: 316: 313: 309: 308: 305: 301: 300: 296: 295: 290: 283: 282: 279: 275: 274: 271: 267: 266: 234: 230: 229: 224: 220: 219: 214: 210: 209: 206: 203: 202: 199: 198: 193: 190: 189: 184: 181: 180: 177: 174: 173: 170: 169: 166: 165: 158: 154: 153: 150: 146: 145: 141: 140: 137: 133: 132: 126: 120: 119: 116: 112: 111: 108: 102: 101: 98: 94: 93: 90: 80: 79: 75: 74: 73:Decommissioned 71: 67: 66: 63: 59: 58: 53: 49: 48: 42: 38: 37: 34: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4196: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4084: 4083:United States 4074: 4072: 4062: 4060: 4050: 4048: 4038: 4037: 4034: 4023: 4013: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3951: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3934:Franck Report 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3885: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3860: 3858: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3841: 3840: 3836: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3796:Alsos Mission 3794: 3793: 3791: 3787: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3770:Robert Wilson 3768: 3766: 3765:Eugene Wigner 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3745:Edward Teller 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3720:Glenn Seaborg 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3690:Mark Oliphant 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3680:Willard Libby 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3623: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3590:Robert Bacher 3588: 3586: 3583: 3582: 3580: 3576: 3570: 3569:Roscoe Wilson 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3505: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3484:John Lansdale 3482: 3480: 3479:Leslie Groves 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3454:Vannevar Bush 3452: 3451: 3449: 3445: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3365: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3339: 3334: 3332: 3327: 3325: 3320: 3319: 3316: 3312: 3309: 3299: 3295: 3294: 3288: 3274: 3270: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3224: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3184:Physics Today 3180: 3179: 3167: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3139: 3135: 3134: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3098: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3078: 3077: 3072: 3068: 3053: 3046: 3045: 3039: 3032: 3031: 3025: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2995: 2994: 2988: 2984: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2947: 2942: 2941: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2875: 2868: 2867: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2849:Arnold, Lorna 2846: 2842: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2806: 2800: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2770: 2769: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2749: 2748: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2729: 2728: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2708: 2704: 2703: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2667: 2664:. Macmillan. 2663: 2659: 2658:Arnold, Lorna 2655: 2654: 2629: 2622: 2616: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2586: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2524: 2517: 2510: 2505: 2489: 2485: 2479: 2472: 2467: 2460: 2455: 2449:, p. 15. 2448: 2443: 2436: 2431: 2424: 2419: 2412: 2407: 2400: 2395: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2365: 2349: 2345: 2339: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2305: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2274: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2244: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2214: 2212: 2204: 2199: 2184: 2180: 2173: 2157: 2151: 2149: 2142:, p. 68. 2141: 2136: 2129: 2124: 2117: 2112: 2105: 2101: 2088: 2087: 2082: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2063: 2058: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2029: 2027: 2020:, p. S7. 2019: 2014: 2007: 2002: 1995: 1990: 1983: 1978: 1971: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1955:, p. S5. 1954: 1949: 1943:, p. S4. 1942: 1937: 1935: 1915: 1908: 1902: 1900: 1893:, p. S2. 1892: 1887: 1880: 1875: 1868: 1863: 1857:, p. 89. 1856: 1851: 1844: 1839: 1832: 1827: 1820: 1815: 1808: 1803: 1801: 1793: 1788: 1781: 1776: 1774: 1767:, p. S3. 1766: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1749: 1744: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1718: 1713: 1706: 1701: 1694: 1689: 1682: 1681:Weinberg 1994 1677: 1670: 1665: 1658: 1653: 1646: 1641: 1634: 1629: 1622: 1617: 1610: 1605: 1603: 1595: 1590: 1583: 1578: 1571: 1566: 1560:, p. 69. 1559: 1554: 1547: 1542: 1535: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1518: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1499: 1494: 1487: 1482: 1475: 1470: 1464:, p. 91. 1463: 1458: 1451: 1446: 1439: 1438:Salvetti 2001 1434: 1428:, p. 82. 1427: 1426:Anderson 1975 1422: 1420: 1412: 1407: 1405: 1397: 1392: 1385: 1380: 1364: 1360: 1353: 1337: 1333: 1326: 1319: 1314: 1307: 1302: 1295: 1290: 1280: 1279: 1269: 1268: 1260: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1252: 1250: 1248: 1246: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1235: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1214:, located in 1213: 1208: 1206: 1203:designs used 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1169: 1167: 1166:molybdenum-99 1163: 1159: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1099:phosphorus-32 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1075: 1069:Peacetime use 1066: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1043:plutonium-240 1041: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1005: 1001: 999: 995: 989: 981: 977: 975: 970: 965: 961: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 934: 931: 921: 912: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 873: 871: 867: 862: 858: 854: 850: 845: 837: 833: 824: 821: 817: 813: 808: 806: 802: 798: 793: 791: 787: 783: 781: 776: 772: 768: 764: 755: 747: 738: 736: 732: 728: 722: 720: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 669: 663: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 636: 634: 629: 626: 616: 614: 610: 605: 603: 602:Robert Serber 599: 595: 591: 590:Eugene Wigner 587: 586:cross section 583: 579: 575: 571: 570:Glenn Seaborg 567: 563: 561: 560:plutonium-239 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 428: 426: 422: 417: 413: 412:went critical 409: 405: 401: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 366: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 318: 314: 310: 306: 304:Added to NRHP 302: 297: 294: 291: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 263: 235: 231: 228: 225: 221: 218: 215: 211: 204: 200: 196: 191: 187: 182: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 144:Reactor usage 142: 138: 134: 130: 127: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 81: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 57: 54: 50: 46: 43: 39: 32: 27: 22: 19: 4006:Y-12 Project 4000: 3991:Smyth Report 3986:S-50 Project 3948: 3944:K-25 Project 3873:Pumpkin bomb 3844: 3837: 3830: 3760:John Wheeler 3730:Louis Slotin 3725:Emilio Segrè 3675:George Koval 3655:James Franck 3640:Enrico Fermi 3585:Luis Alvarez 3544:Paul Tibbets 3519:Deak Parsons 3310: 3303:December 13, 3301:. 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Retrieved 2140:Creager 2013 2135: 2123: 2111: 2103: 2092:November 30, 2090:. Retrieved 2084: 2057: 2047:December 13, 2045:. Retrieved 2037: 2013: 2001: 1989: 1977: 1948: 1921:. Retrieved 1914:the original 1886: 1874: 1862: 1850: 1838: 1826: 1814: 1787: 1743: 1712: 1700: 1688: 1676: 1664: 1652: 1645:Compton 1956 1640: 1635:, p. 8. 1628: 1621:Compton 1956 1616: 1589: 1577: 1565: 1553: 1541: 1493: 1481: 1469: 1457: 1445: 1433: 1391: 1379: 1367:. Retrieved 1363:the original 1352: 1340:. 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