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Act (ESA) works along with international treaties like
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), aiming to combat transnational crimes and make joint efforts for wildlife protection. The penalties as a result of breaking these laws are fines as small as $ 500 per violation and as large as $ 25,000 per violation or imprisonment up to 6 months. These laws are weakened by these limited penalties and extensive exceptions. These exceptions include âscientific purposes or to enhance the propagation or survival of the affected speciesâŠ, undue economic hardshipsâŠ, and Pre-Act endangered species parts exemption; application and certification; regulation; validity of sales contract; separability; renewal of exemption; expiration of renewal certification.â
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169:(bushmeat). With the help of globalization, the Internet, social media, and people moving from one nation to another over the centuries, many items desired by the wildlife trade are distributed multi-nationally, such as traditional medicines which appear in the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa. Laws prohibiting the use of particular plant or animal-derived items fall short when people believe they encroach on traditional cultural values or what they believe is best for human life. Additionally, tourism has accounted for some accidental wildlife trafficking. A person may purchase an item not knowing it is prohibited or banned internationally.
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Globally, the illegal ivory trade activity in 2014 has more than doubled what it was in 2007. China is the largest importer of illegal ivory; the United States is second."According to reports from wildlife organization Save the
Elephants, the price for raw ivory in China was $ 2,100 per kilogram." Between 2010 and 2012, up to 33,000 elephants were poached and killed on average each year. Wildlife smuggling presents an economic cost to the countries where it occurs, including lost tourism and development opportunities.
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preserve âspecies of fish, wildlife, and plants (that) have been so depleted in numbers that they are in danger of or threatened with extinctionâ and their habitats and to hold those in violation of it accountable. As the international community increases efforts in monitoring and controlling environmental damage, the United
Nations aims to create more protected habitats and ecosystems through initiative like the
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that near 50% of the global import of plant and 70% of animals product are imported as general categories, with an exception for fisheries (ca. 5%) thanks to various multilateral fishery management agreements that requires taxon-specific fish catch reporting. Furthermore, some frequently traded taxonomic groups including amphibian and live coral are not accounted for at all due to the absence of HS code.
372:
ecosystem, which can endanger indigenous wildlife by putting a strain on the environment's resources through interspecific competition between species. Throughout the last hundred years, around twenty animals are extinct due to poaching and illegal smuggling, such as the West
African Black Rhinoceros, Pyrenean Ibex, and the Passenger Pigeon.
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range of wildlife smuggling, anywhere from $ 5-$ 23 billion, with an additional $ 67-$ 193 billion when timber and fish are included. The prolific growth of wildlife smuggling makes it the fourth-largest criminal enterprise globally after drug, firearm, and human trafficking. Products demanded by the trade include but are not limited to
280:, have captured headlines. The appeal, in part, is the low risk of detection and punishment compared to drug trafficking. In addition, trafficking can reap significant profits for those leading such efforts. For example, a single Ploughshare tortoise from Madagascar (there are only 400 estimated left in the wild) can fetch US$ 24,000.
451:, to establish the ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN) in 2005. ASEAN-WEN oversees cross-border cooperation and aims to strengthen the collective law enforcement capacity of the ten ASEAN member countries. It is the largest regional wildlife law enforcement collaboration in the world and receives support from the
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is a U.S. federal law that prohibits trade in wildlife, fish, and plants that have been illegally taken, possessed, transported, or sold, including endangered species. In 2022, the Big Cat Public Safety Act was enacted, requiring licenses to keep large exotic cats such as lions and tigers and banning
515:
directs its efforts at the supply side of wildlife smuggling. It aims to end wildlife smuggling and to ensure that international trade does not threaten endangered species. For example, Vicuna, the smallest member of the camelid family, was endangered because it was massively hunted for its wool. But
549:
is known for its biodiversity. In northern
Ecuador, the YasunĂ National Park and the surrounding Waorani Ethnic Reserve, which cover about 1,770 square miles, are home to around 4,000 species of plants; numerous animals, including the giant river otter; more than 400 fish species; and more than 500
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System used by the customs worldwide. Majority of international imports of wildlife are only recorded in general categories such as plant or animal products with no further taxonomic detail (this is like importing metals without recording their element identity e.g. copper or iron). It is estimated
200:
A recent study sought insights into China's millennial population's attitude towards consuming wildlife products for medicinal purposes. Of the 350 students surveyed by
Chinese university students, three-quarters of respondents had yet to try any wildlife products, and only 11% of those respondents
406:
Wildlife trafficking is a rising international crisis that is not only taking away animal rights but also threatening the world on global environmental, social, and economic levels. It's contributing to an illegal economy and having detrimental effects on humansâ well-being. The
Endangered Species
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and protected wildlife, including plants and byproducts or products utilizing a species. Research on wildlife smuggling has increased, however, knowledge of the illicit trade remains limited. The differences between international policies and tendencies likely contribute to the extensive estimated
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illicitly traffic in hundreds of millions of plants and animals to fund the purchase of weapons, finance civil conflicts, and launder money from illicit sources. These often transnational efforts require a funding and a network of poachers, processors, smugglers, sellers, and buyers. Well armed,
398:
Many species are not protected until they are endangered, this delay in protection results in significant losses of biodiversity in the ecosystem. Legislation, such as the
Endangered Species Act (ESA), serves to regulate human environmental intervention on the international scale to protect and
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Many jurisdictions relies on the declared HS Code of the consignments for detection and prosecution of illegal wildlife import. The lack of specificity of HS code precludes effective monitoring and traceability of global wildlife trade. There is an increasing call for a reform of the
Harmonized
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Increasingly interconnected globalization increases international trade in a wide variety of products, extending even to exotic animal products. Traders and consumers who still participate in the international exotic animal market ignore the detrimental effects of depleting our environment and
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Elephant ivory, a commonly trafficked contraband, can sell for little in the source country and can fetch high prices in destination countries. Prices depend greatly on the source country and the product. Ivory prices and demand have skyrocketed, making it a growing and very lucrative market.
168:
In many instances, culture is a driving factor in wildlife trafficking. There are often traditional roots or societal trends behind the reasons specific wildlife faces a greater risk of targeting when it comes to traditional medicines, jewelry, trinkets, pets, and the consumption of wild meat
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Wildlife smuggling directly affects the biodiversity of different ecosystems. Certain animals are in higher demand by smugglers, leading to a visible decline of these species in their native habitats. Wildlife smuggling may also cause the introduction of invasive and harmful species into an
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Unfortunately, using animal derivatives for traditional medicines has been considered a key driver for the global wildlife trafficking trade. Many commonly used species are now listed as threatened or endangered by the IUCN, with other species showing declines in their populations.
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is a rare infectious disease that is transmitted from wild animals (chimpanzees, monkeys, gorillas, fruit bats, etc.) to human populations. The transmission of the virus usually occurs through consuming the infected animals, close quarters, or bodily liquid
816:
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2550:"The Global Conservation Program Achievements and Lessons Learned from 10 Years of Support for Threats-based Conservation at a Landscape and Seascape Scale: Greater YasunĂ-Napo Moist Forest Landscape Conservati on Area (Ecuador)"
296:, nearly 75% of emerging diseases that reach humans come from animals. The link between wildlife trafficking and disease outbreak is questioned, although outbreaks of certain diseases have suspected links to smuggled animals.
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customs statistics, global import of wildlife products amounted to US$ 187 billion, of which fisheries commodities accounted for $ 113 billion; plants and forestries for $ 71 billion; non-fishery animal for $ 3 billion.
193:, TCM began to receive pushback from younger, educated crowds. Despite the pushback, TCM remains an essential aspect of cultural identity for many in the Chinese nation, bringing $ 10 million into the economy in 2005.
427:. Their means of action include raising public awareness to curb demand, strengthening international cross-border law enforcement to limit supply, and endeavoring to mobilize political support from upper echelons.
189:(TCM) began during the 10th century BCE. Utilizing a variety of plants and animals, TCM was considered the key to treating disease and mitigating the effects of aging. Around 200 years after discovering the
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is a virus found among macaque monkeys that can be transmitted by bites or scratches to humans in extremely rare cases. If not treated soon after exposure, severe brain damage or death can follow infection.
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Although understudied, wild meat is sourced illegally, often due to political and economic instability in
African nations. In rural areas, bushmeat is often used as a way to survive poverty and a lack of
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stated interest in trying them in the future. Chinese culture historically held a utilitarian view of nature. Still, with societal and cultural shifts, this may begin to change with China's youth.
2011:
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ecosystem and instead give priority to individual consumer benefits, such as monetary gains or high fashion. Some people and groups have realized these choices cannot be sustained or tolerated.
554:; this colorful bird, with bright red, brilliant blue, yellow, and white feathers, is in high demand as a pet. Animals stolen in Latin America often end up in Europe, the United States, or
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Reuters. âWet Markets in China's Wuhan Struggle to Survive Coronavirus Blow.â New York Times, April 12, 2020. Wet Markets in China's Wuhan Struggle to Survive Coronavirus Blow By Reuters.
160:. China and the United States are the largest buyers in the illegal wildlife trade. It often involves other illegal activities such as tranquilizing animals without proper authorization.
222:. In contrast, urban residents typically eat bushmeat for the status it brings as a luxury item. Additionally, wild meat is exported from Africa for international markets every year.
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is caused by a highly pathogenic virus. It can infect humans through contact with infected crested hawks and other wild birds, but can be transmitted by contact with poultry as well.
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of governments and organizations that aims to end the illegal trade of wildlife and wildlife products. CAWT currently includes six governments and thirteen international
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The spread of animal-borne disease affects both human health as well as threatening indigenous wildlife and natural ecosystems. According to the United States
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2004:
1187:. Commission for Environmental Cooperation, North American Wildlife Enforcement Group. Montréal, Québec: Commission for Environmental Cooperation. 2005.
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1135:"Exploring the Africa-Asia Trade Nexus for Endangered Wildlife Used in Traditional Asian Medicine: Interviews With Traders in South Africa and Vietnam"
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1284:"Attitudes, practices, and zoonoses awareness of community members involved in the bushmeat trade near Murchison Falls National Park, northern Uganda"
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cub petting, a lucrative enterprise that incentivized an illegal underground endangered animal trade publicized by the popular documentary miniseries
1014:"Illegal Harvesting within a Protected Area: Spatial Distribution of Activities, Social Drivers of Wild Meat Consumption, and Wildlife Conservation"
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infection can cause diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. Infections have been linked to contact with turtles, bearded dragons and other reptiles.
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537:. The same act implements provisions of CITES and the UN Biodiversity Convention in relation to imports of threatened biodiversity and wildlife.
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is caused by a virus and infects both humans and wildlife. Experts suspect that the SARS virus originated in the China due to contact between a
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Ivory continues to be in great demand for international markets as well, with an estimated 100 African elephants killed daily for their tusks.
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Ryan S. Meczkowski, The Price of Species Protection: The Effect of The ESA on Forest Landowners, 1 Wm. & Mary Pol'y Rev. 185, (2010).
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Van Borm, S; Thomas, I; Hanquet, G; Lambrecht, B; Boschmans, M; Dupont, G; Decaestecker, M; Snacken, R; van den Berg, T (May 2005).
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However, the global trade of wildlife commodities is ineffectively monitored and accounted for due to the constraint of the current
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China has become involved in wildlife trafficking, another aspect of its illegal activities in Mexico that include involvement in
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The volume of international trade in wildlife commodities is immense and continue to rise. According to an analysis to the 2012
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Below are some examples of culturally influenced illegal wildlife trade by various continents and their countries or regions:
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1433:"Losing Our "CITES" on the "Traffic": How Taxing Ivory Trafficking Can Save the African Elephant From Its Bloody Extinction"
1328:"Prices, poaching, and protein alternatives: An analysis of bushmeat consumption around Serengeti National Park, Tanzania"
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species of birds. As a comparison, the United States is home to 900 species of birds. Commonly smuggled birds include the
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2012:"Interior Announces Ban on Commercial Trade of Ivory as Part of Overall Effort to Combat Poaching, Wildlife Trafficking"
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558:. Though there are laws against wildlife smuggling, the lack of resources causes conservation to be low in priority.
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Stringham, Oliver C.; GarcĂaâDĂaz, Pablo; Toomes, Adam; Mitchell, Lewis; Ross, Joshua V.; Cassey, Phillip (2021).
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1605:"Global trade statistics lack granularity to inform traceability and management of diverse and high-value fishes"
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1584:"Calls for better traceability after report identifies Singapore as the world's second largest shark fin trader"
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Chaber, Anne-Lise; Allebone-Webb, Sophie; Lignereux, Yves; Cunningham, Andrew A.; Marcus Rowcliffe, J. (2010).
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Bortolamiol, Sarah; Feuillet, Thierry; Kagoro, Wilson; Namirembe, Rukia; Asalu, Edward; Krief, Sabrina (2023).
672:"International Wildlife Trafficking: A perspective on the challenges and potential forensic genetics solutions"
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2141:"Wildlife Trade News - Poaching and illegal wildlife trade threaten tourism and development options in Africa"
1911:"The Escalating International Wildlife Trafficking Crisis: Ecological, Economic, and National Security Issues"
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Yap, Tiffany A.; Koo, Michelle S.; Ambrose, Richard F.; Wake, David B.; Vredenburg, Vance T. (31 July 2015).
1367:"The scale of illegal meat importation from Africa to Europe via Paris: Illegal intercontinental meat trade"
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957:"Can Substitutes Reduce Future Demand for Wildlife Products: A Case Study of China's Millennial Generation"
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African elephants have experienced drastic reduction in population numbers due to the trafficking of ivory
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after the Vicunas were under the protection of CITES, their numbers increased to reach 350,000 by 2008.
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852:. David RodrĂguez Goyes, Hanneke Mol, Avi Brisman, Nigel South. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. 2017.
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1235:"Using conservation criminology to understand the role of restaurants in the urban wild meat trade"
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Gluszek, Sarah; Viollaz, Julie; Mwinyihali, Robert; Wieland, Michelle; Gore, Meredith L. (2021).
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Environmental crime in Latin America : the theft of nature and the poisoning of the land
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467:. In 2008, South Asian environment ministers agreed to create SAWEN under the support of the
1810:"Gerben Jan Gerbrandy claiming that terrorist networks hunt wildlife for funding themselves"
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Rhyne, Andrew L.; Tlusty, Michael F.; Szczebak, Joseph T.; Holmberg, Robert J. (2017).
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Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
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The Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) was established in 2005 by the U.S.
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The South Asian Enforcement Network (SAWEN) was created with the help of CAWT and
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612:â International Union for the Conservation of Nature, list of threatened species
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Latin America is vulnerable to wildlife smuggling because of its biodiversity.
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is an infectious disease found in Africa's wildlife that can spread to humans.
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1886:"Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife"
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Musing, Louisa; Norwisz, Magdalena; Kloda, Jane; Kecse-Nagy, Katalin (2018).
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1073:"Live reptile smuggling is predicted by trends in the legal exotic pet trade"
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highly organized poaching activities, such as the murderous 2012 attacks in
2249:"B Virus (herpes B, monkey B virus, herpesvirus simiae, and herpesvirus B)"
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Chan, Hon-Ki; Zhang, Huarong; Yang, Feng; Fischer, Gunter (17 April 2015).
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2275:"Mother and Daughter Sentenced to Jail for Smuggling Monkey from Thailand"
1863:"Malaysia's 'Lizard King' under probe for wildlife smuggling, report says"
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System to strengthen monitoring and enforcement of global wildlife trade.
2166:"Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus in smuggled Thai eagles, Belgium"
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Diseases linked to animal species that are targets of wildlife smuggling
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Smart, Utpal; Cihlar, Jennifer Churchill; Budowle, Bruce (2021-09-01).
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Wildlife Trade in Belgium: An analysis of CITES trade and seizure data
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1723:"Expanding our understanding of the trade in marine aquarium animals"
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2733:"President Biden Signs Bill Outlawing Private Ownership of Big Cats"
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Diseases believe to have originated and spread by wildlife smuggling
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or wildlife trafficking concerns the illegal gathering and trade of
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719:"Connections between trades and trafficking in wildlife and drugs"
2116:"Wildlife Trafficking â Statistics on the Illegal Wildlife Trade"
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2783:"Poaching American Security: Impacts of Illegal Wildlife Trade"
1835:"Smuggling wildlife: From eggs in a bra to geckos in underwear"
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Association of Southeast Asian Nations Wild Enforcement Network
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Guynup, Sharon; Shepherd, Chris R.; Shepherd, Loretta (2020).
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Illegal trade in wildlife : a North American perspective
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Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
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Illegal gathering, transport and distribution of wild animals
2277:. Department of the Interior. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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Poached : inside the dark world of wildlife trafficking
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1485:"Improve customs systems to monitor global wildlife trade"
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Dell, BreeAnna; Willcox, Adam; Souza, Marcy (2022-08-30).
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Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) official website
601:â Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
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Illegal wildlife items seized by UK Border Patrol in 2013
2836:"Wildlife Smuggling Boom Plaguing L.A., Authorities Say"
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Mastny, Lisa; French, Hillary (SeptemberâOctober 2002).
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Rock, Katherine I.; MacMillan, Douglas C. (2022-02-01).
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van Uhm, Daan; South, Nigel; Wyatt, Tanya (2021-12-01).
2630:""How is China involved in organized crime in Mexico?""
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Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
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Ineffective monitoring of international wildlife trade
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2452:"The ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN)"
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56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1541:"Illegal trade in environmentally sensitive goods"
1437:Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy
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453:United States Agency for International Development
2662:, ch. 553. Approved May 25, 1900. As amended by:
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2785:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 5 March 2008.
2477:"WelcomeSouth Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network"
2063:Pictures, More From National Geographic Magazine
1603:Cawthorn, Donna-MareĂš; Mariani, Stefano (2017).
1281:
2323:Money Laundering and the Illegal Wildlife Trade
1959:"International Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife"
1933:"The Ins & Outs of Exotic Animal Smuggling"
1852:
1779:"International Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife"
1664:"Averting a North American biodiversity crisis"
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533:'s wildlife is regulated under Part 13A of the
2823:"Wildlife smugglers see low risk, high profit"
2326:, The Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 2020
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449:Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
314:(wildcats common in Chinese trade) and humans.
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469:South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme
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2089:"Ivory trade: Can China get tough on tusks?"
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2247:Center for Disease Prevention and Control.
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780:Georgetown Journal of International Affairs
2701:Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008
2525:"Department of the Environment and Energy"
2301:Centers for Disease Prevention and Control
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1865:. themalaymailonline.com. November 2, 2013
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1326:Rentsch, Dennis; Damon, Amy (2013-07-01).
937:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
384:How wildlife trafficking networks operate.
2654:United States. Lacey Act (Game). 31
2559:. USAID and Wildlife Conservation Society
2253:Center for Disease Prevention and Control
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116:Learn how and when to remove this message
2529:Department of the Environment and Energy
1884:Gettleman, Jeffrey (December 31, 2012).
776:"The True Costs of Wildlife Trafficking"
676:Forensic Science International: Genetics
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307:SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome)
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2481:South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network
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2731:Chung, Christine (December 21, 2022).
2548:USAID; Wildlife Conservation Society.
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411:Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking
390:Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System
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2802:FREELAND Foundation official website
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1990:"Big Business: Wildlife Trafficking"
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817:"Wildlife trafficking gang arrested"
54:adding citations to reliable sources
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19:For the legal trade of species, see
1561:"CITES Decision, 16.62, Rev. CoP16"
1223:
1133:Nguyen, T.; Roberts, D. L. (2020).
13:
2710:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
2688:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
2672:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
2578:Bergman, Charles (December 2009).
2032:The Editorial Board (2014-02-18).
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1239:Conservation Science and Practice
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815:Satyaem, Chaiwat (May 12, 2023).
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2834:Lovgren, Stefan (26 July 2007).
2829:. Associated Press. 6 July 2007.
2456:ASEAN Cooperation on Environment
2034:"Banning Ivory Sales in America"
1988:Begley, Sharon (March 1, 2008).
1931:Trex, Ethan (January 27, 2010).
1384:10.1111/j.1755-263X.2010.00121.x
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294:Government Accountability Office
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2273:Rice, Thomas (April 28, 2009).
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1431:Persaud, Sabrina (2017-10-02).
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636:Wildlife smuggling hubs in Asia
459:South Asian Enforcement Network
401:Sustainable Development Goal 15
41:needs additional citations for
2665:Lacey Act Amendments of 1981.
1344:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.03.021
1064:
1005:
909:(1st ed.). New York, NY.
840:
808:
471:. The SAWEN countries include
376:International control measures
1:
2771:"Crimes of (A) Global Nature"
2762:
2681:Captive Wildlife Safety Act.
2087:Moore, Malcolm (2014-02-13).
2057:Christy, Bryan (2012-09-14).
1449:10.1080/13880292.2017.1403813
1139:Tropical Conservation Science
519:
2173:Emerging Infectious Diseases
688:10.1016/j.fsigen.2021.102551
524:
187:Traditional Chinese medicine
7:
2777:. Vol. 15, no. 5.
2697:Approved December 19, 2003.
2678:Approved November 16, 1981.
2605:"Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao)"
2432:cawt-global.squarespace.com
592:
570:and other organized crime.
258:
10:
2897:
2797:ASEAN-WEN official website
1957:Sellar, John (June 2007).
1777:Sellar, John (June 2007).
1631:10.1038/s41598-017-12301-x
1286:. Open Science Framework.
973:10.1007/s10745-021-00279-0
735:10.1007/s12117-021-09416-z
540:
387:
163:
18:
2417:16 U.S.C.A. § 1539 (West)
2408:16 U.S.C.A. § 1540 (West)
2399:16 U.S.C.A. § 1537 (West)
1410:. TRAFFIC International.
723:Trends in Organized Crime
561:
287:
253:
204:
2881:Organized crime activity
2817:TRAFFIC official website
2501:"What is CITES? | CITES"
2357:16 U.S.C.A. § 1531(West)
1152:10.1177/1940082920979252
656:
180:
2719:Approved June 18, 2008.
1691:10.1126/science.aab1052
1511:10.1126/science.aaa3141
529:International trade of
265:terrorist organizations
175:
2580:"Wildlife Trafficking"
2185:10.3201/eid1105.050211
1307:Cite journal requires
1215:: CS1 maint: others (
880:: CS1 maint: others (
441:TRAFFIC Southeast Asia
385:
269:criminal organizations
214:
191:germ theory of disease
133:
2634:Brookings Institution
2224:"Ebola virus disease"
2139:Friday (2014-03-07).
2069:on September 16, 2012
1963:Police Chief Magazine
1783:Police Chief Magazine
1292:10.17605/OSF.IO/Q4MDV
793:10.1353/gia.2020.0023
621:Wildlife conservation
383:
212:
131:
2846:on January 27, 2008.
2775:World Watch Magazine
1371:Conservation Letters
1332:Ecological Economics
1077:Conservation Letters
154:traditional medicine
65:"Wildlife smuggling"
50:improve this article
2876:Environmental crime
2840:National Geographic
2609:Rainforest Alliance
1682:2015Sci...349..481Y
1623:2017NatSR...712852C
1503:2015Sci...348..291C
1145:: 194008292097925.
1031:10.3390/ani13050771
626:Wildlife management
605:Environmental crime
447:government and the
437:Freeland Foundation
2866:Wildlife smuggling
2737:The New York Times
2703:(2008 Farm Bill).
2636:. 23 February 2022
2336:1 MAJLPP 26 (West)
2120:www.havocscope.com
2038:The New York Times
2014:. 11 February 2014
1742:10.7717/peerj.2949
1610:Scientific Reports
1090:10.1111/conl.12833
651:Endangered species
386:
215:
141:endangered species
137:Wildlife smuggling
134:
2812:USA branch of EIA
2368:"Goal 15 targets"
1676:(6247): 481â482.
1497:(6232): 291â292.
1417:978-1-85850-443-8
916:978-0-306-82550-7
859:978-1-137-55705-6
580:Lacey Act of 1900
278:Republic of Congo
235:Harmonized System
126:
125:
118:
100:
2888:
2847:
2842:. Archived from
2830:
2786:
2778:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2728:
2722:
2711:
2707:
2689:
2685:
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2309:
2307:
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2286:
2284:
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2264:
2263:
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2259:
2244:
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2237:
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2234:
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2213:
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2170:
2161:
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2152:
2151:
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2130:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2112:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2099:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2065:. Archived from
2054:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1859:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1814:
1808:Zite Media B.V.
1805:
1799:
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1796:
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1774:
1765:
1764:
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1744:
1718:
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1711:
1693:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1642:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1565:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1480:
1469:
1468:
1443:(3â4): 295â320.
1428:
1422:
1421:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1386:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1310:
1305:
1303:
1295:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1254:
1252:10.1111/csp2.368
1230:
1221:
1220:
1214:
1206:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1154:
1130:
1121:
1120:
1102:
1092:
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1062:
1061:
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1009:
1003:
1002:
992:
952:
943:
942:
936:
928:
897:
886:
885:
879:
871:
844:
838:
837:
835:
834:
825:. Archived from
812:
806:
805:
795:
771:
765:
764:
754:
714:
708:
707:
667:
631:Wildlife farming
568:drug trafficking
443:worked with the
417:State Department
319:Avian flu (H5N1)
121:
114:
110:
107:
101:
99:
58:
34:
26:
2896:
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2232:
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2222:
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2207:
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2162:
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2122:
2114:
2113:
2106:
2097:
2095:
2093:Telegraph.co.uk
2085:
2081:
2072:
2070:
2059:"Ivory Worship"
2055:
2051:
2042:
2040:
2030:
2026:
2017:
2015:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1995:
1993:
1986:
1982:
1972:
1970:
1955:
1951:
1941:
1939:
1929:
1925:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1894:
1892:
1882:
1878:
1868:
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1853:
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1812:
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1790:
1775:
1768:
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1660:
1656:
1601:
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1581:
1577:
1563:
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1539:
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1472:
1429:
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1320:
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1297:
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1124:
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1010:
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930:
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917:
898:
889:
873:
872:
860:
846:
845:
841:
832:
830:
813:
809:
772:
768:
715:
711:
668:
664:
659:
595:
576:
564:
543:
527:
522:
509:
461:
433:
419:as a voluntary
413:
392:
378:
369:
346:
302:
290:
261:
256:
231:
207:
183:
178:
166:
122:
111:
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2809:
2804:
2799:
2792:
2791:External links
2789:
2788:
2787:
2779:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2714:110â246 (text)
2698:
2692:108â191 (text)
2679:
2647:
2621:
2596:
2570:
2540:
2516:
2492:
2468:
2443:
2428:"CAWT - About"
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2003:
1980:
1949:
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1902:
1890:New York Times
1876:
1851:
1833:Neo, Hui Min.
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1377:(5): 317â321.
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729:(4): 425â446.
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641:Wildlife trade
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2505:www.cites.org
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967:(1): 91â111.
966:
962:
961:Human Ecology
958:
951:
949:
940:
934:
926:
922:
918:
912:
908:
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901:Nuwer, Rachel
896:
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869:
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855:
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843:
829:on 2023-11-01
828:
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629:
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624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
611:
610:IUCN Red List
608:
606:
603:
600:
597:
596:
590:
588:
587:
581:
574:United States
571:
569:
559:
557:
553:
552:scarlet macaw
548:
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367:Environmental
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220:food security
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67: â
66:
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61:Find sources:
55:
51:
45:
44:
39:This article
37:
33:
28:
27:
22:
2871:Wildlife law
2844:the original
2839:
2826:
2774:
2750:November 10,
2748:. Retrieved
2736:
2726:
2650:
2638:. Retrieved
2633:
2624:
2612:. Retrieved
2608:
2599:
2587:. Retrieved
2583:
2573:
2561:. Retrieved
2556:
2543:
2532:. Retrieved
2528:
2519:
2508:. Retrieved
2504:
2495:
2484:. Retrieved
2480:
2471:
2460:. Retrieved
2458:. 2012-11-21
2455:
2446:
2435:. Retrieved
2431:
2422:
2413:
2404:
2395:
2386:
2375:. Retrieved
2371:
2362:
2341:
2332:
2322:
2316:
2304:. Retrieved
2300:
2297:"Salmonella"
2291:
2279:. Retrieved
2268:
2256:. Retrieved
2252:
2242:
2231:. Retrieved
2227:
2218:
2206:. Retrieved
2179:(5): 702â5.
2176:
2172:
2159:
2148:. Retrieved
2144:
2134:
2123:. Retrieved
2119:
2096:. Retrieved
2092:
2082:
2071:. Retrieved
2067:the original
2062:
2052:
2041:. Retrieved
2037:
2027:
2016:. Retrieved
2006:
1994:. Retrieved
1983:
1971:. Retrieved
1966:
1962:
1952:
1940:. Retrieved
1937:Mental Floss
1936:
1926:
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