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216:. Ice domes are nearly symmetrical, with a convex or parabolic surface shape. They tend to develop evenly over a land mass that may be either a topographic height or a depression, often reflecting the sub-glacial topography. In ice sheets, domes may reach a thickness that may exceed 3,000 meters (9,800 feet). However, in ice caps, the thickness of the dome is much smaller, measuring roughly up to several hundred metres in comparison. In glaciated islands, ice domes are usually the highest point of the ice cap. An example of an ice dome is
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An ice cap can be defined as a dome-shaped mass of ice that exhibits a radial flow. They are often easily confused with ice sheets, but these ice structures are smaller than 50,000 km, and obscure the entirety of the topography they span. They mainly form in polar and sub-polar regions with
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Outlet glaciers are often found in valleys, and they originate from major ice sheets and ice caps. They move in a singular direction that is determined by the underlying landscape. Outlet glaciers drain inland glaciers through gaps found in the surrounding topography. A higher amount of inland
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Valley glaciers are outlet glaciers that provide drainage for ice fields, icecaps or ice sheets. The flow of these glaciers is confined by the walls of the valley they are found in; but they may also form in mountain ranges as gathering snow turns to ice. The formation of valley glaciers is
243:
rapidly channel ice flow out to the sea, ocean, or an ice shelf. For this reason, they are commonly referred to as the "arteries" of an ice sheet. Ice from continental sheets is drained into the ocean by a complex network of ice streams, and their activity is greatly affected by oceanic and
244:
atmospheric processes. They feature a higher velocity in the centre of the stream, and are bounded by slow-moving ice on either side. Periods of greater ice stream flow result in more ice transfer from ice sheets to the ocean, raising sea level. At the margin between glacial ice and water,
332:
glacial melt ultimately increases the amount of outlet glacier output. Studies predict that outlet glaciers found in
Greenland can increase the global sea level considerably following an increase in global temperature, and a subsequently higher drainage output. Examples include:
142:
Ice sheets are the largest form of glacial formation. They are continent-sized ice masses that span areas over 50,000 square kilometers (19,000 square miles). They are dome-shaped and, like ice caps, exhibit radial flow. As ice sheets expand over the ocean, they become
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is an example of glacier structure that covers a relatively large area, and is usually located in mountain terrain. Icefields are quite similar to ice caps; however, their morphology is much more influenced by the underlying mountainous topography.
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A hanging glacier appears in a hanging valley, and has the potential to break off from the side of the mountain it is attached to. As bits and pieces of hanging glaciers break off and begin to fall, avalanches can be triggered. Examples include:
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cover the largest areas of land in comparison to other glaciers, and their ice is unconstrained by the underlying topography. They are the largest glacial ice formations and hold the vast majority of the world's fresh water.
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particularly high elevation but flat ground. Ice caps can be round, circular, or irregular in shape. Ice caps often gradually merge into ice sheets making them difficult to track and document. Examples include:
397:(unconsolidated rock material) deposited by the terminus of the glacier. Ice-free exposed bedrock and slopes often surround valley glaciers, providing a route for snow and ice to accumulate on the glacier via
147:. Ice sheets contain 99% of all the freshwater ice found on Earth, and form as layers of snowfall accumulate and slowly start to compact into ice. There are only two ice sheets present on Earth today: the
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are glaciers that appear in bowl-shaped valley hollows. Snow easily settles in the topographic structure; it is turned to ice as more snow falls and is subsequently compressed. When the glacier melts, a
813:
Clark, P. U.; Dyke, A. S.; Shakun, J. D.; Carlson, A. E.; Clark, J.; Wohlfarth, B.; Mitrovica, J. X.; Hostetler, S. W.; McCabe, A. M. (August 6, 2009). "The Last
Glacial Maximum".
73:, and other factors. The goal of glacial morphology is to gain a better understanding of glaciated landscapes and the way they are shaped. Types of glaciers can range from massive
875:
Spagnolo, Matteo; Phillips, Emrys; Piotrowski, Jan A.; Rea, Brice R.; Clark, Chris D.; Stokes, Chris R.; Carr, Simon J.; Ely, Jeremy C.; Ribolini, Adriano (February 22, 2016).
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Nick, Faezeh M.; Vieli, Andreas; Andersen, Morten Langer; Joughin, Ian; Payne, Antony; Edwards, Tamsin L.; Pattyn, Frank; van de Wal, Roderik S. W. (May 8, 2013).
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are formed when valley glaciers retreat and seawater fills the now empty valley. They can be found in mountainous, glaciation-affected terrain. Examples include:
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Piedmont glaciers are a sub-type of valley glaciers which have flowed out onto lowland plains, where they spread out into a fan-like shape. Examples include:
217:
1172:
Dixon, John C.; Thorn, Colin E.; Darmody, Robert G. (1984). "Chemical
Weathering Processes on the Vantage Peak Nunatak, Juneau Icefield, Southern Alaska".
608:
1542:
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Howat, I. M.; Joughin, I.; Scambos, T. A. (March 16, 2007). "Rapid
Changes in Ice Discharge from Greenland Outlet Glaciers".
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An ice dome is a part of an ice cap or ice sheet that is characterized by upstanding ice surface located in the
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256:, but the ocean is not the only place that can experience ice calving. Calving can also take place in lakes,
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Margreth, Stefan; Funk, Martin; Tobler, Daniel; Dalban, Pierre; Meier, Lorenz; Lauper, Juerg (2017).
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epoch was characterized by ice sheets that covered a third of the planet. This was also known as the
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1451:"Analysis of the hazard caused by ice avalanches from the hanging glacier on the Eiger west face"
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The rock formations found under the icefields are variable, and rocky mountain peaks known as
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Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the Earth, Environment and Technology
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1282:"Future sea-level rise from Greenland's main outlet glaciers in a warming climate"
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break off from the large masses of ice. Iceberg calving is a major contributor to
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found perched on mountain tops. Glaciers can be grouped into two main categories:
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Valley head glaciers are types of valley glaciers that are only limited to the
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Paul, Frank; Ramanathan, A.L.; Mandal, Arindan (March 6, 2017), "Ice Caps",
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Stokes, C. R.; Margold, M.; Clark, C. D.; Tarasov, L. (February 17, 2016).
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Dowdeswell, J. A.; Batchelor, C. L.; Hogan, K. A.; Schenke, H.-W. (2016).
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877:"Ice stream motion facilitated by a shallow-deforming and accreting bed"
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tend to jut out from under the surface of icefields. Examples include:
240:
93:
70:
1140:
Björnsson, Helgi (October 5, 2016), "Origins and Nature of
Glaciers",
155:. Although only a tenth of modern Earth is covered by ice sheets, the
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1349:"Valley and Piedmont Glaciers (U.S. National Park Service)"
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996:
629:. Shroder, John F., 1939-. London: Academic Press. 2013.
278:
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Elephant Foot
Glacier, a well-known Piedmont glacier in
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1389:"Nordvestfjord: a major East Greenland fjord system"
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554:structure is left in its place. Examples include:
98:Ice flow is unrestricted by surrounding topography
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527:Lower Curtis Glacier is a cirque glacier in the
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427:. An example of this type of valley glacier is
248:takes place as glaciers begin to fracture, and
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754:, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–10,
1512:Benn, Douglas I.; Evans, David J.A. (2010).
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465:An existing valley glacier of this type is
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389:restricted by formations such as terminal
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89:Ice flow is constrained by the underlying
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1068:Benn, Douglas I.; Åström, Jan A. (2018).
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673:National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC)
281:, astronaut photo. North is to the right.
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611:. National Park Service. Archived from
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1516:(2nd ed.). Abingdon, UK: Hodder.
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1455:Cold Regions Science and Technology
1393:Geological Society, London, Memoirs
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947:"The Dynamics of Ice-Sheet Outlets"
708:. National Snow and Ice Data Center
24:
1070:"Calving glaciers and ice shelves"
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361:
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277:Southern Patagonia Ice Field from
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1476:10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.05.012
1144:, Atlantis Press, pp. 3–37,
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760:10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0210
50:Features of a glacial landscape
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260:, and continental ice cliffs.
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314:Southern Patagonian Ice Field
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7:
1150:10.2991/978-94-6239-207-6_1
792:National Geographic Society
567:, Washington, United States
561:, Washington, United States
393:, which are collections of
166:
10:
1579:
1505:
609:"Introduction to Glaciers"
1514:Glaciers & Glaciation
1436:at NASA Earth Observatory
972:10.1017/S0022143000006328
706:"Glacier Types: Ice caps"
627:Treatise on geomorphology
512:Endeavor Piedmont Glacier
434:
27:Geomorphology of glaciers
945:Mcintyre, N. F. (1985).
371:Grosser Aletschgletscher
61:takes, is influenced by
1240:10.1126/science.1138478
1142:The Glaciers of Iceland
835:10.1126/science.1172873
508:, Alaska, United States
322:, Alaska, United States
122:Ice sheets and ice caps
1074:Advances in Physics: X
657:: CS1 maint: others (
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378:
282:
118:
103:Unconstrained Glaciers
51:
43:
1545:at Wikimedia Commons
1543:Glacial geomorphology
1434:Elephant Foot Glacier
951:Journal of Glaciology
881:Nature Communications
615:on September 3, 2006.
531:in the U.S. state of
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481:
369:
343:Kangerlussuaq Glacier
316:, Chile and Argentina
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110:
49:
35:
559:Lower Curtis Glacier
419:Valley-head glaciers
401:. Examples include:
264:Constrained glaciers
161:Last Glacial Maximum
1486:20.500.11850/203867
1467:2017CRST..144...63M
1306:10.1038/nature12068
1298:2013Natur.497..235N
1232:2007Sci...315.1559H
1226:(5818): 1559–1561.
1186:1984PhGeo...5..111D
1086:2018AdPhX...313819B
1026:10.1038/nature16947
1018:2016Natur.530..322S
963:1985JGlac..31...99M
902:10.1038/ncomms10723
893:2016NatCo...710723S
827:2009Sci...325..710C
218:Kupol Vostok Pervyy
153:Greenland ice sheet
149:Antarctic ice sheet
79:Greenland ice sheet
37:Franz Josef Glacier
1174:Physical Geography
537:
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467:Jakobshavn Glacier
379:
349:Jakobshavn Glacier
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55:Glacier morphology
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1541:Media related to
1292:(7448): 235–238.
1012:(7590): 322–326.
821:(5941): 710–714.
794:. August 16, 2012
506:Malaspina Glacier
474:Piedmont glaciers
355:Petermann Glacier
302:Columbia Icefield
214:accumulation zone
16:(Redirected from
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211:
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1353:www.nps.gov
1105:10023/17801
788:"ice sheet"
565:Eel Glacier
448:Hvalfjörður
425:valley head
357:, Greenland
351:, Greenland
345:, Greenland
339:, Greenland
246:ice calving
241:Ice streams
236:Ice streams
203:, Greenland
195:Vatnajökull
157:Pleistocene
145:ice shelves
114:ice cap in
112:Vatnajökull
81:, to small
63:temperature
41:New Zealand
1558:Glaciology
1552:Categories
595:References
533:Washington
484:Romer Lake
460:Sognefjord
456:, Svalbard
412:Fláajökull
399:avalanches
138:Ice sheets
127:Ice sheets
94:topography
75:ice sheets
71:topography
1495:0165-232X
1461:: 63–72.
1421:133397966
1413:0435-4052
1374:"Glacier"
1314:0028-0836
1248:0036-8075
1202:0272-3646
1114:2374-6149
1050:205247646
1034:0028-0836
981:0022-1430
911:2041-1723
843:0036-8075
653:cite book
645:831139698
488:Greenland
450:, Iceland
414:, Iceland
269:Icefields
208:Ice domes
197:, Iceland
1358:April 5,
1322:23657350
1264:27719836
1256:17289940
1042:26887494
929:26898399
851:19661421
798:April 5,
712:April 5,
590:, Canada
462:, Norway
454:Hornsund
408:, Canada
391:moraines
310:, Canada
304:, Canada
295:nunataks
287:icefield
250:icebergs
191:, Canada
185:, Canada
179:, Norway
167:Ice caps
151:and the
131:ice caps
1506:Sources
1463:Bibcode
1330:4400824
1294:Bibcode
1228:Bibcode
1220:Science
1182:Bibcode
1082:Bibcode
1014:Bibcode
959:Bibcode
920:4764869
889:Bibcode
859:1324559
823:Bibcode
815:Science
116:Iceland
91:bedrock
59:glacier
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1046:S2CID
1002:(PDF)
855:S2CID
439:True
1518:ISBN
1491:ISSN
1409:ISSN
1360:2019
1318:PMID
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659:link
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