876:
1070:. Neither Wilkes nor the other subglacial basins were lost entirely, but estimates suggest that they would be committed to disappearance once the global warming reaches 3 °C (5.4 °F) - the plausible temperature range is between 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 6 °C (11 °F). Then, the subglacial basins would gradually collapse over a period of around 2,000 years, although it may be as fast as 500 years or as slow as 10,000 years. Their loss would ultimately add between 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) and 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels, depending on the
758:
7097:
392:
770:, at a rate of 1100-1500 billion tons (GT) per year. This meltwater then mixes back into the Southern Ocean, which makes its water fresher. This freshening of the Southern Ocean results in increased stratification and stabilization of its layers, and this has the single largest impact on the long-term properties of Southern Ocean circulation. These changes in the Southern Ocean cause the upper cell circulation to speed up, accelerating the flow of major currents, while the lower cell circulation slows down, as it is dependent on the highly saline
296:
29:
410:
709:
975:
478:
560:
1111:
8900:
7337:
8888:
786:
8924:
8912:
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221:, it is less vulnerable to climate change than the WAIS. In the 20th century, EAIS had been one of the only places on Earth which displayed limited cooling instead of warming, even as the WAIS warmed by over 0.1 °C/decade from 1950s to 2000, with an average warming trend of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957 across the whole continent. As of early 2020s, there is still net mass gain over the EAIS (due to increased
7347:
61:
603:, Antarctic temperatures will be up 4 °C (7.2 °F), on average, by 2100 and this will be accompanied by a 30% increase in precipitation and a 30% decrease in total sea ice. RCPs were developed in the late 2000s, and early 2020s research considers RCP8.5 much less likely than the more "moderate" scenarios like RCP 4.5, which lies in between the worst-case and the
2692:
impact, locally as the radiative forcing from greenhouse gases. The temperature change in any particular region will in fact be a combination of radiation-related changes (through greenhouse gases, aerosols, ozone and the like) and dynamical effects. Since the winds tend to only move heat from one place to another, their impact will tend to cancel out in the global mean.
1197:
474:, where warming was both well-documented and strongly pronounced: It was eventually found to have warmed by 3 °C (5.4 °F) since the mid-20th century. Based on this limited data, several papers published in the early 2000s suggested that there had been an overall cooling over continental Antarctica (that is outside of the Peninsula).
801:' best, limited-confidence estimate is that the lower cell would continue to weaken, while the upper cell may strengthen by around 20% over the 21st century. A key reason for the uncertainty is limited certainty about future ice loss from Antarctica and the poor and inconsistent representation of ocean stratification in even the
626:
917:), there will be a median rise of 16 cm (6.3 in) and maximum rise of 37 cm (15 in) under the low-emission scenario. On the other hand, the highest emission scenario results in a median rise of 1.46 m (5 ft) metres, with a minimum of 60 cm (2 ft) and a maximum of 2.89 m (
267:
take between 2,000 and 13,000 years, although several centuries of high emissions may shorten this to 500 years. 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) of sea level rise would occur if the ice sheet collapses but leaves ice caps on the mountains behind, and 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) if those melt as well.
266:
research and improved modelling show that the West
Antarctic ice sheet is very likely to disappear even if the warming does not progress any further, and only reducing the warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F) below the temperature of 2020 may save it. It is believed that the loss of the ice sheet would
3953:
Although their methods of interpolation or extrapolation for areas with unobserved output velocities have an insufficient description for the evaluation of associated errors, such errors in previous results (Rignot and others, 2008) caused large overestimates of the mass losses as detailed in Zwally
1755:
Our definitions of the West
Antarctic ice sheet (systems 18-23 and 1), the East Antarctic ice sheet (systems 2-17), and the Antarctic Peninsula (systems 24-27) allocate the drainage systems according to ice provenance with separation of East and West Antarctica approximately along the Transantarctic
1665:
Andrew N. Mackintosh; Elie
Verleyen; Philip E. O'Brien; Duanne A. White; R. Selwyn Jones; Robert McKay; Robert Dunbar; Damian B. Gore; David Fink; Alexandra L. Post; Hideki Miura; Amy Leventer; Ian Goodwin; Dominic A. Hodgson; Katherine Lilly; Xavier Crosta; Nicholas R. Golledge; Bernd Wagner; Sonja
1100:
would increase the global temperature by 0.6 °C (1.1 °F), while the regional temperatures would increase by around 2 °C (3.6 °F). The loss of the subglacial basins alone would only add about 0.05 °C (0.090 °F) to global temperatures due to their relatively limited area,
640:
Contrasting temperature trends across parts of
Antarctica mean that some locations lose mass, particularly at the coasts, while others that are more inland continue to gain mass. Estimating an average trend can be difficult due to these contrasting trends and the remoteness of the region. In 2018, a
271:
may also add around 1 m (3 ft 3 in) to the global sea levels over another 1,000 years. On the other hand, the East
Antarctic ice sheet is far more stable and may only cause 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) - 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) of sea level rise from the current level of
538:
By 2009, research was finally able to combine historical weather station data with satellite measurements to create consistent temperature records going back to 1957, which demonstrated warming of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957 across the continent, with cooling in East
Antarctica offset by the
3729:
Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam; Koven, Charlie; Leshyk, Victor; Lawrence, David; Loranty, Michael M.; Mauritz, Marguerite; Olefeldt, David; Natali, Susan; Rodenhizer, Heidi; Salmon,
966:
intervention to stabilize the ice sheet's glaciers may delay its loss by centuries and give more time to adapt. This is an uncertain proposal, and would end up as one of the most expensive projects ever attempted. Otherwise, the disappearance of the West
Antarctic ice sheet would take an estimated
653:
annual mass loss from 53 ± 29 Gt (gigatonnes) in 1992 to 159 ± 26 Gt in the final five years of the study. On the
Antarctic Peninsula, the study estimated a loss of 20 ± 15 Gt per year with an increase in loss of roughly 15 Gt per year after year 2000, with a significant role played by the loss of
1093:
concluded that the ice sheet would take a minimum of 10,000 years to fully melt. It would most likely be committed to complete disappearance only once the global warming reaches about 7.5 °C (13.5 °F), with the minimum and the maximum range between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C
497:
in East
Antarctica had experienced cooling of 0.7 °C per decade - a local trend confirmed by subsequent research at McMurdo. Multiple journalists suggested that these findings were "contradictory" to global warming, even though the paper itself noted the limited data, and still found warming
303:
The
Antarctic ice sheet covers an area of almost 14 million square kilometres (5.4 million square miles) and contains 26.5 million cubic kilometres (6,400,000 cubic miles) of ice. A cubic kilometer of ice weighs approximately 0.92 metric gigatonnes, meaning that the ice sheet
946:
not in contact with water are less vulnerable than the majority of the ice sheet, which is located below the sea level. The collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet would cause ~3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) of sea level rise. This kind of collapse is now considered practically inevitable,
592:
warmed by 0.61 ± 0.34 °C per decade between 1990 and 2020, which is three times the global average. The Antarctica-wide warming trend also continued after 2000, and in February 2020, the continent recorded its highest temperature of 18.3 °C, which was a degree higher than the previous
5135:
Bakker, P; Schmittner, A; Lenaerts, JT; Abe-Ouchi, A; Bi, D; van den Broeke, MR; Chan, WL; Hu, A; Beadling, RL; Marsland, SJ; Mernild, SH; Saenko, OA; Swingedouw, D; Sullivan, A; Yin, J (11 November 2016). "Fate of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: Strong decline under continued
2691:
At first glance this seems to contradict the idea of "global" warming, but one needs to be careful before jumping to this conclusion. A rise in the global mean temperature does not imply universal warming. Dynamical effects (changes in the winds and ocean circulation) can have just as large an
453:
trap heat in the middle atmosphere and reduce its flow towards the surface and towards space, instead of simply preventing the flow of heat from the lower atmosphere to the upper layers. This effect lasts until the end of the Antarctic winter. Thus, even the early climate models predicted that
747:
is followed and global warming is limited to 2 °C (3.6 °F), the loss of ice in Antarctica will continue at the 2020 rate for the rest of the century, but if a trajectory leading to 3 °C (5.4 °F) is followed, Antarctica ice loss will accelerate after 2060 and start adding
6110:
Crotti, Ilaria; Quiquet, Aurélien; Landais, Amaelle; Stenni, Barbara; Wilson, David J.; Severi, Mirko; Mulvaney, Robert; Wilhelms, Frank; Barbante, Carlo; Frezzotti, Massimo (10 September 2022). "Wilkes subglacial basin ice sheet response to Southern Ocean warming during late Pleistocene
829:
is only inhabited by 10% of the world's population, and the Southern Ocean overturning circulation has historically received much less attention than the AMOC. Some preliminary research suggests that such a collapse may become likely once global warming reaches levels between 1.7 °C
280:
may collapse over a period of around 2,000 years, which would add up to 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels. The loss of the entire ice sheet would require global warming in a range between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C (18 °F), and a minimum of 10,000 years.
742:
Some scientists have even larger estimates, but all agree it would have a greater impact and become much more likely to occur under higher warming scenarios, where it may double the overall 21st century sea level rise to 2 m (7 ft) or more. One study suggested that if the
4255:
Horton, Benjamin P.; Khan, Nicole S.; Cahill, Niamh; Lee, Janice S. H.; Shaw, Timothy A.; Garner, Andra J.; Kemp, Andrew C.; Engelhart, Simon E.; Rahmstorf, Stefan (8 May 2020). "Estimating global mean sea-level rise and its uncertainties by 2100 and 2300 from an expert survey".
547:
temperature record even suggested a much larger West Antarctica warming of 2.4 °C (4.3 °F) since 1958, or around 0.46 °C (0.83 °F) per decade, although there has been some uncertainty about it. In 2022, a study narrowed the warming of the Central area of the
3754:
Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate
539:
average temperature increase of at least 0.176 ± 0.06 °C per decade in West Antarctica. Subsequent research confirmed clear warming over West Antarctica in the 20th century with the only uncertainty being the magnitude. Over 2012-2013, estimates based on WAIS Divide
4784:
Ribeiro, N.; Herraiz-Borreguero, L.; Rintoul, S. R.; McMahon, C. R.; Hindell, M.; Harcourt, R.; Williams, G. (15 July 2021). "Warm Modified Circumpolar Deep Water Intrusions Drive Ice Shelf Melt and Inhibit Dense Shelf Water Formation in Vincennes Bay, East Antarctica".
6181:
Pan, Linda; Powell, Evelyn M.; Latychev, Konstantin; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Creveling, Jessica R.; Gomez, Natalya; Hoggard, Mark J.; Clark, Peter U. (30 April 2021). "Rapid postglacial rebound amplifies global sea level rise following West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse".
740:. This process has never been observed and it only occurs in some models. Such processes may increase sea level rise caused by Antarctica to 41 cm (16 in) by 2100 under the low-emission scenario and 57 cm (22 in) under the high-emission scenario.
812:
It is possible that the South Ocean overturning circulation may not simply continue to weaken in response to increased warming and freshening, but will eventually collapse outright, in a way which would be difficult to reverse and constitute an example of
6022:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Edwards, T.L.; Golledge, N.R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R.E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.).
3977:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Edwards, T.L.; Golledge, N.R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R.E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.).
1033:
between 60 cm (2.0 ft) and 2.89 m (9 ft 6 in)) by 2300, which would involve some loss from the EAIS in addition to the erosion of the WAIS. This Antarctica-only sea level rise would be in addition to ice losses from the
512:
to make up global warming, and claimed that Doran's study definitively proved there was no warming in Antarctica outside of the Peninsula. Relatively few scientists responded to the book at the time, but it was subsequently brought up in a 2006
628:
1084:
The entire East Antarctic Ice Sheet holds enough ice to raise global sea levels by 53.3 m (175 ft). Its complete melting is also possible, but it would require very high warming and a lot of time: In 2022, an extensive assessment of
632:
631:
627:
2002:"Figure 9.8: Multi-model annual mean zonal temperature change (top), zonal mean temperature change range (middle) and the zonal mean change divided by the multi-model standard deviation of the mean change (bottom) for the CMIP2 simulations"
1046:
of ocean water. If the warming were to remain at elevated levels for a long time, then the East Antarctic Ice Sheet would eventually become the dominant contributor to sea level rise, simply because it contains the largest amount of ice.
5416:
Turney, Chris S. M.; Fogwill, Christopher J.; Golledge, Nicholas R.; McKay, Nicholas P.; Sebille, Erik van; Jones, Richard T.; Etheridge, David; Rubino, Mauro; Thornton, David P.; Davies, Siwan M.; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk (2020-02-11).
633:
248:. If instability is triggered before 2100, it has the potential to increase total sea level rise caused by Antarctica by tens of centimeters more, particularly with high overall warming. Ice loss from Antarctica also generates fresh
448:
on Earth is at its warmest near the surface and it becomes cooler as elevation increases. During the Antarctic winter, the surface of central Antarctica instead becomes cooler than middle layers of the atmosphere. This means that
339:
are very distinct from the WAIS. Collectively, these ice sheets have an average thickness of around 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), Even the Transantarctic Mountains are largely covered by ice, with only some mountain summits and the
5189:
Lenton, T. M.; Armstrong McKay, D.I.; Loriani, S.; Abrams, J.F.; Lade, S.J.; Donges, J.F.; Milkoreit, M.; Powell, T.; Smith, S.R.; Zimm, C.; Buxton, J.E.; Daube, Bruce C.; Krummel, Paul B.; Loh, Zoë; Luijkx, Ingrid T. (2023).
1269:
Since 2009, NASA's mission Operation IceBridge (OIB) has flown aircraft over the Antarctic Ice Sheet carrying laser and ice-penetrating radar instruments to collect data about the surface height, bedrock topography and ice
3385:
Thompson, David W. J.; Solomon, Susan; Kushner, Paul J.; England, Matthew H.; Grise, Kevin M.; Karoly, David J. (23 October 2011). "Signatures of the Antarctic ozone hole in Southern Hemisphere surface climate change".
444:(reflectivity) and adds to the albedo of the ice's sheet own bright, white surface. Antarctica is so cold that it is the only place on Earth where atmospheric temperature inversion occurs every winter. Elsewhere, the
630:
3450:
Xin, Meijiao; Li, Xichen; Stammerjohn, Sharon E; Cai, Wenju; Zhu, Jiang; Turner, John; Clem, Kyle R; Song, Chentao; Wang, Wenzhu; Hou, Yurong (17 May 2023). "A broadscale shift in antarctic temperature trends".
2044:
J. H. Christensen; B. Hewitson; A. Busuioc; A. Chen; X. Gao; I. Held; R. Jones; R.K. Kolli; W.-T. Kwon; R. Laprise; V. Magaña Rueda; L. Mearns; C. G. Menéndez; J. Räisänen; A. Rinke; A. Sarr; P. Whetton (2007).
469:
did not begin until 1981 and are typically limited to cloud-free conditions. Thus datasets representing the entire continent only began to appear by the very end of the 20th century. The only exception was the
5038:
395:
Antarctic Skin Temperature Trends between 1981 and 2007, based on thermal infrared observations made by a series of NOAA satellite sensors. Skin temperature trends do not necessarily reflect air temperature
587:
starting from 2002, and these changes were consistent with their predictions. As these patterns reversed, the East Antarctica interior demonstrated clear warming over those two decades. In particular, the
5501:
Lau, Sally C. Y.; Wilson, Nerida G.; Golledge, Nicholas R.; Naish, Tim R.; Watts, Phillip C.; Silva, Catarina N. S.; Cooke, Ira R.; Allcock, A. Louise; Mark, Felix C.; Linse, Katrin (21 December 2023).
4309:
DeConto, Robert M.; Pollard, David; Alley, Richard B.; Velicogna, Isabella; Gasson, Edward; Gomez, Natalya; Sadai, Shaina; Condron, Alan; Gilford, Daniel M.; Ashe, Erica L.; Kopp, Robert E. (May 2021).
761:
Normally, some seasonal meltwater from the Antarctic ice sheet helps to drive the lower-cell circulation. However, climate change has greatly increased meltwater amounts, which threatens to destabilize
1638:
Prentice, Michael L.; Kleman, Johan L.; Stroeven, Arjen P. (1998). "The Composite Glacial Erosional Landscape of the Northern Mcmurdo Dry Valleys: Implications for Antarctic Tertiary Glacial History".
575:, slowed or even partially reversed the warming of West Antarctica between 2000 and 2020, with the Antarctic Peninsula experiencing cooling from 2002. While a variability in those patterns is natural,
359:
if the ice sheet were not there. The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves. The WAIS is bounded by the
678:) indicated annual mass loss of only about 12 Gt from 2012–2016, due to much greater ice gain in East Antarctica than estimated earlier, which had offset most of the losses from West Antarctica. The
1579:
Antarctica is divided into the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, East Antarctic Ice Sheet and Antarctic Peninsula based on historical definitions plus information from modern-day DEM and ice velocity data.
2047:
Regional Climate Projections (In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
6323:
Barr, Iestyn D.; Spagnolo, Matteo; Rea, Brice R.; Bingham, Robert G.; Oien, Rachel P.; Adamson, Kathryn; Ely, Jeremy C.; Mullan, Donal J.; Pellitero, Ramón; Tomkins, Matt D. (21 September 2022).
5958:
Crotti, Ilaria; Quiquet, Aurélien; Landais, Amaelle; Stenni, Barbara; Wilson, David J.; Severi, Mirko; Mulvaney, Robert; Wilhelms, Frank; Barbante, Carlo; Frezzotti, Massimo (10 September 2022).
2896:
Bromwich, D. H.; Nicolas, J. P.; Monaghan, A. J.; Lazzara, M. A.; Keller, L. M.; Weidner, G. A.; Wilson, A. B. (2012). "Central West Antarctica among the most rapidly warming regions on Earth".
6053:
Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).
5810:
Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).
3040:
Ludescher, Josef; Bunde, Armin; Franzke, Christian L. E.; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (16 April 2015). "Long-term persistence enhances uncertainty about anthropogenic warming of Antarctica".
4633:
Li, Qian; England, Matthew H.; Hogg, Andrew McC.; Rintoul, Stephen R.; Morrison, Adele K. (29 March 2023). "Abyssal ocean overturning slowdown and warming driven by Antarctic meltwater".
2426:
1540:
1005:
If global warming were to reach higher levels, then the EAIS would play an increasingly larger role in sea level rise occurring after 2100. According to the most recent reports of the
1947:
Stewart, K. D.; Hogg, A. McC.; England, M. H.; Waugh, D. W. (2 November 2020). "Response of the Southern Ocean Overturning Circulation to Extreme Southern Annular Mode Conditions".
3436:
774:, which already appears to have been observably weakened by the freshening, in spite of the limited recovery during 2010s. Since the 1970s, the upper cell has strengthened by 3-4
4735:
Silvano, Alessandro; Rintoul, Stephen Rich; Peña-Molino, Beatriz; Hobbs, William Richard; van Wijk, Esmee; Aoki, Shigeru; Tamura, Takeshi; Williams, Guy Darvall (18 April 2018).
658:. The review's overall estimate was that Antarctica lost 2720 ± 1390 gigatons of ice from 1992 to 2017, averaging 109 ± 56 Gt per year. This would amount to 7.6 millimeters of
4996:
Zhou, Shenjie; Meijers, Andrew J. S.; Meredith, Michael P.; Abrahamsen, E. Povl; Holland, Paul R.; Silvano, Alessandro; Sallée, Jean-Baptiste; Østerhus, Svein (12 June 2023).
8624:
5340:
Bamber, J.L.; Riva, R.E.M.; Vermeersen, B.L.A.; LeBrocq, A.M. (14 May 2009). "Reassessment of the Potential Sea-Level Rise from a Collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet".
1666:
Berg; Tas van Ommen; Dan Zwartz; Stephen J. Roberts; Wim Vyverman; Guillaume Masse (2014). "Retreat history of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet since the Last Glacial Maximum".
4934:
Lee, Sang-Ki; Lumpkin, Rick; Gomez, Fabian; Yeager, Stephen; Lopez, Hosmay; Takglis, Filippos; Dong, Shenfu; Aguiar, Wilton; Kim, Dongmin; Baringer, Molly (13 March 2023).
3806:
King, M. A.; Bingham, R. J.; Moore, P.; Whitehouse, P. L.; Bentley, M. J.; Milne, G. A. (2012). "Lower satellite-gravimetry estimates of Antarctic sea-level contribution".
3790:, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario.
2453:
782:
per second), or 50-60% of its flow, while the lower cell has weakened by a similar amount, but because of its larger volume, these changes represent a 10-20% weakening.
3179:
Turner, John; Lu, Hua; White, Ian; King, John C.; Phillips, Tony; Hosking, J. Scott; Bracegirdle, Thomas J.; Marshall, Gareth J.; Mulvaney, Robert; Deb, Pranab (2016).
2001:
170:, with an area of 14 million square kilometres (5.4 million square miles) and an average thickness of over 2 kilometres (1.2 mi). It is the largest of
8800:
579:
had also led the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) to be stronger than it had been in the past 600 years of observations. Studies predicted a reversal in the SAM once the
5901:
Pan, Linda; Powell, Evelyn M.; Latychev, Konstantin; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Creveling, Jessica R.; Gomez, Natalya; Hoggard, Mark J.; Clark, Peter U. (30 April 2021).
629:
8468:
6544:
Diester-Haass, Liselotte; Zahn, Rainer (1996). "Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Southern Ocean: History of water mass circulation and biological productivity".
2959:
J P. Nicolas; J. P.; D. H. Bromwich (2014). "New reconstruction of Antarctic near-surface temperatures: Multidecadal trends and reliability of global reanalyses".
728:
and the base of the ice sheet once the sheet is no longer heavy enough to displace such flows. Another potential process is marine ice cliff instability, when ice
5205:
Liu, Y.; Moore, J. K.; Primeau, F.; Wang, W. L. (22 December 2022). "Reduced CO2 uptake and growing nutrient sequestration from slowing overturning circulation".
563:
East Antarctica cooled in the 1980s and 1990s, even as West Antarctica warmed (left-hand side). This trend largely reversed in 2000s and 2010s (right-hand side).
6031:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3986:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2808:
Ding, Qinghua; Eric J. Steig; David S. Battisti; Marcel Küttel (10 April 2011). "Winter warming in West Antarctica caused by central tropical Pacific warming".
2729:
2512:
1596:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
990:
interglacial ~330,000 years ago. These retreats would have added about 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) and 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) to sea level rise.
805:
models - the most advanced generation available as of early 2020s. One study suggests that the circulation would lose half its strength by 2050 under the worst
420:
during certain months of the year. At greater warming levels, this effect is likely to disappear due to increasing concentrations of water vapor over Antarctica
834:. Even if initiated in the near future, the circulation's collapse is unlikely to be complete until close to 2300, Similarly, impacts such as the reduction in
272:
warming, which is a small fraction of the 53.3 m (175 ft) contained in the full ice sheet. Around 3 °C (5.4 °F), vulnerable locations like
971:
of the land previously covered by the ice sheet would result in an additional 1 m (3 ft 3 in) of sea level rise over the following 1000 years.
967:
2000 years. The absolute minimum for the loss of West Antarctica ice is 500 years, and the potential maximum is 13,000 years. Once the ice sheet is lost, the
8641:
5259:
938:, which is much smaller than the East Antarctic ice sheet is and grounded deep below the sea level, is considered highly vulnerable. The melting of all the
1062:
shows that Wilkes Basin had likely lost enough ice to add 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) to sea levels between 115,000 and 129,000 years ago, during the
4978:
2751:
2008:
Climate change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1798:
1158:
of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation. The glaciation was favored by an interval when the Earth's orbit favored cool summers but
8077:
7903:
2786:
2188:
8072:
7154:
6209:
Fretwell, P.; Pritchard, H. D.; Vaughan, D. G.; Bamber, J. L.; Barrand, N. E.; Bell, R.; Bianchi, C.; Bingham, R. G.; Blankenship, D. D. (2013-02-28).
1285:
Fretwell, P.; Pritchard, H. D.; Vaughan, D. G.; Bamber, J. L.; Barrand, N. E.; Bell, R.; Bianchi, C.; Bingham, R. G.; Blankenship, D. D. (2013-02-28).
5392:
7940:
2046:
701:
646:
7877:
4684:
Shi, Jia-Rui; Talley, Lynne D.; Xie, Shang-Ping; Peng, Qihua; Liu, Wei (2021-11-29). "Ocean warming and accelerating Southern Ocean zonal flow".
887:
by 2100 can be limited to 0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft). If the emissions instead accelerate rapidly (top trace), sea levels could rise 5 m (
6642:
7586:
1530:
4463:. Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Vol. 2021. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1239–1241.
7819:
683:
402:
3494:
Clem, Kyle R.; Fogt, Ryan L.; Turner, John; Lintner, Benjamin R.; Marshall, Gareth J.; Miller, James R.; Renwick, James A. (August 2020).
2704:
1393:
Rignot, Eric; Mouginot, Jérémie; Scheuchl, Bernd; van den Broeke, Michiel; van Wessem, Melchior J.; Morlighem, Mathieu (22 January 2019).
901: ft) by the year 2300. Higher levels of sea level rise would involve substantial ice loss from Antarctica, including East Antarctica.
7703:
6839:
5315:
4119:
2662:
huge icebergs. That's what gets reported year after year. But the continent as a whole is getting colder, and the ice is getting thicker.
1504:
818:
304:
weighs about 24,380,000 gigatonnes. This ice is equivalent to around 61% of all fresh water on Earth. The only other currently existing
3923:"Mass balance of the Antarctic ice sheet 1992–2016: reconciling results from GRACE gravimetry with ICESat, ERS1/2 and Envisat altimetry"
618:
7962:
7920:
6964:
6390:
958:
The only way to reverse ice loss from West Antarctica once triggered is by lowering the global temperature to 1 °C (1.8 °F)
8841:
7957:
7542:
6788:
4453:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Edwards, T.L.; Golledge, N.R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R.E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021).
3318:
1006:
906:
2586:
868:
481:
Antarctic surface temperature trends, in °C/decade. Red represents areas where temperatures have increased the most since the 1950s.
8172:
7893:
7611:
7388:
5484:
Carlson, Anders E; Walczak, Maureen H; Beard, Brian L; Laffin, Matthew K; Stoner, Joseph S; Hatfield, Robert G (10 December 2018).
3794:
predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C.
2855:"Little Ice Age cold interval in West Antarctica: Evidence from borehole temperature at the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) Divide"
905:
Sea level rise will continue well after 2100, but potentially at very different rates. According to the most recent reports of the
5117:
8528:
8317:
7485:
1738:
962:
the preindustrial level. This would be 2 °C (3.6 °F) below the temperature of 2020. Other researchers suggested that a
2463:
1094:(18 °F). Another estimate suggested that at least 6 °C (11 °F) would be needed to melt two thirds of its volume.
8177:
8140:
7994:
7979:
7898:
7547:
7491:
3786:"The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. The
3625:"Developing resilience to climate change impacts in Antarctica: An evaluation of Antarctic Treaty System protected area policy"
3148:"West-warming East-cooling trend over Antarctica reversed since early 21st century driven by large-scale circulation variation"
2289:
257:
6493:
Coxall, Helen K. (2005). "Rapid stepwise onset of Antarctic glaciation and deeper calcite compensation in the Pacific Ocean".
6156:
5876:
4457:. In Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.).
8836:
7974:
3084:
2651:
2017:
1143:
802:
498:
over 42% of the continent. What became known as the "Antarctic Cooling Controversy" received further attention in 2004, when
2118:
1598:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
8858:
7814:
7809:
7355:
2937:
1155:
1086:
1022:
831:
814:
600:
8339:
8117:
7935:
7867:
7857:
7840:
7747:
7554:
7118:
5039:"Slowing deep Southern Ocean current may be linked to natural climate cycle—but melting Antarctic ice is still a concern"
4737:"Freshening by glacial meltwater enhances the melting of ice shelves and reduces the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water"
3083:
Dalaiden, Quentin; Schurer, Andrew P.; Kirchmeier-Young, Megan C.; Goosse, Hugues; Hegerl, Gabriele C. (24 August 2022).
2347:"Climate From the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, 1986–2017: Surface Air Temperature Trends and Redefined Summer Season"
1712:
7872:
4836:
Aoki, S.; Yamazaki, K.; Hirano, D.; Katsumata, K.; Shimada, K.; Kitade, Y.; Sasaki, H.; Murase, H. (15 September 2020).
8950:
8768:
8629:
8586:
8082:
7159:
2266:
Steig, Eric; Schneider, David; Rutherford, Scott; Mann, Michael E.; Comiso, Josefino; Shindell, Drew (1 January 2009).
1078:
of the newly ice-free land would also add 8 cm (3.1 in) and 57 cm (1 ft 10 in), respectively.
466:
217:
Because the East Antarctic ice sheet is over 10 times larger than the West Antarctic ice sheet and located at a higher
2544:
1050:
Sustained ice loss from the EAIS would begin with the significant erosion of the so-called subglacial basins, such as
351:
The EAIS rests on a major land mass, but the bed of the WAIS is, in places, more than 2,500 meters (8,200 feet) below
8960:
8695:
8571:
8388:
7591:
6896:
4476:
2733:
2522:
1649:
1226:
667:
998:
8928:
8566:
8546:
8493:
8445:
7507:
7255:
7169:
3146:
Xin, Meijiao; Clem, Kyle R; Turner, John; Stammerjohn, Sharon E; Zhu, Jiang; Cai, Wenju; Li, Xichen (2 June 2023).
794:
568:
490:
344:
being ice-free in the present. Some coastal areas also have exposed bedrock that is not covered by ice. During the
3431:
830:(3.1 °F) and 3 °C (5.4 °F), but there is far less certainty than with the estimates for most other
174:, containing 26.5 million cubic kilometres (6,400,000 cubic miles) of ice, which is equivalent to 61% of all
8685:
8636:
8062:
8024:
7969:
7439:
7250:
7133:
6911:
6832:
6023:
5251:
3978:
3180:
6565:
2171:
2144:
1591:
552:
between 1959 and 2000 to 0.31 °C (0.56 °F) per decade, and conclusively attributed it to increases in
465:
were deployed relatively late, and their observational record was brief for much of the 20th century. Likewise,
414:
8753:
8037:
7794:
7123:
6397:
Palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology, & palaeoecology ISSN 0031-0182, 1992, vol. 93, no1-2, pp. 85–112 (3 p.)
2755:
2517:
1806:
1039:
732:
with heights greater than 100 m (330 ft) may collapse under their own weight once they are no longer
2778:
178:
on Earth. Its surface is nearly continuous, and the only ice-free areas on the continent are the dry valleys,
8863:
8398:
7930:
7113:
7075:
6886:
6432:
Pagani, M.; Huber, M.; Liu, Z.; Bohaty, S. M.; Henderiks, J.; Sijp, W.; Krishnan, S.; Deconto, R. M. (2011).
4936:"Human-induced changes in the global meridional overturning circulation are emerging from the Southern Ocean"
3787:
3120:
2490:
2427:"The Melting (Freezing) of Antarctica; Deciphering Contradictory Climate Patterns Is Largely a Matter of Ice"
2237:
5960:"Wilkes subglacial basin ice sheet response to Southern Ocean warming during late Pleistocene interglacials"
4196:
L. Bamber, Jonathan; Oppenheimer, Michael; E. Kopp, Robert; P. Aspinall, Willy; M. Cooke, Roger (May 2019).
2400:
183:
8846:
8518:
8047:
8042:
7947:
7824:
7381:
7024:
6954:
6901:
6874:
2859:
2608:
2145:"Variability and Trends in Antarctic Surface Temperatures from In Situ and Satellite Infrared Measurements"
1535:
1014:
914:
721:
364:
241:
6776:
3921:
Zwally, H. Jay; Robbins, John W.; Luthcke, Scott B.; Loomis, Bryant D.; Rémy, Frédérique (29 March 2021).
942:
in West Antarctica would increase the total sea level rise to 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in). Mountain
793:
While these effects weren't fully caused by climate change, with some role played by the natural cycle of
299:
The bedrock topography of Antarctica, critical to understand dynamic motion of the continental ice sheets.
8057:
7910:
7350:
7138:
7070:
6959:
4383:
Pellichero, Violaine; Sallée, Jean-Baptiste; Chapman, Christopher C.; Downes, Stephanie M. (3 May 2018).
2053:
4557:
Haumann, F. Alexander; Gruber, Nicolas; Münnich, Matthias; Frenger, Ivy; Kern, Stefan (September 2016).
436:, which is far more effective at absorbing heat than any other ocean. It also has extensive year-around
413:
Parts of East Antarctica (marked in blue) are currently the only place on Earth to regularly experience
171:
8916:
8680:
8483:
8440:
8213:
8135:
7989:
7220:
7205:
7164:
7128:
6825:
5903:"Rapid postglacial rebound amplifies global sea level rise following West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse"
5561:
5042:
4838:"Reversal of freshening trend of Antarctic Bottom Water in the Australian-Antarctic Basin during 2010s"
4494:"Intense ocean freshening from melting glacier around the Antarctica during early twenty-first century"
1211:
1159:
260:
and may even contribute to its collapse, although this will likely take place over multiple centuries.
139:
6268:
Garbe, Julius; Albrecht, Torsten; Levermann, Anders; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (2020).
5657:
Garbe, Julius; Albrecht, Torsten; Levermann, Anders; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (2020).
4061:"Marine ice sheet instability amplifies and skews uncertainty in projections of future sea-level rise"
955:
also appears to be warming at rates which would make the ice sheet's collapse effectively inevitable.
720:. Other processes may cause West Antarctica to contribute more to sea level rise. One such process is
716:
By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica alone is expected to add about 11 cm (5 in) to global
8785:
8460:
8435:
8408:
8370:
8287:
8105:
7952:
7915:
7665:
7434:
7429:
7424:
6879:
6407:
5058:"Stratification constrains future heat and carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean between 30°S and 55°S"
3768:
1664:
1154:
and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a
462:
424:
Antarctica is the coldest and driest continent on Earth, as well as the one with the highest average
8300:
4979:"NOAA Scientists Detect a Reshaping of the Meridional Overturning Circulation in the Southern Ocean"
2983:
2920:
2830:
875:
8795:
8790:
8780:
8721:
8561:
8067:
8032:
7925:
7852:
7693:
7522:
7458:
7419:
7240:
7230:
7014:
6986:
6942:
6388:
Sedimentological evidence for the formation of an East Antarctic ice sheet in Eocene/Oligocene time
5503:
3085:"West Antarctic Surface Climate Changes Since the Mid-20th Century Driven by Anthropogenic Forcing"
1216:
935:
789:
Since the 1970s, the upper cell of the circulation has strengthened, while the lower cell weakened.
679:
650:
549:
528:
454:
temperature trends over Antarctica would emerge slower and be more subtle than they are elsewhere.
328:
324:
320:
195:
191:
50:
42:
236:
By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica alone would add around 11 cm (5 in) to the global
8904:
8826:
8736:
8478:
8450:
8130:
7789:
7767:
7374:
7270:
7174:
7060:
6856:
6433:
5762:
5713:
2613:
1221:
1018:
806:
596:
290:
6157:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer"
5877:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer"
4385:"The southern ocean meridional overturning in the sea-ice sector is driven by freshwater fluxes"
1162:
marker changes were too large to be explained by Antarctic ice-sheet growth alone indicating an
1066:, and about 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) between 318,000 and 339,000 years ago, during the
8503:
8323:
8265:
8182:
8167:
8052:
7698:
7644:
7639:
7634:
7629:
7624:
7619:
7245:
7065:
5587:"Unavoidable future increase in West Antarctic ice-shelf melting over the twenty-first century"
3791:
2978:
2915:
2825:
2708:
1185:
opened up. But there was no significant decline in the land-based Eastern Antarctic ice sheet.
1067:
771:
253:
5485:
2636:
1768:
821:(AMOC), which is also affected by the ocean warming and by meltwater flows from the declining
8892:
8538:
8415:
8223:
7683:
7606:
7265:
7215:
7210:
7105:
6947:
6891:
6869:
5658:
5274:
4885:
Gunn, Kathryn L.; Rintoul, Stephen R.; England, Matthew H.; Bowen, Melissa M. (25 May 2023).
4147:"Linking sea level rise and socioeconomic indicators under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways"
1463:
757:
572:
518:
345:
3181:"Absence of 21st century warming on Antarctic Peninsula consistent with natural variability"
493:
after it also indicated stronger cooling than warming between 1966 and 2000, and found that
8731:
8609:
8270:
7845:
7772:
6711:
6656:
6599:
6553:
6502:
6445:
6387:
6336:
6281:
6222:
5971:
5914:
5670:
5598:
5518:
5430:
5349:
5289:
5145:
5121:
5069:
5056:
Bourgeois, Timothée; Goris, Nadine; Schwinger, Jörg; Tjiputra, Jerry F. (17 January 2022).
5009:
4947:
4898:
4794:
4693:
4642:
4570:
4505:
4396:
4323:
4265:
4209:
4158:
4072:
4015:
3934:
3869:
3815:
3693:
3636:
3562:
3507:
3460:
3397:
3357:
3291:
3195:
3099:
3049:
2970:
2907:
2868:
2817:
2658:
The data show that one relatively small area called the Antarctic Peninsula is melting and
2358:
2346:
2205:
2158:
2090:
1956:
1911:
1847:
1478:
1349:
1298:
211:
3748:
3731:
3015:
2576:
2268:"Warming of the Antarctic ice-sheet surface since the 1957 International Geophysical Year"
1435:
8:
8955:
8748:
8523:
7757:
7752:
7340:
7317:
7275:
7225:
7200:
6974:
6932:
2458:
1097:
1035:
1030:
963:
843:
839:
826:
822:
712:
An illustration of the theory behind marine ice sheet and marine ice cliff instabilities.
494:
471:
380:
341:
332:
309:
230:
199:
160:
46:
6766:
6715:
6700:"Minimal East Antarctic Ice Sheet retreat onto land during the past eight million years"
6660:
6603:
6557:
6506:
6449:
6340:
6285:
6226:
5975:
5918:
5787:
5738:
5674:
5635:
5602:
5522:
5434:
5353:
5293:
5149:
5073:
5013:
4951:
4902:
4798:
4697:
4646:
4574:
4509:
4454:
4400:
4327:
4269:
4213:
4162:
4076:
4019:
3938:
3873:
3860:
IMBIE team (13 June 2018). "Mass balance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet from 1992 to 2017".
3819:
3697:
3640:
3566:
3511:
3464:
3401:
3361:
3295:
3199:
3103:
3053:
2974:
2911:
2872:
2821:
2362:
2209:
2162:
2094:
1960:
1915:
1851:
1482:
1363:
IMBIE team (13 June 2018). "Mass balance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet from 1992 to 2017".
1302:
1260:
951:
period 125,000 years ago, when temperatures were similar to the early 21st century. The
662:. Then, though, a 2021 analysis of data from four different research satellite systems (
391:
8576:
8508:
8425:
8275:
8240:
8197:
8192:
8187:
7762:
7260:
6743:
6680:
6623:
6526:
6469:
6305:
6092:
5992:
5959:
5935:
5902:
5857:
5694:
5616:
5542:
5461:
5419:"Early Last Interglacial ocean warming drove substantial ice mass loss from Antarctica"
5418:
5373:
5307:
5230:
5171:
5090:
5057:
4998:"Slowdown of Antarctic Bottom Water export driven by climatic wind and sea-ice changes"
4862:
4837:
4818:
4761:
4736:
4717:
4666:
4612:
4534:
4493:
4417:
4384:
4365:
4291:
4232:
4197:
4145:; Schleussner, Carl-Friedrich; Meinshausen, Malte; Mengel, Matthias (1 November 2017).
4095:
4060:
4036:
4003:
3903:
3839:
3662:
3605:
3586:
3531:
3476:
3413:
3323:
3219:
3125:
3065:
2996:
2961:
2581:
2431:
2382:
2320:
2229:
2149:
2006:
1982:
1929:
1868:
1835:
1496:
1419:
1394:
851:
671:
523:
335:(also in West Antarctica) to be the third ice sheet in Antarctica, in part because its
252:, at a rate of 1100-1500 billion tons (GT) per year. This meltwater dilutes the saline
6580:
6054:
5811:
4887:"Recent reduced abyssal overturning and ventilation in the Australian Antarctic Basin"
2485:
2023:
8810:
8473:
8218:
7984:
7777:
7740:
7527:
7481:
7322:
7195:
6864:
6735:
6727:
6672:
6615:
6518:
6473:
6461:
6370:
6362:
6324:
6309:
6297:
6250:
6096:
6084:
5997:
5940:
5868:
5861:
5849:
5841:
5792:
5743:
5698:
5686:
5620:
5546:
5534:
5504:"Genomic evidence for West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse during the Last Interglacial"
5466:
5448:
5393:"Discovery of recent Antarctic ice sheet collapse raises fears of a new global flood"
5365:
5234:
5222:
5175:
5095:
4916:
4867:
4822:
4810:
4766:
4721:
4709:
4670:
4658:
4616:
4604:
4596:
4539:
4521:
4472:
4422:
4369:
4357:
4349:
4311:
4295:
4237:
4100:
4041:
3895:
3831:
3773:
3711:
3666:
3654:
3590:
3578:
3535:
3523:
3480:
3388:
3260:
3223:
3211:
3129:
3069:
2898:
2647:
2386:
2374:
2345:
Obryk, M. K.; Doran, P. T.; Fountain, A. G.; Myers, M.; McKay, C. P. (16 July 2020).
2312:
2221:
2196:
2013:
1986:
1933:
1873:
1802:
1693:
1645:
1326:
1151:
1075:
1043:
968:
642:
584:
509:
417:
268:
6747:
6684:
6269:
6150:
6148:
6146:
6144:
5377:
5311:
3907:
3730:
Verity; Schädel, Christina; Strauss, Jens; Treat, Claire; Turetsky, Merritt (2022).
3550:
3495:
3417:
3346:"Southern Hemisphere climate response to ozone changes and greenhouse gas increases"
3278:
Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John T.; Branstator, Grant; Phillips, Adam S. (2014).
3000:
2328:
1679:
1500:
535:
also issued statements affirming the strength of climate science after the hearing.
240:. Further, the way WAIS is located deep below the sea level leaves it vulnerable to
8853:
8420:
8403:
8344:
8235:
7999:
7723:
7596:
7532:
7312:
6719:
6664:
6647:
6627:
6607:
6561:
6510:
6453:
6352:
6344:
6289:
6240:
6230:
6191:
6128:
6120:
6074:
6066:
5987:
5979:
5930:
5922:
5831:
5823:
5782:
5774:
5733:
5725:
5678:
5606:
5526:
5456:
5438:
5357:
5297:
5214:
5191:
5161:
5153:
5085:
5077:
5017:
4955:
4906:
4857:
4849:
4802:
4756:
4748:
4701:
4650:
4586:
4578:
4529:
4513:
4464:
4412:
4404:
4339:
4331:
4281:
4273:
4227:
4217:
4176:
4166:
4090:
4080:
4031:
4023:
3942:
3885:
3877:
3843:
3823:
3743:
3701:
3644:
3570:
3515:
3468:
3405:
3365:
3299:
3250:
3203:
3159:
3115:
3107:
3057:
2988:
2925:
2876:
2835:
2707:. U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. 2006-09-28. Archived from
2366:
2304:
2233:
2213:
2166:
2098:
1972:
1964:
1919:
1863:
1855:
1683:
1675:
1620:
1486:
1414:
1406:
1372:
1316:
1306:
1202:
1090:
1058:, which are located in vulnerable locations below the sea level. Evidence from the
855:
499:
376:
226:
225:
freezing on top of the ice sheet), yet the ice loss from the WAIS glaciers such as
6530:
4198:"Ice sheet contributions to future sea-level rise from structured expert judgment"
2324:
409:
8805:
8726:
8690:
8619:
8593:
8581:
8498:
8430:
8305:
8162:
7784:
7735:
7713:
7296:
7080:
7055:
6981:
6937:
6927:
6394:
6141:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3962:
3673:
3649:
3624:
1745:. Goddard Earth Sciences Division Projects: Cryospheric Sciences. 19 January 2024
1608:
Swithinbank, Charles (1988). Williams Jr., Richard S.; Ferrigno, Jane G. (eds.).
1236:
1071:
744:
604:
576:
458:
245:
5803:
5778:
5729:
4460:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I
2609:"Media goofed on Antarctic data / Global warming interpretation irks scientists"
1170:
may have played a role as well though models of the changes suggest declining CO
8758:
8614:
8556:
8551:
8393:
8282:
8014:
8009:
8004:
7862:
7799:
7537:
7517:
7476:
7397:
7306:
7301:
7291:
7190:
7004:
6348:
6124:
6048:
6046:
6044:
6042:
6040:
5983:
5611:
5586:
5218:
5081:
5022:
4997:
4960:
4935:
4911:
4886:
4853:
4705:
4654:
4591:
4517:
4408:
4335:
4181:
4171:
4146:
4027:
3732:"Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic"
3706:
3681:
3472:
3164:
3147:
2807:
1924:
1900:"Low Antarctic continental climate sensitivity due to high ice sheet orography"
1899:
1231:
1051:
884:
880:
717:
659:
553:
450:
433:
368:
360:
336:
237:
38:
6723:
6293:
6055:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points"
6013:
6011:
5812:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points"
5682:
4558:
4468:
4277:
3959:
3881:
3574:
3519:
3061:
2992:
1859:
1376:
8944:
8831:
8763:
8488:
8310:
8295:
8230:
8125:
7235:
7029:
6803:
6790:
6366:
6254:
6088:
6033:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: 1270–1272.
6019:
5845:
5763:"The potential for stabilizing Amundsen Sea glaciers via underwater curtains"
5452:
5246:
5244:
4920:
4814:
4713:
4600:
4525:
4450:
4353:
3988:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: 1270–1272.
3974:
3658:
3582:
3527:
2643:
2378:
2043:
1697:
1609:
1330:
1167:
835:
798:
724:, which describes the potential for warm water currents to enter between the
687:
504:
222:
6581:"Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO
6457:
6070:
6037:
5827:
5530:
5443:
5361:
4222:
4085:
2676:
2217:
1563:
1410:
708:
8716:
8513:
8157:
8147:
7804:
7688:
7601:
6739:
6676:
6619:
6522:
6465:
6374:
6301:
6195:
6008:
6001:
5944:
5926:
5853:
5796:
5754:
5747:
5705:
5690:
5538:
5470:
5369:
5099:
4871:
4770:
4752:
4662:
4608:
4543:
4426:
4361:
4241:
4142:
4104:
4045:
3999:
3899:
3835:
3715:
3264:
3215:
2680:
2600:
2316:
2225:
1877:
1688:
1181:
epoch, approximately five to three million years ago; during this time the
1055:
979:
974:
952:
544:
477:
372:
277:
273:
263:
6235:
6211:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica"
6210:
6052:
5809:
5578:
5302:
5275:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica"
5241:
5037:
Silvano, Alessandro; Meijers, Andrew J. S.; Zhou, Shenjie (17 June 2023).
2627:
2477:
1491:
1464:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica"
1311:
1287:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica"
1286:
559:
295:
28:
8743:
8260:
8252:
7512:
7039:
7019:
6906:
6133:
5477:
5266:
5157:
4806:
4559:"Sea-ice transport driving Southern Ocean salinity and its recent trends"
4492:
Pan, Xianliang L.; Li, Bofeng F.; Watanabe, Yutaka W. (10 January 2022).
3855:
3853:
3760:
3378:
3370:
3345:
3303:
3111:
3076:
2952:
2881:
2854:
2659:
2370:
2283:
2281:
2261:
2259:
2180:
1968:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1641:
Ecosystem Dynamics in a Polar Desert: the Mcmurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica
1059:
987:
779:
580:
486:
432:, so its air doesn't conduct heat well. Further, it is surrounded by the
429:
175:
74:
6668:
6611:
6514:
6079:
5951:
5836:
5585:
A. Naughten, Kaitlin; R. Holland, Paul; De Rydt, Jan (23 October 2023).
5166:
4582:
4344:
4302:
4286:
3827:
3207:
2852:
2570:
2568:
1940:
1177:
The Western Antarctic ice sheet declined somewhat during the warm early
1110:
331:(WAIS). Some glaciologists consider ice cover over the relatively small
8775:
8152:
7096:
6969:
6848:
5650:
5487:
Absence of the West Antarctic ice sheet during the last interglaciation
5333:
4783:
4312:"The Paris Climate Agreement and future sea-level rise from Antarctica"
4248:
4189:
4134:
3992:
3947:
3922:
3914:
3890:
3722:
3430:
Meredith, M.; Sommerkorn, M.; Cassotta, S; Derksen, C.; et al. (2019).
3141:
3139:
2697:
2136:
2103:
2078:
1977:
1119:
702:
Climate change in Antarctica § 21st century ice loss and sea level rise
589:
461:
across the continent, with only two in the continent's interior, while
445:
203:
164:
100:
66:
6731:
6699:
6357:
6245:
6202:
5714:"Feasibility of ice sheet conservation using seabed anchored curtains"
5562:"Antarctic octopus DNA reveals ice sheet collapse closer than thought"
5226:
5118:"Landmark study projects 'dramatic' changes to Southern Ocean by 2050"
4458:
4195:
4059:
Robel, Alexander A.; Seroussi, Hélène; Roe, Gerard H. (23 July 2019).
3850:
2308:
2278:
2256:
2111:
1884:
1820:
1595:
1321:
7730:
7009:
5894:
5494:
3799:
3487:
3437:
IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate
3409:
3082:
2929:
2846:
2839:
2668:
2565:
2549:
1836:"Unmasking the negative greenhouse effect over the Antarctic Plateau"
1639:
1127:
847:
767:
737:
655:
514:
425:
352:
305:
249:
218:
167:
90:
70:
6103:
3279:
3255:
3238:
3136:
2288:
Doran, Peter T.; Priscu, JC; Lyons, WB; et al. (January 2002).
1624:
1392:
785:
690:
over its surface, which then freezes and helps to build up more ice.
7034:
6434:"Drop in carbon dioxide levels led to polar ice sheet, study finds"
6261:
6017:
4677:
4448:
3972:
2740:
2267:
1182:
1178:
1115:
775:
733:
725:
540:
207:
179:
138:
2.2 km (1.4 mi) on average, 4.9 km (3.0 mi) at
5188:
4140:
3277:
2767:
NASA image by Robert Simmon, based on data from Joey Comiso, GSFC.
2705:"America Reacts To Speech Debunking Media Global Warming Alarmism"
7708:
7366:
6174:
5134:
3039:
1395:"Four decades of Antarctic Ice Sheet mass balance from 1979–2017"
1163:
1131:
943:
663:
437:
187:
34:
6643:"Obliquity-paced Pliocene West Antarctic ice sheet oscillations"
6325:"60 million years of glaciation in the Transantarctic Mountains"
3623:
Hughes, Kevin A.; Convey, Peter; Turner, John (1 October 2021).
3496:"Record warming at the South Pole during the past three decades"
1834:
Sejas, Sergio A.; Taylor, Patrick C.; Cai, Ming (11 July 2018).
1531:"Scientists chart history of Greenland Ice Sheet for first time"
1138:
The icing of Antarctica began in the Late Palaeocene or middle
8711:
5761:
Wolovick, Michael; Moore, John; Keefer, Bowie (27 March 2023).
5712:
Wolovick, Michael; Moore, John; Keefer, Bowie (27 March 2023).
5055:
2958:
1142:
between 60 and 45.5 million years ago and escalated during the
1139:
1123:
1063:
1026:
983:
948:
675:
441:
356:
313:
33:
South facing visualization of the Antarctic ice sheet from the
6408:"New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation"
6208:
5258:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 2021.
4734:
2895:
2290:"Antarctic climate cooling and terrestrial ecosystem response"
1284:
1096:
If the entire ice sheet were to disappear, then the change in
797:, they are likely to worsen in the future. As of early 2020s,
403:
Climate change in Antarctica § Temperature and weather changes
8625:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
7718:
6817:
5636:"Sea-level rise: West Antarctic ice shelf melt 'unavoidable'"
4995:
4382:
4120:"Collapse may not always be inevitable for marine ice cliffs"
3728:
3384:
2189:"Interpretation of Recent Southern Hemisphere Climate Change"
1010:
910:
729:
60:
6267:
5656:
5584:
4308:
2265:
6566:
10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0163:EOTITS>2.3.CO;2
5339:
4982:
4835:
4556:
2747:
2172:
10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013<1674:vatias>2.0.co;2
1794:
1772:
1021:, where the anthropogenic emissions increase continuously,
619:
Climate change in Antarctica § Observed changes in ice mass
567:
Local changes in atmospheric circulation patterns like the
532:
521:, and Peter Doran felt compelled to publish a statement in
78:
6180:
6109:
5957:
5900:
5415:
4692:(12). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1090–1097.
3920:
3805:
8801:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
5483:
3682:"Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading"
3319:"Ozone Hole Is Now Seen as a Cause for Antarctic Cooling"
3280:"Seasonal aspects of the recent pause in surface warming"
3016:"West Antarctic Ice Sheet warming twice earlier estimate"
2404:
939:
3145:
1898:
Singh, Hansi A.; Polvani, Lorenzo M. (10 January 2020).
1105:
4884:
3549:
Stammerjohn, Sharon E.; Scambos, Ted A. (August 2020).
2674:
2344:
1946:
947:
because it appears to have already occurred during the
869:
Climate change in Antarctica § Long-term sea level rise
858:, are also expected to unfold over multiple centuries.
348:, many of those areas had been covered by ice as well.
6322:
5500:
1637:
1619:. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper (1386-B).
8642:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
4933:
4004:"The paradigm shift in Antarctic ice sheet modelling"
3493:
2853:
A. Orsi; Bruce D. Cornuelle; J. Severinghaus (2012).
2486:"Guess what? Antarctica's getting colder, not warmer"
2287:
6431:
4632:
4444:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4436:
1564:"Antarctica and Greenland Ice Sheet Drainage Basins"
1192:
6024:"Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change"
5760:
5711:
5204:
5030:
4254:
3979:"Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change"
3449:
2545:"Antarctic cooling pushing life closer to the edge"
1769:"The "Unstable" West Antarctic Ice Sheet: A Primer"
766:Ice loss from Antarctica also generates more fresh
637:
Mass change of ice in Antarctica between 2002–2020.
7155:Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs
5036:
3680:Hausfather, Zeke; Peters, Glen (29 January 2020).
3622:
3548:
2635:
2401:"Scientific winds blow hot and cold in Antarctica"
2005:
1114:Polar climatic temperature changes throughout the
1101:and a correspondingly low impact on global albedo.
752:
748:0.5 cm to global sea levels per year by 2100.
6543:
4433:
3606:"Antarctica appears to have broken a heat record"
3178:
3121:20.500.11820/64ecd5a1-af19-43e8-9d34-da7274cc4ae0
2752:"Two Decades of Temperature Change in Antarctica"
1799:"Two Decades of Temperature Change in Antarctica"
457:Moreover, there were fewer than twenty permanent
8942:
8842:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
4683:
4058:
3679:
2510:
1584:
817:. This would be similar to some projections for
682:can still gain mass in spite of warming because
647:Ice Sheet Mass Balance Inter-comparison Exercise
527:decrying the misinterpretation of his work. The
428:. Because Antarctica is so dry, there is little
6154:
5874:
5423:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4202:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4065:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3343:
2483:
2186:
1719:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration
1601:
1399:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5273:Fretwell, P.; et al. (28 February 2013).
4376:
2187:Thompson, David W. J.; Solomon, Susan (2002).
1833:
1761:
1658:
1617:Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World
1462:Fretwell, P.; et al. (28 February 2013).
1457:
1455:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1280:
1278:
1261:"Antarctic Bedrock: Bedmap2 Surface Elevation"
982:- a key part of the Wilkes Basin - during the
7587:History of climate change policy and politics
7382:
6833:
5049:
4491:
3954:and Giovinetto (Zwally and Giovinetto, 2011).
3344:Shindell, Drew T.; Schmidt, Gavin A. (2004).
2776:
2012:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1999:
1644:. American Geophysical Union. pp. 1–38.
883:emissions significantly (lowest trace), then
694:
386:
5111:
5109:
2754:. Earth Observatory Newsroom. Archived from
2351:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
2077:Chapman, William L.; Walsh, John E. (2007).
2076:
1897:
1713:"East and West: The Geography of Antarctica"
1631:
1388:
1386:
1025:, would result in Antarctica alone losing a
809:, with greater losses occurring afterwards.
684:effects of climate change on the water cycle
611:
383:are the two most important outlet glaciers.
149:Ongoing net loss of ice, regionally variable
7704:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
6270:"The hysteresis of the Antarctic Ice Sheet"
6155:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022).
5875:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022).
5659:"The hysteresis of the Antarctic Ice Sheet"
4973:
4971:
4728:
2574:
2513:"Antarctica Gives Mixed Signals on Warming"
1731:
1607:
1452:
1337:
1275:
999:East Antarctic Ice Sheet § Long-term future
819:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
595:Models predict that under the most intense
8923:
8911:
8368:
7389:
7375:
6840:
6826:
5490:. American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting.
3859:
3736:Annual Review of Environment and Resources
2732:. British Antarctic Survey. Archived from
2451:
1739:"Antarctic and Greenland Drainage Systems"
1522:
1427:
1362:
556:concentrations caused by human activity.
319:The Antarctic ice sheet is divided by the
8663:
8469:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
7612:United Nations Climate Change conferences
6356:
6244:
6234:
6132:
6078:
5991:
5934:
5835:
5786:
5737:
5610:
5460:
5442:
5301:
5165:
5106:
5089:
5021:
4959:
4910:
4861:
4760:
4628:
4626:
4590:
4533:
4416:
4343:
4285:
4231:
4221:
4180:
4170:
4094:
4084:
4035:
3946:
3889:
3747:
3705:
3648:
3369:
3254:
3163:
3119:
2982:
2919:
2880:
2829:
2170:
2102:
1976:
1923:
1867:
1687:
1490:
1418:
1383:
1320:
1310:
1254:
1252:
1007:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
907:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
8173:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
5633:
5272:
5182:
4989:
4968:
4829:
4455:"Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change"
3766:
2675:Eric Steig; Gavin Schmidt (2004-12-03).
2633:
2606:
2272:Arts & Sciences Faculty Publications
1704:
1561:
1528:
1461:
1356:
1109:
973:
874:
784:
756:
707:
645:of all previous studies and data by the
624:
558:
476:
408:
390:
294:
8529:National Adaptation Programme of Action
8318:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
6698:Shakun, Jeremy D.; et al. (2018).
6578:
5198:
4927:
4787:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
4117:
3013:
2079:"A Synthesis of Antarctic Temperatures"
850:in the Southern Ocean with a potential
842:, with a corresponding increase in the
190:. However, it is often subdivided into
8943:
8178:Economics of climate change mitigation
8141:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
7664:
7492:Scientific consensus on climate change
6697:
6492:
5390:
4940:Communications Earth & Environment
4623:
3998:
3603:
2253:PDF available at Annular Modes Website
2142:
1787:
1249:
1029:of 1.46 m (4 ft 9 in) (
593:record of 17.5 °C in March 2015.
258:Southern Ocean overturning circulation
256:, which weakens the lower cell of the
202:(AP), due to the large differences in
8837:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
8662:
8367:
8103:
7663:
7575:
7456:
7408:
7370:
6821:
6640:
5321:from the original on 16 February 2020
5192:The Global Tipping Points Report 2023
5115:
3749:10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847
3604:Larson, Christina (8 February 2020).
3316:
3236:
2935:
2789:from the original on 13 November 2014
2779:"Warming in Antarctica Looks Certain"
2424:
2000:John Theodore, Houghton, ed. (2001).
1510:from the original on 16 February 2020
1258:
1106:Situation during geologic time scales
323:into two unequal sections called the
8859:Representative Concentration Pathway
7810:Tipping points in the climate system
7486:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
7346:
6641:Naish, Timothy; et al. (2009).
2746:
2677:"Antarctic cooling, global warming?"
2511:Bijal P. Trivedi (25 January 2002).
1793:
1710:
1562:Shepherd, Andrew (18 January 2024).
1555:
1543:from the original on 7 December 2023
1433:
1174:levels to have been more important.
1122:of Antarctica toward the end of the
1087:tipping points in the climate system
832:tipping points in the climate system
815:tipping points in the climate system
778:(Sv; represents a flow of 1 million
244:, which is difficult to simulate in
8630:Nationally determined contributions
8340:Individual action on climate change
7555:World energy supply and consumption
4258:npj Climate and Atmospheric Science
2938:"The heat is on in West Antarctica"
2589:from the original on April 11, 2009
1904:npj Climate and Atmospheric Science
1840:npj Climate and Atmospheric Science
861:
508:which alleged a conspiracy amongst
13:
8769:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
7396:
5634:Poynting, Mark (24 October 2023).
3629:Environmental Science & Policy
3014:McGrath, Matt (23 December 2012).
986:~120,000 years ago and an earlier
467:satellite temperature measurements
14:
8972:
8696:Satellite temperature measurement
8301:forestry for carbon sequestration
7592:History of climate change science
5559:
5262:from the original on 7 July 2021.
2777:Kenneth Chang (21 January 2009).
2454:"Antarctic cools in warmer world"
1711:Hale, George (19 November 2014).
1227:List of glaciers in the Antarctic
1166:of some size. The opening of the
1144:Eocene–Oligocene extinction event
934:Over even longer timescales, the
668:European Remote-Sensing Satellite
649:(IMBIE) estimated an increase in
8922:
8910:
8899:
8898:
8886:
8547:Climate Change Performance Index
7345:
7336:
7335:
7095:
6759:
6691:
6634:
6572:
6537:
6486:
6425:
6400:
6381:
6316:
5627:
5553:
5409:
5384:
5252:"Anticipating Future Sea Levels"
5136:warming and Greenland melting".
3767:Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022).
3551:"Warming reaches the South Pole"
2936:Steig, Eric (23 December 2012).
2452:Derbyshire, David (2002-01-14).
1195:
997:This section is an excerpt from
867:This section is an excerpt from
795:Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation
700:This section is an excerpt from
617:This section is an excerpt from
569:Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation
401:This section is an excerpt from
59:
27:
8686:Instrumental temperature record
8637:Sustainable Development Goal 13
5194:(Report). University of Exeter.
5128:
4878:
4777:
4550:
4485:
4111:
4052:
3616:
3597:
3542:
3443:
3424:
3337:
3310:
3271:
3230:
3172:
3033:
3007:
2889:
2801:
2770:
2722:
2537:
2504:
2445:
2418:
2393:
2338:
2070:
2037:
1993:
1680:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.07.024
1529:Robinson, Ben (15 April 2019).
1436:"Antarctic ice volume measured"
1265:Scientific Visualization Studio
753:Weakening Antarctic circulation
583:began to recover following the
8754:Climate variability and change
8104:
7795:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
6847:
4151:Environmental Research Letters
4118:Perkins, Sid (June 17, 2021).
3152:Environmental Research Letters
2484:Peter N. Spotts (2002-01-18).
1352:. National Science Foundation.
1146:about 34 million years ago. CO
1126:, thawing near the end of the
172:Earth's two current ice sheets
16:Earth's southern polar ice cap
1:
8864:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
8399:Climate emergency declaration
5116:Logan, Tyne (29 March 2023).
3788:Australian Academy of Science
3317:Chang, Kenneth (2002-05-03).
2730:"Climate Change—Our Research"
2607:Davidson, Keay (2002-02-04).
2491:The Christian Science Monitor
2425:Chang, Kenneth (2002-04-02).
1434:Amos, Jonathan (2013-03-08).
1243:
8847:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
8073:Middle East and North Africa
7409:
5138:Geophysical Research Letters
3650:10.1016/j.envsci.2021.05.023
3092:Geophysical Research Letters
2860:Geophysical Research Letters
2143:Comiso, Josefino C. (2000).
1949:Geophysical Research Letters
1536:The University of Manchester
1259:Starr, Cindy (4 June 2013).
1015:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
915:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
722:marine ice sheet instability
284:
242:marine ice sheet instability
7:
7576:
6579:DeConto, Robert M. (2003).
5391:Voosen, Paul (2018-12-18).
3769:"Explainer: IPCC Scenarios"
2177:PDF available at AMS Online
2119:"Impacts of climate change"
1188:
1150:levels were then about 760
214:between the three regions.
10:
8977:
8681:Global surface temperature
8572:Popular culture depictions
8484:Ecosystem-based adaptation
8214:Carbon capture and storage
8136:Carbon offsets and credits
7457:
6349:10.1038/s41467-022-33310-z
6125:10.1038/s41467-022-32847-3
5984:10.1038/s41467-022-32847-3
5612:10.1038/s41558-023-01818-x
5219:10.1038/s41558-022-01555-7
5082:10.1038/s41467-022-27979-5
5023:10.1038/s41558-023-01667-8
4961:10.1038/s43247-023-00727-3
4912:10.1038/s41558-023-01667-8
4854:10.1038/s41598-020-71290-6
4706:10.1038/s41558-021-01212-5
4655:10.1038/s41586-023-05762-w
4518:10.1038/s41598-021-04231-6
4409:10.1038/s41467-018-04101-2
4336:10.1038/s41586-021-03427-0
4028:10.1038/s41467-018-05003-z
3707:10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3
3473:10.1007/s00382-023-06825-4
3432:"Chapter 3: Polar Regions"
3239:"Cooling in the Antarctic"
2634:Crichton, Michael (2004).
2575:Peter Doran (2006-07-27).
1925:10.1038/s41612-020-00143-w
1668:Quaternary Science Reviews
1212:Bibliography of Antarctica
1160:oxygen isotope ratio cycle
996:
866:
699:
695:Near-future sea level rise
616:
463:automatic weather stations
400:
387:Warming over the ice sheet
288:
8951:Environment of Antarctica
8893:Climate change portal
8880:
8819:
8786:Extreme event attribution
8704:
8673:
8669:
8658:
8602:
8537:
8459:
8409:School Strike for Climate
8381:
8377:
8363:
8332:
8288:Climate-smart agriculture
8249:
8206:
8116:
8112:
8099:
8023:
7886:
7833:
7676:
7672:
7659:
7582:
7571:
7500:
7469:
7465:
7452:
7435:Climate change adaptation
7430:Climate change mitigation
7425:Effects of climate change
7415:
7404:
7331:
7284:
7183:
7147:
7104:
7093:
7048:
6997:
6920:
6855:
6724:10.1038/s41586-018-0155-6
6294:10.1038/s41586-020-2727-5
6161:climatetippingpoints.info
5881:climatetippingpoints.info
5779:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad103
5730:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad053
5683:10.1038/s41586-020-2727-5
5256:EarthObservatory.NASA.gov
4469:10.1017/9781009157896.011
4278:10.1038/s41612-020-0121-5
3882:10.1038/s41586-018-0179-y
3575:10.1038/s41558-020-0827-8
3520:10.1038/s41558-020-0815-z
3062:10.1007/s00382-015-2582-5
2993:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00733.1
2646:, New York. p. 109.
1860:10.1038/s41612-018-0031-y
1377:10.1038/s41586-018-0179-y
612:Ice loss and accumulation
184:Antarctic mountain ranges
145:
134:
106:
96:
86:
58:
26:
21:
8961:Ice sheets of Antarctica
8796:Global warming potential
8603:International agreements
8250:Preserving and enhancing
7694:Arctic methane emissions
7616:Years in climate change
7523:Greenhouse gas emissions
7420:Causes of climate change
7005:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
4172:10.1088/1748-9326/aa92b6
3165:10.1088/1748-9326/acd8d4
2462:. London. Archived from
2052:(Report). Archived from
1805:Newsroom. Archived from
1610:"Glaciers of Antarctica"
1217:Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf
936:West Antarctic ice sheet
680:East Antarctic ice sheet
651:West Antarctic ice sheet
550:West Antarctic Ice Sheet
529:British Antarctic Survey
365:Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf
329:West Antarctic Ice Sheet
325:East Antarctic Ice Sheet
321:Transantarctic Mountains
196:West Antarctic ice sheet
192:East Antarctic ice sheet
51:East Antarctic ice sheet
43:West Antarctic ice sheet
8827:Climate change scenario
8479:Disaster risk reduction
8131:Carbon emission trading
7941:U.S. insurance industry
7921:Civilizational collapse
7768:sea surface temperature
6458:10.1126/science.1203909
6071:10.1126/science.abn7950
5828:10.1126/science.abn7950
5531:10.1126/science.ade0664
5444:10.1073/pnas.1902469117
5362:10.1126/science.1169335
5144:(23): 12, 252–12, 260.
4223:10.1073/pnas.1817205116
4086:10.1073/pnas.1904822116
3237:Steig, Eric J. (2016).
2614:San Francisco Chronicle
2218:10.1126/science.1069270
1590:IPCC, 2021: Annex VII:
1411:10.1073/pnas.1812883116
1222:Geography of Antarctica
1019:climate change scenario
807:climate change scenario
597:climate change scenario
485:A 2002 analysis led by
327:(EAIS) and the smaller
291:Geography of Antarctica
73:in white, its floating
8820:Research and modelling
8504:Nature-based solutions
8324:Nature-based solutions
8266:Carbon dioxide removal
8183:Fossil fuel divestment
8168:Climate risk insurance
8078:Small island countries
7699:Arctic sea ice decline
6196:10.1126/sciadv.abf7787
5927:10.1126/sciadv.abf7787
4753:10.1126/sciadv.aap9467
3792:Climate Action Tracker
2123:Discovering Antarctica
1135:
1068:Marine Isotope Stage 9
991:
902:
790:
772:Antarctic bottom water
763:
713:
638:
564:
517:hearing in support of
482:
421:
397:
300:
254:Antarctic bottom water
77:in gray, and ice-free
8781:Earth's energy budget
8664:Background and theory
8552:Climate crisis (term)
8224:Fossil fuel phase-out
8118:Economics and finance
8083:by individual country
8025:By country and region
8000:Security and conflict
7995:Psychological impacts
7684:Abrupt climate change
7607:Charles David Keeling
7440:By country and region
6329:Nature Communications
6236:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013
6113:Nature Communications
5964:Nature Communications
5591:Nature Climate Change
5303:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013
5207:Nature Climate Change
5062:Nature Communications
5002:Nature Climate Change
4891:Nature Climate Change
4686:Nature Climate Change
4389:Nature Communications
4008:Nature Communications
3927:Journal of Glaciology
3555:Nature Climate Change
3500:Nature Climate Change
3284:Nature Climate Change
1955:(22): e2020GL091103.
1492:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013
1312:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013
1113:
977:
878:
788:
760:
711:
636:
573:Southern Annular Mode
562:
519:climate change denial
480:
412:
394:
346:Late Cenozoic Ice Age
298:
186:, and sparse coastal
8610:Glasgow Climate Pact
8271:Carbon sequestration
7846:Mass mortality event
6414:. September 13, 2009
5158:10.1002/2016GL070457
4807:10.1029/2020JC016998
3371:10.1029/2004GL020724
3304:10.1038/NCLIMATE2341
3112:10.1029/2022GL099543
2882:10.1029/2012GL051260
2758:on 20 September 2008
2371:10.1029/2019JD032180
2334:on 11 December 2004.
1969:10.1029/2020GL091103
1809:on 20 September 2008
1017:), the most intense
489:received widespread
371:that drain into the
212:glacier mass balance
163:covering 98% of the
69:, with the grounded
8749:Climate sensitivity
8524:The Adaptation Fund
7980:Infectious diseases
7887:Social and economic
7318:Robert Falcon Scott
6975:South magnetic pole
6933:Antarctic Peninsula
6928:Biogeographic realm
6800: /
6777:Antarctic ice sheet
6716:2018Natur.558..284S
6669:10.1038/nature07867
6661:2009Natur.458..322N
6612:10.1038/nature01290
6604:2003Natur.421..245D
6558:1996Geo....24..163D
6515:10.1038/nature03135
6507:2005Natur.433...53C
6450:2011Sci...334.1261P
6444:(6060): 1261–1264.
6341:2022NatCo..13.5526B
6286:2020Natur.585..538G
6227:2013TCry....7..375F
5976:2022NatCo..13.5328C
5919:2021SciA....7.7787P
5675:2020Natur.585..538G
5603:2023NatCC..13.1222N
5523:2023Sci...382.1384L
5517:(6677): 1384–1389.
5435:2020PNAS..117.3996T
5354:2009Sci...324..901B
5294:2013TCry....7..375F
5150:2016GeoRL..4312252B
5074:2022NatCo..13..340B
5014:2023NatCC..13..537G
4952:2023ComEE...4...69L
4903:2023NatCC..13..537G
4799:2021JGRC..12616998R
4698:2021NatCC..11.1090S
4647:2023Natur.615..841L
4592:20.500.11850/120143
4583:10.1038/nature19101
4575:2016Natur.537...89H
4510:2022NatSR..12..383P
4401:2018NatCo...9.1789P
4328:2021Natur.593...83D
4270:2020npCAS...3...18H
4214:2019PNAS..11611195B
4208:(23): 11195–11200.
4182:20.500.11850/230713
4163:2017ERL....12k4002N
4141:Nauels, Alexander;
4077:2019PNAS..11614887R
4071:(30): 14887–14892.
4020:2018NatCo...9.2728P
3939:2021JGlac..67..533Z
3874:2018Natur.558..219I
3828:10.1038/nature11621
3820:2012Natur.491..586K
3698:2020Natur.577..618H
3641:2021ESPol.124...12H
3567:2020NatCC..10..710S
3512:2020NatCC..10..762C
3465:2023ClDy...61.4623X
3459:(9–10): 4623–4641.
3402:2011NatGe...4..741T
3362:2004GeoRL..3118209S
3296:2014NatCC...4..911T
3208:10.1038/nature18645
3200:2016Natur.535..411T
3104:2022GeoRL..4999543D
3054:2016ClDy...46..263L
2975:2014JCli...27.8070N
2912:2013NatGe...6..139B
2873:2012GeoRL..39.9710O
2822:2011NatGe...4..398D
2525:on January 28, 2002
2518:National Geographic
2459:The Daily Telegraph
2363:2020JGRD..12532180O
2210:2002Sci...296..895T
2163:2000JCli...13.1674C
2095:2007JCli...20.4096C
2059:on 15 December 2007
1961:2020GeoRL..4791103S
1916:2020npCAS...3...39S
1852:2018npCAS...1...17S
1743:NASA Earth Sciences
1717:Operation IceBridge
1483:2013TCry....7..375F
1303:2013TCry....7..375F
1098:ice-albedo feedback
1036:Greenland ice sheet
1031:confidence interval
964:climate engineering
840:Southern Hemisphere
827:Southern Hemisphere
823:Greenland ice sheet
495:McMurdo Dry Valleys
472:Antarctic Peninsula
440:, which has a high
381:Pine Island Glacier
342:McMurdo Dry Valleys
333:Antarctic Peninsula
310:Greenland ice sheet
231:Pine Island Glacier
200:Antarctic Peninsula
161:continental glacier
157:Antarctic ice sheet
47:Antarctic Peninsula
22:Antarctic Ice Sheet
8320:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
8292:Forest management
8276:Direct air capture
8241:Sustainable energy
8198:Net zero emissions
8193:Low-carbon economy
8188:Green Climate Fund
7975:Indigenous peoples
7878:Plant biodiversity
7666:Effects and issues
7256:Telecommunications
7170:Territorial claims
6393:2012-06-16 at the
5822:(6611): eabn7950.
4842:Scientific Reports
4498:Scientific Reports
3948:10.1017/jog.2021.8
3350:Geophys. Res. Lett
3324:The New York Times
2962:Journal of Climate
2783:The New York Times
2582:The New York Times
2577:"Cold, Hard Facts"
2432:The New York Times
2150:Journal of Climate
2104:10.1175/JCLI4236.1
2083:Journal of Climate
1136:
992:
903:
846:, or a decline of
791:
764:
714:
672:GRACE and GRACE-FO
639:
565:
524:The New York Times
510:climate scientists
483:
422:
398:
301:
65:Geographic map of
8938:
8937:
8876:
8875:
8872:
8871:
8811:Radiative forcing
8654:
8653:
8650:
8649:
8474:Adaptive capacity
8359:
8358:
8355:
8354:
8219:Energy transition
8095:
8094:
8091:
8090:
7815:Tropical cyclones
7741:Urban heat island
7655:
7654:
7567:
7566:
7563:
7562:
7528:Carbon accounting
7482:Greenhouse effect
7448:
7447:
7364:
7363:
7323:Ernest Shackleton
7251:Research stations
7196:Antarctic English
7165:National programs
7160:Military activity
7134:COVID-19 pandemic
7091:
7090:
6960:Floristic Kingdom
6865:Antarctic sea ice
6710:(7709): 284–287.
6655:(7236): 322–328.
6598:(6920): 245–249.
6280:(7826): 538–544.
5669:(7826): 538–544.
5597:(11): 1222–1228.
5348:(5929): 901–903.
4641:(7954): 841–847.
3868:(7709): 219–222.
3814:(7425): 586–589.
3389:Nature Geoscience
3249:(7612): 358–359.
3194:(7612): 411–415.
2969:(21): 8070–8093.
2899:Nature Geoscience
2810:Nature Geoscience
2653:978-0-06-621413-9
2553:. 16 January 2002
2309:10.1038/nature710
2204:(5569): 895–899.
2157:(10): 1674–1696.
2089:(16): 4096–4117.
2019:978-0-521-80767-8
1803:Earth Observatory
1371:(7709): 219–222.
1076:Isostatic rebound
1044:thermal expansion
1042:, as well as the
1040:mountain glaciers
969:isostatic rebound
879:If countries cut
856:marine ecosystems
643:systematic review
634:
585:Montreal Protocol
418:greenhouse effect
269:Isostatic rebound
153:
152:
130: sq mi)
8968:
8926:
8925:
8914:
8913:
8902:
8901:
8891:
8890:
8889:
8854:Paleoclimatology
8671:
8670:
8660:
8659:
8421:Ecological grief
8404:Climate movement
8379:
8378:
8365:
8364:
8345:Plant-based diet
8236:Renewable energy
8114:
8113:
8101:
8100:
7936:Economic impacts
7868:Invasive species
7724:Coastal flooding
7674:
7673:
7661:
7660:
7597:Svante Arrhenius
7573:
7572:
7543:from agriculture
7533:Carbon footprint
7518:Greenhouse gases
7467:
7466:
7454:
7453:
7406:
7405:
7391:
7384:
7377:
7368:
7367:
7349:
7348:
7339:
7338:
7313:James Clark Ross
7285:Famous explorers
7099:
6918:
6917:
6842:
6835:
6828:
6819:
6818:
6815:
6814:
6812:
6811:
6810:
6805:
6801:
6798:
6797:
6796:
6793:
6763:
6762:
6752:
6751:
6695:
6689:
6688:
6638:
6632:
6631:
6589:
6576:
6570:
6569:
6541:
6535:
6534:
6490:
6484:
6483:
6481:
6480:
6429:
6423:
6422:
6420:
6419:
6404:
6398:
6385:
6379:
6378:
6360:
6320:
6314:
6313:
6265:
6259:
6258:
6248:
6238:
6206:
6200:
6199:
6184:Science Advances
6178:
6172:
6171:
6169:
6167:
6152:
6139:
6138:
6136:
6111:interglacials".
6107:
6101:
6100:
6082:
6050:
6035:
6034:
6028:
6018:Fox-Kemper, B.;
6015:
6006:
6005:
5995:
5955:
5949:
5948:
5938:
5907:Science Advances
5898:
5892:
5891:
5889:
5887:
5872:
5866:
5865:
5839:
5807:
5801:
5800:
5790:
5758:
5752:
5751:
5741:
5709:
5703:
5702:
5654:
5648:
5647:
5645:
5643:
5631:
5625:
5624:
5614:
5582:
5576:
5575:
5573:
5572:
5557:
5551:
5550:
5508:
5498:
5492:
5491:
5481:
5475:
5474:
5464:
5446:
5429:(8): 3996–4006.
5413:
5407:
5406:
5404:
5403:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5337:
5331:
5330:
5328:
5326:
5320:
5305:
5279:
5270:
5264:
5263:
5248:
5239:
5238:
5202:
5196:
5195:
5186:
5180:
5179:
5169:
5132:
5126:
5125:
5113:
5104:
5103:
5093:
5053:
5047:
5046:
5043:The Conversation
5034:
5028:
5027:
5025:
4993:
4987:
4986:
4985:. 29 March 2023.
4975:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4931:
4925:
4924:
4914:
4882:
4876:
4875:
4865:
4833:
4827:
4826:
4781:
4775:
4774:
4764:
4741:Science Advances
4732:
4726:
4725:
4681:
4675:
4674:
4630:
4621:
4620:
4594:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4537:
4489:
4483:
4482:
4449:Fox-Kemper, B.;
4446:
4431:
4430:
4420:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4347:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4289:
4252:
4246:
4245:
4235:
4225:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4174:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4129:
4127:
4115:
4109:
4108:
4098:
4088:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4039:
4002:(16 July 2018).
3996:
3990:
3989:
3983:
3973:Fox-Kemper, B.;
3970:
3957:
3956:
3950:
3933:(263): 533–559.
3918:
3912:
3911:
3893:
3857:
3848:
3847:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3783:
3781:
3764:
3758:
3757:
3751:
3726:
3720:
3719:
3709:
3692:(7792): 618–20.
3677:
3671:
3670:
3652:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3546:
3540:
3539:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3453:Climate Dynamics
3447:
3441:
3428:
3422:
3421:
3410:10.1038/ngeo1296
3382:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3331:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3258:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3185:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3143:
3134:
3133:
3123:
3089:
3080:
3074:
3073:
3048:(1–2): 263–271.
3042:Climate Dynamics
3037:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3026:
3011:
3005:
3004:
2986:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2933:
2930:10.1038/ngeo1671
2923:
2893:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2840:10.1038/ngeo1129
2833:
2805:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2774:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2763:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2672:
2666:
2664:
2641:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2572:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2521:. Archived from
2508:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2498:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2471:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2412:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2327:. Archived from
2303:(6871): 517–20.
2294:
2285:
2276:
2275:
2263:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2242:
2236:. Archived from
2193:
2184:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2058:
2051:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2022:. Archived from
2011:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1980:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1927:
1895:
1882:
1881:
1871:
1831:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1752:
1750:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1691:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1614:
1605:
1599:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1509:
1494:
1468:
1459:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1446:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1422:
1405:(4): 1095–1103.
1390:
1381:
1380:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1346:
1335:
1334:
1324:
1314:
1282:
1273:
1272:
1256:
1205:
1203:Geography portal
1200:
1199:
1198:
1091:Science Magazine
930:
929:
925:
922:
900:
899:
895:
892:
862:Long-term future
635:
543:and the revised
500:Michael Crichton
459:weather stations
451:greenhouse gases
377:Thwaites Glacier
308:on Earth is the
246:ice sheet models
233:is far greater.
126:
125:
116:
115:
63:
31:
19:
18:
8976:
8975:
8971:
8970:
8969:
8967:
8966:
8965:
8941:
8940:
8939:
8934:
8887:
8885:
8868:
8815:
8806:Orbital forcing
8700:
8665:
8646:
8620:Paris Agreement
8598:
8594:Warming stripes
8533:
8499:Managed retreat
8494:Loss and damage
8455:
8389:Business action
8373:
8351:
8328:
8251:
8245:
8202:
8163:Climate finance
8108:
8087:
8019:
7882:
7858:Extinction risk
7834:Flora and fauna
7829:
7790:Permafrost thaw
7785:Ozone depletion
7714:Extreme weather
7668:
7651:
7578:
7559:
7496:
7461:
7444:
7411:
7400:
7395:
7365:
7360:
7327:
7297:Richard E. Byrd
7280:
7241:Protected areas
7179:
7143:
7100:
7087:
7044:
6998:Bodies of Water
6993:
6982:West Antarctica
6938:East Antarctica
6916:
6851:
6846:
6808:
6806:
6802:
6799:
6794:
6791:
6789:
6787:
6786:
6784:
6783:
6782:
6764:
6760:
6755:
6696:
6692:
6639:
6635:
6587:
6584:
6577:
6573:
6542:
6538:
6501:(7021): 53–57.
6491:
6487:
6478:
6476:
6430:
6426:
6417:
6415:
6406:
6405:
6401:
6395:Wayback Machine
6386:
6382:
6321:
6317:
6266:
6262:
6207:
6203:
6179:
6175:
6165:
6163:
6153:
6142:
6108:
6104:
6051:
6038:
6026:
6016:
6009:
5956:
5952:
5899:
5895:
5885:
5883:
5873:
5869:
5808:
5804:
5759:
5755:
5710:
5706:
5655:
5651:
5641:
5639:
5632:
5628:
5583:
5579:
5570:
5568:
5558:
5554:
5506:
5499:
5495:
5482:
5478:
5414:
5410:
5401:
5399:
5389:
5385:
5338:
5334:
5324:
5322:
5318:
5277:
5271:
5267:
5250:
5249:
5242:
5203:
5199:
5187:
5183:
5133:
5129:
5114:
5107:
5054:
5050:
5035:
5031:
4994:
4990:
4977:
4976:
4969:
4932:
4928:
4883:
4879:
4834:
4830:
4782:
4778:
4747:(4): eaap9467.
4733:
4729:
4682:
4678:
4631:
4624:
4569:(7618): 89–92.
4555:
4551:
4490:
4486:
4479:
4447:
4434:
4381:
4377:
4322:(7857): 83–89.
4307:
4303:
4253:
4249:
4194:
4190:
4139:
4135:
4125:
4123:
4116:
4112:
4057:
4053:
3997:
3993:
3981:
3971:
3960:
3919:
3915:
3858:
3851:
3804:
3800:
3779:
3777:
3765:
3761:
3727:
3723:
3678:
3674:
3621:
3617:
3602:
3598:
3547:
3543:
3492:
3488:
3448:
3444:
3429:
3425:
3396:(11): 741–749.
3383:
3379:
3342:
3338:
3329:
3327:
3315:
3311:
3290:(10): 911–916.
3276:
3272:
3256:10.1038/535358a
3235:
3231:
3183:
3177:
3173:
3144:
3137:
3087:
3081:
3077:
3038:
3034:
3024:
3022:
3012:
3008:
2984:10.1.1.668.6627
2957:
2953:
2943:
2941:
2934:
2921:10.1.1.394.1974
2894:
2890:
2851:
2847:
2831:10.1.1.459.8689
2806:
2802:
2792:
2790:
2775:
2771:
2761:
2759:
2745:
2741:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2714:
2712:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2685:
2683:
2673:
2669:
2654:
2632:
2628:
2619:
2617:
2605:
2601:
2592:
2590:
2573:
2566:
2556:
2554:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2528:
2526:
2509:
2505:
2496:
2494:
2482:
2478:
2469:
2467:
2450:
2446:
2437:
2435:
2423:
2419:
2410:
2408:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2343:
2339:
2331:
2292:
2286:
2279:
2264:
2257:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2191:
2185:
2181:
2141:
2137:
2127:
2125:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2075:
2071:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2038:
2029:
2027:
2020:
1998:
1994:
1945:
1941:
1896:
1885:
1832:
1821:
1812:
1810:
1792:
1788:
1778:
1776:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1748:
1746:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1722:
1720:
1709:
1705:
1689:1854/LU-5767317
1663:
1659:
1652:
1636:
1632:
1625:10.3133/pp1386B
1612:
1606:
1602:
1589:
1585:
1572:
1570:
1560:
1556:
1546:
1544:
1527:
1523:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1466:
1460:
1453:
1444:
1442:
1432:
1428:
1391:
1384:
1361:
1357:
1348:
1347:
1338:
1283:
1276:
1257:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1237:Subglacial lake
1201:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1173:
1149:
1130:and subsequent
1108:
1103:
1102:
1081:
1072:ice sheet model
1002:
994:
993:
927:
923:
920:
918:
897:
893:
890:
888:
872:
864:
755:
750:
749:
745:Paris Agreement
705:
697:
692:
691:
625:
622:
614:
609:
608:
605:Paris Agreement
577:ozone depletion
406:
389:
369:outlet glaciers
337:drainage basins
293:
287:
123:
121:
113:
111:
82:
54:
49:, to the left;
17:
12:
11:
5:
8974:
8964:
8963:
8958:
8953:
8936:
8935:
8933:
8932:
8920:
8908:
8896:
8881:
8878:
8877:
8874:
8873:
8870:
8869:
8867:
8866:
8861:
8856:
8851:
8850:
8849:
8839:
8834:
8829:
8823:
8821:
8817:
8816:
8814:
8813:
8808:
8803:
8798:
8793:
8788:
8783:
8778:
8773:
8772:
8771:
8761:
8759:Cloud feedback
8756:
8751:
8746:
8741:
8740:
8739:
8734:
8729:
8724:
8714:
8708:
8706:
8702:
8701:
8699:
8698:
8693:
8688:
8683:
8677:
8675:
8667:
8666:
8656:
8655:
8652:
8651:
8648:
8647:
8645:
8644:
8639:
8634:
8633:
8632:
8627:
8617:
8615:Kyoto Protocol
8612:
8606:
8604:
8600:
8599:
8597:
8596:
8591:
8590:
8589:
8584:
8579:
8569:
8567:Media coverage
8564:
8559:
8557:Climate spiral
8554:
8549:
8543:
8541:
8535:
8534:
8532:
8531:
8526:
8521:
8516:
8511:
8506:
8501:
8496:
8491:
8486:
8481:
8476:
8471:
8465:
8463:
8457:
8456:
8454:
8453:
8448:
8446:Public opinion
8443:
8438:
8433:
8428:
8423:
8418:
8413:
8412:
8411:
8401:
8396:
8394:Climate action
8391:
8385:
8383:
8375:
8374:
8361:
8360:
8357:
8356:
8353:
8352:
8350:
8349:
8348:
8347:
8336:
8334:
8330:
8329:
8327:
8326:
8321:
8315:
8314:
8313:
8308:
8306:REDD and REDD+
8303:
8298:
8290:
8285:
8283:Carbon farming
8280:
8279:
8278:
8273:
8263:
8257:
8255:
8247:
8246:
8244:
8243:
8238:
8233:
8228:
8227:
8226:
8216:
8210:
8208:
8204:
8203:
8201:
8200:
8195:
8190:
8185:
8180:
8175:
8170:
8165:
8160:
8155:
8150:
8145:
8144:
8143:
8133:
8128:
8122:
8120:
8110:
8109:
8097:
8096:
8093:
8092:
8089:
8088:
8086:
8085:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8065:
8060:
8055:
8050:
8045:
8040:
8035:
8029:
8027:
8021:
8020:
8018:
8017:
8015:Water security
8012:
8010:Water scarcity
8007:
8005:Urban flooding
8002:
7997:
7992:
7987:
7982:
7977:
7972:
7967:
7966:
7965:
7955:
7950:
7945:
7944:
7943:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7918:
7913:
7908:
7907:
7906:
7901:
7890:
7888:
7884:
7883:
7881:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7863:Forest dieback
7860:
7855:
7850:
7849:
7848:
7837:
7835:
7831:
7830:
7828:
7827:
7822:
7817:
7812:
7807:
7802:
7800:Sea level rise
7797:
7792:
7787:
7782:
7781:
7780:
7775:
7773:stratification
7770:
7765:
7760:
7755:
7745:
7744:
7743:
7738:
7728:
7727:
7726:
7716:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7696:
7691:
7686:
7680:
7678:
7670:
7669:
7657:
7656:
7653:
7652:
7650:
7649:
7648:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7614:
7609:
7604:
7599:
7594:
7589:
7583:
7580:
7579:
7569:
7568:
7565:
7564:
7561:
7560:
7558:
7557:
7552:
7551:
7550:
7545:
7540:
7538:Carbon leakage
7535:
7530:
7520:
7515:
7510:
7504:
7502:
7498:
7497:
7495:
7494:
7489:
7479:
7477:Climate system
7473:
7471:
7463:
7462:
7450:
7449:
7446:
7445:
7443:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7422:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7402:
7401:
7398:Climate change
7394:
7393:
7386:
7379:
7371:
7362:
7361:
7359:
7358:
7353:
7343:
7332:
7329:
7328:
7326:
7325:
7320:
7315:
7310:
7307:Ui-te-Rangiora
7304:
7302:Douglas Mawson
7299:
7294:
7292:Roald Amundsen
7288:
7286:
7282:
7281:
7279:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7263:
7258:
7253:
7248:
7243:
7238:
7233:
7231:Gateway cities
7228:
7223:
7218:
7213:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7191:Antarctica Day
7187:
7185:
7181:
7180:
7178:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7151:
7149:
7145:
7144:
7142:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7110:
7108:
7102:
7101:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7088:
7086:
7085:
7084:
7083:
7078:
7073:
7063:
7061:Microorganisms
7058:
7052:
7050:
7046:
7045:
7043:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7025:List of rivers
7022:
7017:
7012:
7007:
7001:
6999:
6995:
6994:
6992:
6991:
6990:
6989:
6979:
6978:
6977:
6967:
6962:
6957:
6955:Extreme points
6952:
6951:
6950:
6945:
6935:
6930:
6924:
6922:
6915:
6914:
6909:
6904:
6899:
6894:
6889:
6884:
6883:
6882:
6877:
6875:Climate change
6867:
6861:
6859:
6853:
6852:
6845:
6844:
6837:
6830:
6822:
6765:
6758:
6757:
6756:
6754:
6753:
6690:
6633:
6582:
6571:
6536:
6485:
6424:
6399:
6380:
6315:
6260:
6221:(1): 375–393.
6215:The Cryosphere
6201:
6173:
6140:
6102:
6036:
6007:
5950:
5893:
5867:
5802:
5773:(4): pgad103.
5753:
5724:(3): pgad053.
5704:
5649:
5626:
5577:
5560:AHMED, Issam.
5552:
5493:
5476:
5408:
5383:
5332:
5282:The Cryosphere
5265:
5240:
5197:
5181:
5127:
5105:
5048:
5029:
4988:
4967:
4926:
4897:(6): 537–544.
4877:
4828:
4776:
4727:
4676:
4622:
4549:
4484:
4477:
4432:
4375:
4301:
4247:
4188:
4157:(11): 114002.
4133:
4110:
4051:
3991:
3958:
3913:
3849:
3798:
3759:
3721:
3672:
3615:
3596:
3561:(8): 710–711.
3541:
3506:(8): 762–770.
3486:
3442:
3423:
3377:
3356:(18): L18209.
3336:
3309:
3270:
3229:
3171:
3135:
3075:
3032:
3006:
2951:
2888:
2845:
2816:(6): 398–403.
2800:
2769:
2739:
2736:on 2006-02-07.
2721:
2696:
2667:
2652:
2626:
2599:
2564:
2536:
2503:
2476:
2444:
2417:
2392:
2337:
2277:
2255:
2179:
2135:
2110:
2069:
2036:
2018:
1992:
1939:
1883:
1819:
1786:
1760:
1730:
1703:
1657:
1650:
1630:
1600:
1583:
1554:
1521:
1471:The Cryosphere
1451:
1426:
1382:
1355:
1336:
1297:(1): 375–393.
1291:The Cryosphere
1274:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1232:Ross Ice Shelf
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1190:
1187:
1171:
1147:
1134:re-glaciation.
1107:
1104:
1052:Totten Glacier
1003:
995:
885:sea level rise
881:greenhouse gas
873:
865:
863:
860:
799:climate models
754:
751:
718:sea level rise
706:
698:
696:
693:
660:sea level rise
623:
615:
613:
610:
554:greenhouse gas
502:wrote a novel
491:media coverage
434:Southern Ocean
407:
399:
388:
385:
361:Ross Ice Shelf
355:. It would be
286:
283:
238:sea level rise
151:
150:
147:
143:
142:
136:
132:
131:
108:
104:
103:
98:
94:
93:
88:
84:
83:
64:
56:
55:
53:, background).
45:, foreground;
39:Southern Ocean
37:sector of the
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8973:
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8952:
8949:
8948:
8946:
8931:
8930:
8921:
8919:
8918:
8909:
8907:
8906:
8897:
8895:
8894:
8883:
8882:
8879:
8865:
8862:
8860:
8857:
8855:
8852:
8848:
8845:
8844:
8843:
8840:
8838:
8835:
8833:
8832:Climate model
8830:
8828:
8825:
8824:
8822:
8818:
8812:
8809:
8807:
8804:
8802:
8799:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8779:
8777:
8774:
8770:
8767:
8766:
8765:
8764:Cloud forcing
8762:
8760:
8757:
8755:
8752:
8750:
8747:
8745:
8742:
8738:
8735:
8733:
8730:
8728:
8725:
8723:
8720:
8719:
8718:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8709:
8707:
8703:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8678:
8676:
8672:
8668:
8661:
8657:
8643:
8640:
8638:
8635:
8631:
8628:
8626:
8623:
8622:
8621:
8618:
8616:
8613:
8611:
8608:
8607:
8605:
8601:
8595:
8592:
8588:
8585:
8583:
8580:
8578:
8575:
8574:
8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8555:
8553:
8550:
8548:
8545:
8544:
8542:
8540:
8539:Communication
8536:
8530:
8527:
8525:
8522:
8520:
8519:Vulnerability
8517:
8515:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8500:
8497:
8495:
8492:
8490:
8489:Flood control
8487:
8485:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8470:
8467:
8466:
8464:
8462:
8458:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8442:
8439:
8437:
8434:
8432:
8429:
8427:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8417:
8414:
8410:
8407:
8406:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8390:
8387:
8386:
8384:
8380:
8376:
8372:
8366:
8362:
8346:
8343:
8342:
8341:
8338:
8337:
8335:
8331:
8325:
8322:
8319:
8316:
8312:
8311:reforestation
8309:
8307:
8304:
8302:
8299:
8297:
8296:afforestation
8294:
8293:
8291:
8289:
8286:
8284:
8281:
8277:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8268:
8267:
8264:
8262:
8259:
8258:
8256:
8254:
8248:
8242:
8239:
8237:
8234:
8232:
8231:Nuclear power
8229:
8225:
8222:
8221:
8220:
8217:
8215:
8212:
8211:
8209:
8205:
8199:
8196:
8194:
8191:
8189:
8186:
8184:
8181:
8179:
8176:
8174:
8171:
8169:
8166:
8164:
8161:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8151:
8149:
8146:
8142:
8139:
8138:
8137:
8134:
8132:
8129:
8127:
8126:Carbon budget
8124:
8123:
8121:
8119:
8115:
8111:
8107:
8102:
8098:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8051:
8049:
8046:
8044:
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8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8030:
8028:
8026:
8022:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7986:
7983:
7981:
7978:
7976:
7973:
7971:
7968:
7964:
7963:Mental health
7961:
7960:
7959:
7956:
7954:
7951:
7949:
7946:
7942:
7939:
7938:
7937:
7934:
7932:
7929:
7927:
7924:
7922:
7919:
7917:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7905:
7904:United States
7902:
7900:
7897:
7896:
7895:
7892:
7891:
7889:
7885:
7879:
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7856:
7854:
7851:
7847:
7844:
7843:
7842:
7839:
7838:
7836:
7832:
7826:
7823:
7821:
7818:
7816:
7813:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7779:
7776:
7774:
7771:
7769:
7766:
7764:
7761:
7759:
7758:deoxygenation
7756:
7754:
7753:acidification
7751:
7750:
7749:
7746:
7742:
7739:
7737:
7734:
7733:
7732:
7729:
7725:
7722:
7721:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7687:
7685:
7682:
7681:
7679:
7675:
7671:
7667:
7662:
7658:
7646:
7643:
7641:
7638:
7636:
7633:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7617:
7615:
7613:
7610:
7608:
7605:
7603:
7600:
7598:
7595:
7593:
7590:
7588:
7585:
7584:
7581:
7574:
7570:
7556:
7553:
7549:
7548:from wetlands
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7534:
7531:
7529:
7526:
7525:
7524:
7521:
7519:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7509:
7508:Deforestation
7506:
7505:
7503:
7499:
7493:
7490:
7487:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7474:
7472:
7468:
7464:
7460:
7455:
7451:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7417:
7414:
7407:
7403:
7399:
7392:
7387:
7385:
7380:
7378:
7373:
7372:
7369:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7344:
7342:
7334:
7333:
7330:
7324:
7321:
7319:
7316:
7314:
7311:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7290:
7289:
7287:
7283:
7277:
7274:
7272:
7269:
7267:
7264:
7262:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7252:
7249:
7247:
7244:
7242:
7239:
7237:
7236:Midwinter Day
7234:
7232:
7229:
7227:
7224:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7188:
7186:
7182:
7176:
7175:Treaty System
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7152:
7150:
7146:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7111:
7109:
7107:
7103:
7098:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7068:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7053:
7051:
7047:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7030:McMurdo Sound
7028:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7002:
7000:
6996:
6988:
6985:
6984:
6983:
6980:
6976:
6973:
6972:
6971:
6968:
6966:
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6934:
6931:
6929:
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6903:
6900:
6898:
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6893:
6890:
6888:
6885:
6881:
6878:
6876:
6873:
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6871:
6868:
6866:
6863:
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6860:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6843:
6838:
6836:
6831:
6829:
6824:
6823:
6820:
6816:
6813:
6780:
6779:
6778:
6772:
6768:
6749:
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6737:
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6729:
6725:
6721:
6717:
6713:
6709:
6705:
6701:
6694:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6650:
6649:
6644:
6637:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6605:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6586:
6575:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
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6547:
6540:
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6489:
6475:
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6463:
6459:
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6451:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6428:
6413:
6409:
6403:
6396:
6392:
6389:
6384:
6376:
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6368:
6364:
6359:
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6350:
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6342:
6338:
6334:
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6326:
6319:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6299:
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6283:
6279:
6275:
6271:
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6232:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6205:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6177:
6162:
6158:
6151:
6149:
6147:
6145:
6135:
6134:10278/5003813
6130:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6106:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6081:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6049:
6047:
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6041:
6032:
6025:
6021:
6014:
6012:
6003:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5985:
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5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5954:
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5920:
5916:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5897:
5882:
5878:
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5843:
5838:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
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5813:
5806:
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5794:
5789:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5757:
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5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5708:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5672:
5668:
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5653:
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5604:
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5532:
5528:
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5512:
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5497:
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5468:
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5450:
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5412:
5398:
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5387:
5379:
5375:
5371:
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5343:
5336:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5304:
5299:
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5283:
5276:
5269:
5261:
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5253:
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5245:
5236:
5232:
5228:
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5216:
5212:
5208:
5201:
5193:
5185:
5177:
5173:
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5159:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5131:
5123:
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5024:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
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4992:
4984:
4980:
4974:
4972:
4962:
4957:
4953:
4949:
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4913:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4881:
4873:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
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4772:
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4723:
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4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
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4478:9781009157896
4474:
4470:
4466:
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4402:
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4379:
4371:
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4199:
4192:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4164:
4160:
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4152:
4148:
4144:
4143:Rogelj, Joeri
4137:
4122:. ScienceNews
4121:
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4087:
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4078:
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4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
4000:Pattyn, Frank
3995:
3987:
3980:
3976:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3955:
3949:
3944:
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3458:
3454:
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3407:
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3399:
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3359:
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3326:
3325:
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3266:
3262:
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3248:
3244:
3240:
3233:
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3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3175:
3166:
3161:
3158:(6): 064034.
3157:
3153:
3149:
3142:
3140:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3079:
3071:
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3017:
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2998:
2994:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2963:
2955:
2940:. RealClimate
2939:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2892:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2867:(9): L09710.
2866:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2849:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2804:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2773:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2735:
2731:
2725:
2711:on 2013-03-05
2710:
2706:
2700:
2693:
2682:
2678:
2671:
2665:First Edition
2663:
2661:
2655:
2649:
2645:
2644:HarperCollins
2640:
2639:
2638:State of Fear
2630:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2603:
2588:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2571:
2569:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2524:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2507:
2493:
2492:
2487:
2480:
2466:on 2014-06-02
2465:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2448:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2421:
2406:
2402:
2396:
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2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2284:
2282:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2260:
2243:on 2011-08-11
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2198:
2190:
2183:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2139:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2055:
2048:
2040:
2026:on 2016-03-30
2025:
2021:
2015:
2010:
2009:
2003:
1996:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1917:
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1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1879:
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1845:
1841:
1837:
1830:
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1826:
1824:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1775:. 12 May 2014
1774:
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1707:
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1651:9781118668313
1647:
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1255:
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1168:Drake Passage
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1156:tipping point
1153:
1145:
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1089:published in
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837:
836:precipitation
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688:precipitation
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505:State of Fear
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72:
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57:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
30:
25:
20:
8927:
8915:
8903:
8884:
8717:Carbon cycle
8674:Measurements
8369:Society and
8253:carbon sinks
8158:Climate debt
8148:Carbon price
7970:Human rights
7805:Season creep
7763:heat content
7689:Anoxic event
7602:James Hansen
7221:Firefighting
7206:Demographics
7129:Colonization
7124:World War II
6785:
6775:
6774:
6773:profile for
6770:
6707:
6703:
6693:
6652:
6646:
6636:
6595:
6591:
6574:
6549:
6545:
6539:
6498:
6494:
6488:
6477:. Retrieved
6441:
6437:
6427:
6416:. Retrieved
6411:
6402:
6383:
6332:
6328:
6318:
6277:
6273:
6263:
6218:
6214:
6204:
6187:
6183:
6176:
6164:. Retrieved
6160:
6116:
6112:
6105:
6080:10871/131584
6062:
6058:
6030:
6020:Hewitt, H.T.
5967:
5963:
5953:
5910:
5906:
5896:
5884:. Retrieved
5880:
5870:
5837:10871/131584
5819:
5815:
5805:
5770:
5766:
5756:
5721:
5717:
5707:
5666:
5662:
5652:
5640:. Retrieved
5629:
5594:
5590:
5580:
5569:. Retrieved
5565:
5555:
5514:
5510:
5496:
5486:
5479:
5426:
5422:
5411:
5400:. Retrieved
5396:
5386:
5345:
5341:
5335:
5323:. Retrieved
5285:
5281:
5268:
5255:
5210:
5206:
5200:
5184:
5167:10150/622754
5141:
5137:
5130:
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5051:
5032:
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4848:(1): 14415.
4845:
4841:
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4685:
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4638:
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4566:
4562:
4552:
4501:
4497:
4487:
4459:
4451:Hewitt, H.T.
4392:
4388:
4378:
4345:10871/125843
4319:
4315:
4304:
4287:10356/143900
4261:
4257:
4250:
4205:
4201:
4191:
4154:
4150:
4136:
4124:. Retrieved
4113:
4068:
4064:
4054:
4011:
4007:
3994:
3985:
3975:Hewitt, H.T.
3952:
3930:
3926:
3916:
3865:
3861:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3785:
3780:30 September
3778:. Retrieved
3772:
3762:
3755:Agreement...
3753:
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3599:
3558:
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3426:
3393:
3387:
3380:
3353:
3349:
3339:
3328:. Retrieved
3322:
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3283:
3273:
3246:
3242:
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3191:
3187:
3174:
3155:
3151:
3095:
3091:
3078:
3045:
3041:
3035:
3023:. Retrieved
3019:
3009:
2966:
2960:
2954:
2942:. Retrieved
2903:
2897:
2891:
2864:
2858:
2848:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2791:. Retrieved
2782:
2772:
2760:. Retrieved
2756:the original
2742:
2734:the original
2724:
2713:. Retrieved
2709:the original
2699:
2690:
2684:. Retrieved
2681:Real Climate
2670:
2657:
2637:
2629:
2618:. Retrieved
2612:
2602:
2591:. Retrieved
2580:
2555:. Retrieved
2548:
2539:
2527:. Retrieved
2523:the original
2516:
2506:
2495:. Retrieved
2489:
2479:
2468:. Retrieved
2464:the original
2457:
2447:
2436:. Retrieved
2430:
2420:
2409:. Retrieved
2407:. 2002-01-25
2395:
2354:
2350:
2340:
2329:the original
2300:
2296:
2271:
2245:. Retrieved
2238:the original
2201:
2195:
2182:
2154:
2148:
2138:
2126:. Retrieved
2122:
2113:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2061:. Retrieved
2054:the original
2039:
2028:. Retrieved
2024:the original
2007:
1995:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1907:
1903:
1843:
1839:
1811:. Retrieved
1807:the original
1789:
1777:. Retrieved
1763:
1754:
1747:. Retrieved
1742:
1733:
1721:. Retrieved
1716:
1706:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1640:
1633:
1616:
1603:
1586:
1578:
1571:. Retrieved
1567:
1557:
1545:. Retrieved
1534:
1524:
1512:. Retrieved
1474:
1470:
1443:. Retrieved
1439:
1429:
1402:
1398:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1350:"Ice Sheets"
1294:
1290:
1268:
1264:
1176:
1137:
1083:
1080:
1056:Wilkes Basin
1049:
1004:
980:Cook Glacier
959:
957:
953:Amundsen Sea
933:
931: ft)).
904:
811:
792:
780:cubic meters
765:
715:
566:
545:Byrd Station
537:
522:
503:
484:
456:
423:
373:Amundsen Sea
350:
318:
302:
278:Aurora Basin
274:Wilkes Basin
264:Paleoclimate
262:
235:
216:
198:(WAIS), and
156:
154:
127:
117:
8744:Carbon sink
8722:atmospheric
8587:video games
8261:Blue carbon
7894:Agriculture
7873:Marine life
7820:Water cycle
7778:temperature
7513:Fossil fuel
7309:(legendary)
7216:Field camps
7114:Expeditions
7040:Weddell Sea
7020:Lake Vostok
7015:Lake Mercer
6887:Ice shelves
6807: /
6335:(1): 5526.
5970:(1): 5328.
5008:: 701–709.
4395:(1): 1789.
4014:(1): 2728.
3891:2268/225208
3742:: 343–371.
3025:16 February
1978:1885/274441
1060:Pleistocene
988:Pleistocene
978:Retreat of
854:of certain
825:. However,
738:ice shelves
656:ice shelves
599:, known as
581:ozone layer
487:Peter Doran
430:water vapor
176:fresh water
75:ice shelves
8956:Glaciology
8945:Categories
8776:Cryosphere
8737:permafrost
8509:Resilience
8461:Adaptation
8436:Litigation
8426:Governance
8371:adaptation
8153:Carbon tax
8106:Mitigation
8043:Antarctica
7931:Disability
7119:Heroic Age
6970:South Pole
6880:Heat waves
6849:Antarctica
6552:(2): 163.
6479:2014-01-28
6418:2023-06-06
6358:2164/19437
6246:1808/18763
5767:PNAS Nexus
5718:PNAS Nexus
5642:26 October
5571:2023-12-23
5402:2018-12-28
5288:(1): 390.
5068:(1): 340.
4504:(1): 383.
3330:2013-04-13
2944:20 January
2906:(2): 139.
2762:2008-08-14
2715:2013-04-13
2686:2008-08-14
2620:2013-04-13
2593:2008-08-14
2497:2013-04-13
2470:2013-04-13
2438:2013-04-13
2411:2013-04-13
2063:2007-11-05
2030:2019-12-18
1813:2008-08-14
1756:Mountains.
1749:31 January
1723:31 January
1573:31 January
1547:7 December
1477:(1): 390.
1445:2014-01-28
1322:1808/18763
1270:thickness.
1244:References
1120:glaciation
1118:, showing
734:buttressed
590:South Pole
446:atmosphere
289:See also:
204:topography
101:Antarctica
67:Antarctica
8791:Feedbacks
8562:Education
8063:Caribbean
8058:Australia
7985:Migration
7948:Fisheries
7899:Livestock
7825:Wildfires
7731:Heat wave
7271:Transport
7010:Lake CECs
6987:ice sheet
6943:ice sheet
6912:Volcanoes
6902:Mountains
6857:Geography
6474:206533232
6367:2041-1723
6310:221885420
6255:1994-0424
6166:2 October
6097:252161375
6089:0036-8075
5886:2 October
5862:252161375
5846:0036-8075
5699:221885420
5621:264476246
5547:266436146
5453:0027-8424
5325:6 January
5235:255028552
5213:: 83–90.
5176:133069692
4946:(1): 69.
4921:1758-6798
4823:237695196
4815:2169-9275
4722:244726388
4714:1758-678X
4671:257807573
4617:205250191
4601:1476-4687
4526:2045-2322
4370:233868268
4354:1476-4687
4296:218541055
4264:(1): 18.
4126:9 January
3667:236282417
3659:1462-9011
3635:: 12–22.
3591:220260051
3583:1758-6798
3536:220261150
3528:1758-6798
3481:258777741
3440:. p. 212.
3224:205249862
3130:251854055
3070:131723421
2979:CiteSeerX
2916:CiteSeerX
2826:CiteSeerX
2550:USA Today
2387:219738421
2379:2169-897X
2247:14 August
1987:229063736
1934:222179485
1910:(1): 39.
1846:(1): 17.
1698:0277-3791
1674:: 10–30.
1568:imbie.org
1514:6 January
1331:1994-0424
1128:Oligocene
848:fisheries
768:meltwater
686:increase
541:ice cores
515:US Senate
426:elevation
353:sea level
306:ice sheet
285:Geography
250:meltwater
219:elevation
168:continent
165:Antarctic
135:Thickness
91:Ice sheet
81:in brown.
71:ice sheet
8917:Glossary
8905:Category
8727:biologic
8441:Politics
8333:Personal
8038:Americas
7911:Children
7677:Physical
7470:Overview
7410:Overview
7341:Category
7246:Religion
7148:Politics
7066:Wildlife
7035:Ross Sea
6897:Glaciers
6804:90°S 0°E
6748:49185845
6740:29899483
6685:15213187
6677:19295607
6620:12529638
6523:15635407
6466:22144622
6412:phys.org
6391:Archived
6375:36130952
6302:32968257
6119:: 5328.
6065:(6611).
6002:36088458
5945:33931453
5854:36074831
5797:37091546
5788:10118300
5748:37007716
5739:10062297
5691:32968257
5566:phys.org
5539:38127761
5471:32047039
5378:11083712
5370:19443778
5316:Archived
5312:13129041
5260:Archived
5122:ABC News
5100:35039511
4872:32934273
4771:29675467
4663:36991191
4609:27582222
4544:35013425
4427:29724994
4362:33953408
4242:31110015
4105:31285345
4046:30013142
3908:49188002
3900:29899482
3836:23086145
3716:31996825
3610:phys.org
3418:40243634
3265:27443735
3216:27443743
3020:BBC News
3001:21537289
2793:13 April
2787:Archived
2750:(2007).
2587:Archived
2557:13 April
2529:13 April
2317:11793010
2226:11988571
1878:33102742
1797:(2007).
1592:Glossary
1541:Archived
1505:Archived
1501:13129041
1440:BBC News
1267:. NASA.
1189:See also
1183:Ross Sea
1179:Pliocene
1116:Cenozoic
1013:and the
944:ice caps
913:and the
852:collapse
776:sverdrup
726:seafloor
415:negative
227:Thwaites
208:ice flow
194:(EAIS),
180:nunataks
97:Location
8732:oceanic
8582:fiction
8431:Justice
8382:Society
7990:Poverty
7709:Drought
7577:History
7501:Sources
7351:Commons
7266:Tourism
7211:Economy
7184:Society
7106:History
7076:Mammals
6965:Islands
6921:Regions
6892:Geology
6870:Climate
6767:Scholia
6732:1905199
6712:Bibcode
6657:Bibcode
6628:4326971
6600:Bibcode
6554:Bibcode
6546:Geology
6503:Bibcode
6446:Bibcode
6438:Science
6337:Bibcode
6282:Bibcode
6223:Bibcode
6059:Science
5993:9464198
5972:Bibcode
5936:8087405
5915:Bibcode
5816:Science
5671:Bibcode
5599:Bibcode
5519:Bibcode
5511:Science
5462:7049167
5431:Bibcode
5397:Science
5350:Bibcode
5342:Science
5290:Bibcode
5227:2242376
5146:Bibcode
5091:8764023
5070:Bibcode
5010:Bibcode
4948:Bibcode
4899:Bibcode
4863:7492216
4795:Bibcode
4762:5906079
4694:Bibcode
4643:Bibcode
4571:Bibcode
4535:8748732
4506:Bibcode
4418:5934442
4397:Bibcode
4324:Bibcode
4266:Bibcode
4233:6561295
4210:Bibcode
4159:Bibcode
4096:6660720
4073:Bibcode
4037:6048022
4016:Bibcode
3935:Bibcode
3870:Bibcode
3844:4414976
3816:Bibcode
3694:Bibcode
3637:Bibcode
3563:Bibcode
3508:Bibcode
3461:Bibcode
3434:(PDF).
3398:Bibcode
3358:Bibcode
3292:Bibcode
3196:Bibcode
3100:Bibcode
3050:Bibcode
2971:Bibcode
2908:Bibcode
2869:Bibcode
2818:Bibcode
2660:calving
2359:Bibcode
2234:7732719
2206:Bibcode
2197:Science
2159:Bibcode
2091:Bibcode
1957:Bibcode
1912:Bibcode
1869:7580794
1848:Bibcode
1479:Bibcode
1420:6347714
1299:Bibcode
1164:ice age
1132:Miocene
926:⁄
896:⁄
838:in the
664:Envisat
571:or the
438:sea ice
396:trends.
312:in the
188:bedrock
182:of the
140:maximum
35:Pacific
8712:Albedo
8705:Theory
8416:Denial
8207:Energy
8068:Europe
8048:Arctic
8033:Africa
7958:Health
7953:Gender
7916:Cities
7841:Biomes
7748:Oceans
7736:Marine
7459:Causes
6948:shield
6907:Tundra
6809:-90; 0
6769:has a
6746:
6738:
6730:
6704:Nature
6683:
6675:
6648:Nature
6626:
6618:
6592:Nature
6531:830008
6529:
6521:
6495:Nature
6472:
6464:
6373:
6365:
6308:
6300:
6274:Nature
6253:
6190:(18).
6095:
6087:
6000:
5990:
5943:
5933:
5913:(18).
5860:
5852:
5844:
5795:
5785:
5746:
5736:
5697:
5689:
5663:Nature
5619:
5545:
5537:
5469:
5459:
5451:
5376:
5368:
5310:
5233:
5225:
5174:
5098:
5088:
4919:
4870:
4860:
4821:
4813:
4769:
4759:
4720:
4712:
4669:
4661:
4635:Nature
4615:
4607:
4599:
4563:Nature
4542:
4532:
4524:
4475:
4425:
4415:
4368:
4360:
4352:
4316:Nature
4294:
4240:
4230:
4103:
4093:
4044:
4034:
3906:
3898:
3862:Nature
3842:
3834:
3808:Nature
3774:Cosmos
3714:
3686:Nature
3665:
3657:
3589:
3581:
3534:
3526:
3479:
3416:
3263:
3243:Nature
3222:
3214:
3188:Nature
3128:
3098:(16).
3068:
2999:
2981:
2918:
2828:
2650:
2385:
2377:
2357:(13).
2325:387284
2323:
2315:
2297:Nature
2232:
2224:
2128:15 May
2016:
1985:
1932:
1876:
1866:
1779:8 July
1696:
1648:
1499:
1417:
1365:Nature
1329:
1140:Eocene
1124:Eocene
1074:used.
1064:Eemian
1027:median
1023:RCP8.5
984:Eemian
949:Eemian
730:cliffs
676:ICESat
607:goals.
601:RCP8.5
442:albedo
367:, and
363:, the
357:seabed
314:Arctic
210:, and
146:Status
8929:Index
8691:Proxy
8451:Women
7926:Crime
7853:Birds
7719:Flood
7356:Index
7276:Women
7226:Flags
7201:Crime
7139:Years
7081:Krill
7071:Birds
7056:Flora
6771:topic
6744:S2CID
6681:S2CID
6624:S2CID
6588:(PDF)
6527:S2CID
6470:S2CID
6306:S2CID
6093:S2CID
6027:(PDF)
5858:S2CID
5695:S2CID
5638:. BBC
5617:S2CID
5543:S2CID
5507:(PDF)
5374:S2CID
5319:(PDF)
5308:S2CID
5278:(PDF)
5231:S2CID
5172:S2CID
4819:S2CID
4793:(8).
4718:S2CID
4667:S2CID
4613:S2CID
4366:S2CID
4292:S2CID
3982:(PDF)
3904:S2CID
3840:S2CID
3663:S2CID
3587:S2CID
3532:S2CID
3477:S2CID
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