Glacier - Knowledge

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sediments, or if it'll be able to slide. A soft bed, with high porosity and low pore fluid pressure, allows the glacier to move by sediment sliding: the base of the glacier may even remain frozen to the bed, where the underlying sediment slips underneath it like a tube of toothpaste. A hard bed cannot deform in this way; therefore the only way for hard-based glaciers to move is by basal sliding, where meltwater forms between the ice and the bed itself. Whether a bed is hard or soft depends on the porosity and pore pressure; higher porosity decreases the sediment strength (thus increases the shear stress τ

714:. The equilibrium line separates the ablation zone and the accumulation zone; it is the contour where the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation. In general, the accumulation zone accounts for 60–70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs. Ice in the accumulation zone is deep enough to exert a downward force that erodes underlying rock. After a glacier melts, it often leaves behind a bowl- or amphitheater-shaped depression that ranges in size from large basins like the Great Lakes to smaller mountain depressions known as 1717: 1063: 2123: 1301: 7861: 938: 1602: 663:(granular snow). Further crushing of the individual snowflakes and squeezing the air from the snow turns it into "glacial ice". This glacial ice will fill the cirque until it "overflows" through a geological weakness or vacancy, such as a gap between two mountains. When the mass of snow and ice reaches sufficient thickness, it begins to move by a combination of surface slope, gravity, and pressure. On steeper slopes, this can occur with as little as 15 m (49 ft) of snow-ice. 2025: 79: 1220: 47: 1135: 1962: 1880: 1552: 7813: 6520: 6508: 1015: 979: 694: 565: 1767: 2077: 1673: 7835: 430: 6544: 6532: 1208:

conductance, meaning that the basal temperature is also likely to be higher. Bed temperature tends to vary in a cyclic fashion. A cool bed has a high strength, reducing the speed of the glacier. This increases the rate of accumulation, since newly fallen snow is not transported away. Consequently, the glacier thickens, with three consequences: firstly, the bed is better insulated, allowing greater retention of geothermal heat.

774: 1332: 1480: 7824: 1692:, a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel, and boulders within a matrix of fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier. Less apparent are 1086:; the resulting shape change reorganises blocks. This reorganises closely packed blocks (a little like neatly folded, tightly packed clothes in a suitcase) into a messy jumble (just as clothes never fit back in when thrown in in a disordered fashion). This increases the porosity. Unless water is added, this will necessarily reduce the pore pressure (as the pore fluids have more space to occupy). 1216:

glaciers are known to reach velocities of up to a kilometre per year. Eventually, the ice will be surging fast enough that it begins to thin, as accumulation cannot keep up with the transport. This thinning will increase the conductive heat loss, slowing the glacier and causing freezing. This freezing will slow the glacier further, often until it is stationary, whence the cycle can begin again.

786:(98 ft) thick to even start flowing, but once its thickness exceeds about 50 m (160 ft) (160 ft), stress on the layer above will exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, and then it'll move faster than the layer below. This means that small amounts of stress can result in a large amount of strain, causing the deformation to become a 1758:; it is estimated to contain about 10,000 drumlins. Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape implies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers. 2104:. It occurs where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting. This leads to an effect similar to what would be seen if the rock were hit by a large hammer. Dilation faulting can be observed in recently de-glaciated parts of Iceland and Cumbria. 670:. Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser firn. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice. Glacier ice is slightly more dense than ice formed from frozen water because glacier ice contains fewer trapped air bubbles. 1871:". These are small lakes formed when large ice blocks that are trapped in alluvium melt and produce water-filled depressions. Kettle diameters range from 5 m to 13 km, with depths of up to 45 meters. Most are circular in shape because the blocks of ice that formed them were rounded as they melted. 2175:

system, the spacecraft discovered a massive basin covered in a layer of nitrogen ice on Pluto. A large portion of the basin's surface is divided into irregular polygonal features separated by narrow troughs, interpreted as convection cells fuelled by internal heat from Pluto's interior. Glacial flows

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whose progressively deep layers represent respectively earlier times in Earth's climate history. The researchers apply various instruments to the content of bubbles trapped in the cores' layers in order to track changes in the atmosphere's composition. Temperatures are deduced from differing relative

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or "sheepback" rock. Roches moutonnées may be elongated, rounded and asymmetrical in shape. They range in length from less than a meter to several hundred meters long. Roches moutonnées have a gentle slope on their up-glacier sides and a steep to vertical face on their down-glacier sides. The glacier

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As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice. This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands. This expansion causes the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting

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The flow of water under the glacial surface can have a large effect on the motion of the glacier itself. Subglacial lakes contain significant amounts of water, which can move fast: cubic kilometres can be transported between lakes over the course of a couple of years. This motion is thought to occur

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and the internal deformation of ice. At the molecular level, ice consists of stacked layers of molecules with relatively weak bonds between layers. When the amount of strain (deformation) is proportional to the stress being applied, ice will act as an elastic solid. Ice needs to be at least 30 m

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In addition to the dry, unglaciated polar regions, some mountains and volcanoes in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina are high (4,500 to 6,900 m or 14,800 to 22,600 ft) and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from accumulating into glaciers. This is because these peaks are

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Ogives or Forbes bands are alternating wave crests and valleys that appear as dark and light bands of ice on glacier surfaces. They are linked to seasonal motion of glaciers; the width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the glacier. Ogives are formed when ice from

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show geologic evidence of glacial deposits. The south polar cap is especially comparable to glaciers on Earth. Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past. At mid-latitudes, between 35° and 65° north or south, Martian glaciers are affected by the

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terms a "slow onset" event. Impacts at least partially attributable to sea level rise include for example encroachment on coastal settlements and infrastructure, existential threats to small islands and low-lying coasts, losses of coastal ecosystems and ecosystem services, groundwater salinization,

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At the start of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped cirque, which have escarped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valley. Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier. Two glacial cirques may form back to back and erode their backwalls until only a

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Crevasses can form in several different ways. Transverse crevasses are transverse to flow and form where steeper slopes cause a glacier to accelerate. Longitudinal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier expands laterally. Marginal crevasses form near the edge of the glacier, caused by

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Although evidence in favor of glacial flow was known by the early 19th century, other theories of glacial motion were advanced, such as the idea that meltwater, refreezing inside glaciers, caused the glacier to dilate and extend its length. As it became clear that glaciers behaved to some degree as

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Large masses, such as ice sheets or glaciers, can depress the crust of the Earth into the mantle. The depression usually totals a third of the ice sheet or glacier's thickness. After the ice sheet or glacier melts, the mantle begins to flow back to its original position, pushing the crust back up.

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Mean glacial speed varies greatly but is typically around 1 m (3 ft) per day. There may be no motion in stagnant areas; for example, in parts of Alaska, trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits. In other cases, glaciers can move as fast as 20–30 m (70–100 ft)

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in Greenland peaks every year in July, August, and September and increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s. In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005, more events were detected every year since 2002, and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year.

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is increased. These factors will combine to accelerate the glacier. As friction increases with the square of velocity, faster motion will greatly increase frictional heating, with ensuing melting – which causes a positive feedback, increasing ice speed to a faster flow rate still: west Antarctic

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When the bedrock has frequent fractures on the surface, glacial erosion rates tend to increase as plucking is the main erosive force on the surface; when the bedrock has wide gaps between sporadic fractures, however, abrasion tends to be the dominant erosive form and glacial erosion rates become

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The presence of basal meltwater depends on both bed temperature and other factors. For instance, the melting point of water decreases under pressure, meaning that water melts at a lower temperature under thicker glaciers. This acts as a "double whammy", because thicker glaciers have a lower heat

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forces cause them to break apart, opening a crevasse. Crevasses are seldom more than 46 m (150 ft) deep but, in some cases, can be at least 300 m (1,000 ft) deep. Beneath this point, the plasticity of the ice prevents the formation of cracks. Intersecting crevasses can create

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The lowest velocities are near the base of the glacier and along valley sides where friction acts against flow, causing the most deformation. Velocity increases inward toward the center line and upward, as the amount of deformation decreases. The highest flow velocities are found at the surface,

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protrude from their surfaces. The only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of freshwater, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m (230 ft). Portions of an ice sheet or cap that extend into

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have lost ice every year since 1988. A study that investigated the period 1995 to 2022 showed that the flow velocity of glaciers in the Alps accelerates and slows down to a similar extent at the same time, despite large distances. This clearly shows that their speed is controlled by the climate

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involves motion of water in a thin layer. A switch between the two flow conditions may be associated with surging behaviour. Indeed, the loss of sub-glacial water supply has been linked with the shut-down of ice movement in the Kamb ice stream. The subglacial motion of water is expressed in the

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Most of the important processes controlling glacial motion occur in the ice-bed contact—even though it is only a few meters thick. The bed's temperature, roughness and softness define basal shear stress, which in turn defines whether movement of the glacier will be accommodated by motion in the

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Kellerer-Pirklbauer, Andreas; Bodin, Xavier; Delaloye, Reynald; Lambiel, Christophe; Gärtner-Roer, Isabelle; Bonnefoy-Demongeot, Mylène; Carturan, Luca; Damm, Bodo; Eulenstein, Julia; Fischer, Andrea; Hartl, Lea; Ikeda, Atsushi; Kaufmann, Viktor; Krainer, Karl; Matsuoka, Norikazu (2024-03-01).

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Bed softness may vary in space or time, and changes dramatically from glacier to glacier. An important factor is the underlying geology; glacial speeds tend to differ more when they change bedrock than when the gradient changes. Further, bed roughness can also act to slow glacial motion. The

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and is made up of rock grains between 0.002 and 0.00625 mm in size. Abrasion leads to steeper valley walls and mountain slopes in alpine settings, which can cause avalanches and rock slides, which add even more material to the glacier. Glacial abrasion is commonly characterized by

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As the water that rises from the ablation zone moves away from the glacier, it carries fine eroded sediments with it. As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water thus gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an

1276:. These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous movement state. These surges may be caused by the failure of the underlying bedrock, the pooling of meltwater at the base of the glacier — perhaps delivered from a 953:

Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice. Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified by glacial action, while

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The overhanging icefront of the advancing Webber Glacier with waterfalls (Borup Fiord area, Northern Ellesmere Island) on July 20, 1978. Debris rich layers have been sheared and folded into the basal cold glacier ice. The glacier front is 6 km broad and up to 40 m

1280: — or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critical "tipping point". Temporary rates up to 90 m (300 ft) per day have occurred when increased temperature or overlying pressure caused bottom ice to melt and water to accumulate beneath a glacier. 345:, because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a white color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the created ice's density. 1089:

Pressure may cause compaction and consolidation of underlying sediments. Since water is relatively incompressible, this is easier when the pore space is filled with vapour; any water must be removed to permit compression. In soils, this is an irreversible

1915:. Eskers are composed of sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier. They remain after the ice melts, with heights exceeding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km. 1640:

slow. Glaciers in lower latitudes tend to be much more erosive than glaciers in higher latitudes, because they have more meltwater reaching the glacial base and facilitate sediment production and transport under the same moving speed and amount of ice.

2051:, rising temperatures increase glacier melt, exposing more of earth's land and sea surface (which is darker than glacier ice), allowing sunlight to warm the surface rather than being reflected back into space. Reference glaciers tracked by the 2386:

Brown, Molly Elizabeth; Ouyang, Hua; Habib, Shahid; Shrestha, Basanta; Shrestha, Mandira; Panday, Prajjwal; Tzortziou, Maria; Policelli, Frederick; Artan, Guleid; Giriraj, Amarnath; Bajracharya, Sagar R.; Racoviteanu, Adina (November 2010).

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glacial valley or glacial trough, as it is sometimes called. The erosion that creates glacial valleys truncates any spurs of rock or earth that may have earlier extended across the valley, creating broadly triangular-shaped cliffs called

1594:. Glaciers produce these when they contain large boulders that carve long scratches in the bedrock. By mapping the direction of the striations, researchers can determine the direction of the glacier's movement. Similar to striations are 306:

that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. However, within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater.

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Sediment degradation by abrasion and fracture decreases the size of particles, which tends to decrease pore space. However, the motion of the particles may disorder the sediment, with the opposite effect. These processes also generate

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Glaciers are broken into zones based on surface snowpack and melt conditions. The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass. The upper part of a glacier, where accumulation exceeds ablation, is called the

1664:". They range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they are often moved great distances, they may be drastically different from the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics hint at past glacial motions. 1114:) can affect the friction between the glacier and the bed. High fluid pressure provides a buoyancy force upwards on the glacier, reducing the friction at its base. The fluid pressure is compared to the ice overburden pressure, p 270:

has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions. Glaciers cover about 10% of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 13 million km (5 million sq mi) or about 98% of

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includes both temperate and polar ice, depending on the depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier. In a similar way, the thermal regime of a glacier is often described by its basal temperature. A

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are asymmetrical, canoe-shaped hills made mainly of till. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters, and they can reach a kilometer in length. The steepest side of the hill faces the direction from which the ice advanced

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if the ice were a viscous fluid, it was argued that "regelation", or the melting and refreezing of ice at a temperature lowered by the pressure on the ice inside the glacier, was what allowed the ice to deform and flow.

2775:. A Proceedings Volume of the Fifth Annual Geomorphology Symposia Series, held at Binghamton, New York, September 26–28, 1974. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York, pp. 41–87. (Publications in Geomorphology)) 1261:. Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly than ice at the top. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's sidewalls, which slows the edges relative to the center. 4298: 1598:, lines of crescent-shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier. They are formed by abrasion when boulders in the glacier are repeatedly caught and released as they are dragged along the bedrock. 746:

or observing terminus behavior. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones, more than 60% of their area is snow-covered at the end of the melt season, and they have a terminus with a vigorous flow.

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Abrasion occurs when the ice and its load of rock fragments slide over bedrock and function as sandpaper, smoothing and polishing the bedrock below. The pulverized rock this process produces is called

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Based on current national pledges, global average temperature increase is projected to cause loss of ~half of Earth's glaciers by 2100 and raise sea level by ~115 mm (not counting rise from melting

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the reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls. Marginal crevasses are largely transverse to flow. Moving glacier ice can sometimes separate from the stagnant ice above, forming a

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Koppes, Michéle; Hallet, Bernard; Rignot, Eric; Mouginot, Jérémie; Wellner, Julia Smith; Boldt, Katherine (2015). "Observed latitudinal variations in erosion as a function of glacier dynamics".

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where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold. Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor. Even during glacial periods of the

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A less-technical treatment of all aspects, with photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see Weblinks: Glaciers-online)

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and space for snow accumulation in the winter, which in turn creates a ridge. Sometimes ogives consist only of undulations or color bands and are described as wave ogives or band ogives.

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Below the equilibrium line, glacial meltwater is concentrated in stream channels. Meltwater can pool in proglacial lakes on top of a glacier or descend into the depths of a glacier via

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The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the winds. Glaciers can be found in all

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reach above 6,500 m (21,330 ft). Between 19˚N and 19˚S, however, precipitation is higher, and the mountains above 5,000 m (16,400 ft) usually have permanent snow.

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island territories. Extensive glaciers are found in Antarctica, Argentina, Chile, Canada, Pakistan, Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Mountain glaciers are widespread, especially in the

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Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers, a superimposed ice zone develops. This zone is where meltwater refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier, forming a continuous mass of ice.

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With 7,253 known glaciers, including 543 in the Chitral Valley, there is more glacial ice in Pakistan than anywhere on Earth outside the polar regions, according to various studies.

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Davies, Damon; Bingham, Robert G.; King, Edward C.; Smith, Andrew M.; Brisbourne, Alex M.; Spagnolo, Matteo; Graham, Alastair G. C.; Hogg, Anna E.; Vaughan, David G. (4 May 2018).

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roughness of the bed is a measure of how many boulders and obstacles protrude into the overlying ice. Ice flows around these obstacles by melting under the high pressure on their

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Wendleder, Anna; Bramboeck, Jasmin; Izzard, Jamie; Erbertseder, Thilo; d'Angelo, Pablo; Schmitt, Andreas; Quincey, Duncan J.; Mayer, Christoph; Braun, Matthias H. (5 March 2024).

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The stress–strain relationship of plastic flow (teal section): a small increase in stress creates an exponentially greater increase in strain, which equates to deformation speed.

758:. A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers between 1950 and 1985, but since 1985 glacier retreat and mass loss has become larger and increasingly ubiquitous. 4494:

Holt, J. et al. 2008. Radar Sounding Evidence for Ice within Lobate Debris Aprons near Hellas Basin, Mid-Southern Latitudes of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX. 2441.pdf

1708:. In modern geology, the term is used more broadly and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of till. Moraines can also create moraine-dammed lakes. 2340: 1043:. Bergschrunds resemble crevasses but are singular features at a glacier's margins. Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous, especially when they are hidden by fragile 6244: 1650:: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine. 958:, which protrude above ice sheets, barely erode at all – erosion has been estimated as 5 m per 1.2 million years. This explains, for example, the deep profile of 601:

is above or at freezing at the interface and is able to slide at this contact. This contrast is thought to a large extent to govern the ability of a glacier to effectively

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also have huge expanses of continental glaciers. The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km.

4965: 398:, meaning "ice". The processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of glacier establishment, growth and flow is called 1643:

Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:

862: 552:. Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous impact as the iceberg strikes the water. Tidewater glaciers undergo centuries-long 1253:

The formation of supraglacial lakes at Baltoro Glacier in April 2018 (top) had substantially accelerated its melting and motion in the following summer months (bottom)

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Glaciers, which can be hundreds of thousands of years old, are used to track climate change over long periods of time. Researchers melt or crush samples from glacier

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created by meltwater. When the glacial ice occupies a valley, it can form terraces or kames along the sides of the valley. Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called

1269:. Glacial speed is affected by factors such as slope, ice thickness, snowfall, longitudinal confinement, basal temperature, meltwater production, and bed hardness. 1002:

develop in the fracture zone. Crevasses form because of differences in glacier velocity. If two rigid sections of a glacier move at different speeds or directions,

6088: 1162:. The more variable the amount of melting at surface of the glacier, the faster the ice will flow. Basal sliding is dominant in temperate or warm-based glaciers. 659:) – which collects and compresses through gravity the snow that falls into it. This snow accumulates and the weight of the snow falling above compacts it, forming 931: 908: 211:, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight. As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as 6261: 1842:

abrades the smooth slope on the upstream side as it flows along, but tears rock fragments loose and carries them away from the downstream side via plucking.

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Glaciers are present on every continent and in approximately fifty countries, excluding those (Australia, South Africa) that have glaciers only on distant

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Very fine glacial sediments or rock flour is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original

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Plaut, J. et al. 2008. Radar Evidence for Ice in Lobate Debris Aprons in the Mid-Northern Latitudes of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX. 2290.pdf

2297: 195:) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its 5692: 4167: 1887:

When a glacier's size shrinks below a critical point, its flow stops and it becomes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater within and beneath the ice leaves

4314:"Acceleration and interannual variability of creep rates in mountain permafrost landforms (rock glacier velocities) in the European Alps in 1995–2022" 5560: 3914:

Dühnforth, Miriam; Anderson, Robert S.; Ward, Dylan; Stock, Greg M. (2010-05-01). "Bedrock fracture control of glacial erosion processes and rates".

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Kessler, Mark A.; Anderson, Robert S.; Briner, Jason P. (2008). "Fjord insertion into continental margins driven by topographic steering of ice".

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are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. They usually appear as linear mounds of

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The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing meltwater to percolate into the snowpack. This zone is often marked by refrozen

3707: 2831: 2486: 275:'s 13.2 million km (5.1 million sq mi), with an average thickness of ice 2,100 m (7,000 ft). Greenland and 5206: 3338:

Fricker, A.; Scambos, T.; Bindschadler, R.; Padman, L. (Mar 2007). "An Active Subglacial Water System in West Antarctica Mapped from Space".

2540: 2511: 5439: 4956: 1054:. Streams within or beneath a glacier flow in englacial or sub-glacial tunnels. These tunnels sometimes reemerge at the glacier's surface. 86:

contains more glacial ice than any other country on earth outside the polar regions. At 62 kilometres (39 mi) in length, the pictured

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is of French origin. It was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French

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of 41°46′09″ N is the southernmost glacial mass in Europe. Mainland Australia currently contains no glaciers, although a small glacier on

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Lorrain, Reginald D.; Fitzsimons, Sean J. (2011). "Cold-Based Glaciers". In Singh, Vijay P.; Singh, Pratap; Haritashya, Umesh K. (eds.).

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and moves mostly as a single unit over the plastic-flowing lower section. When a glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks called

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The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 °C.

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mode of the water molecule. (Liquid water appears blue for the same reason. The blue of glacier ice is sometimes misattributed to

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McKinnon, W. B.; et al. (1 June 2016). "Convection in a volatile nitrogen-ice-rich layer drives Pluto's geological vigour".

4291:. World Glacier Monitoring Service ("under the auspices of: ISC (WDS), IUGG (IACS), UN environment, UNESCO, WMO"). January 2023. 1998:

concentrations of respective gases, confirming that for at least the last million years, global temperatures have been linked to

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it. Thus, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a

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rather than elastic. Then, the glacier will begin to deform under its own weight and flow across the landscape. According to the

3740: 1905:. Some kames form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. Others are produced by fans or 5797: 5760: 5614: 5599: 5518: 5167: 5111: 4362: 3446: 1118:, given by ρgh. Under fast-flowing ice streams, these two pressures will be approximately equal, with an effective pressure (p 3809: 2348: 6456: 5594: 4845: 4800: 4768: 4741: 4714: 4686: 4639: 4401: 3606: 3266: 2954: 2753: 2449: 2280: 970:

came up with the essentially correct explanation in the 1840s, although it was several decades before it was fully accepted.

4508: 2597: 2089:, which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in 6478: 5434: 5429: 4916: 4476:

Head, J. et al. 2005. Tropical to mid-latitude snow and ice accumulation, flow and glaciation on Mars. Nature: 434. 346–350

498:; they tend to be thin with limited slopes and reduced velocities. Narrow, fast-moving sections of an ice sheet are called 4426:, Third International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration, Alberta, Canada, October 13–17, 2003 (pdf 970 Kb)" 5959: 5737: 5555: 5487: 5477: 5460: 5367: 5174: 5492: 2150:. As on Earth, many glaciers are covered with a layer of rocks which insulates the ice. A radar instrument on board the 6582: 6388: 6249: 6206: 5702: 1126:) of 30 kPa; i.e. all of the weight of the ice is supported by the underlying water, and the glacier is afloat. 6315: 6191: 6008: 5211: 4020: 2713: 2605: 2327: 1976: 7187: 6548: 6186: 6166: 6113: 6065: 5127: 4292: 2052: 2005:

Human activities in the industrial era have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping

6305: 6256: 5682: 5644: 5589: 5059: 3518: 1778:, produced by eroding water. During glaciation, these valleys are often widened, deepened and smoothed to form a 2142:

thin Martian atmosphere. Because of the low atmospheric pressure, ablation near the surface is solely caused by

621: 223:. Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land and is distinct from the much thinner 6837: 6373: 5657: 5414: 4912: 3490:"The Brúarjökull Project: Sedimentary environments of a surging glacier. The Brúarjökull Project research idea" 2623:

Bindschadler, R.A.; Scambos, T.A. (1991). "Satellite-image-derived velocity field of an Antarctic ice stream".

2143: 1951: 1724:, Wisconsin, in an area with one of the highest concentration of drumlins in the world. The curved path of the 755: 323: 4213: 7220: 6483: 6018: 5550: 794:, the relationship between stress and strain, and thus the rate of internal flow, can be modeled as follows: 545: 541: 6466: 6138: 5667: 5662: 5567: 5444: 5001: 4185: 2865: 800: 7270: 4970: 1410:. Oceanic islands with glaciers include Iceland, several of the islands off the coast of Norway including 1034:

impede flow. In this case, the impediment appears to be some distance from the near margin of the glacier.

362: 6817: 5677: 5530: 2684: 2151: 702:

A glacier originates at a location called its glacier head and terminates at its glacier foot, snout, or

311: 1700:, which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line. The term 609:

at rock from the surface below. Glaciers which are partly cold-based and partly warm-based are known as

7851: 6756: 6536: 6300: 6103: 6060: 5833: 5755: 5609: 4933: 3110: 1834:

Passage of glacial ice over an area of bedrock may cause the rock to be sculpted into a knoll called a

1465:

except from 20° to 27° north and south of the equator where the presence of the descending limb of the

655:) – a typically armchair-shaped geological feature (such as a depression between mountains enclosed by 3551: 2176:

were also observed near Sputnik Planitia's margins, appearing to flow both into and out of the basin.

1787:. Within glacial valleys, depressions created by plucking and abrasion can be filled by lakes, called 1138:

A cross-section through a glacier. The base of the glacier is more transparent as a result of melting.

7617: 6405: 6080: 6055: 6028: 5990: 5907: 5725: 5572: 5535: 5285: 5054: 5049: 5044: 3841: 3249:

Boulton, Geoffrey S. (2006). "Glaciers and their Coupling with Hydraulic and Sedimentary Processes".

2130: 2014: 725:

The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry.

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occur. These are large scale earthquakes that have seismic magnitudes as high as 6.1. The number of

524:

are glaciers that terminate in the sea, including most glaciers flowing from Greenland, Antarctica,

7896: 6792: 6415: 6410: 6400: 6341: 6181: 5687: 5652: 5545: 5472: 5313: 5142: 5078: 5039: 2835: 2680: 2490: 2302: 1935: 1249: 638: 28: 4094:

Rounce, David R.; Hock, Regine; Maussion, Fabien; Hugonnet, Romain; et al. (5 January 2023).

2515: 1427: 7372: 6842: 6524: 6446: 6356: 6098: 6070: 5750: 5409: 5387: 4994: 4980: 2909: 2536: 2048: 1626:

Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier

1313:

an icefall is severely broken up, increasing ablation surface area during summer. This creates a

1066:

Erosion rates of subglacial sediment caused by the motion of different glaciers across the world

553: 520: 286:

on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. Many glaciers from

17: 597:

is below freezing at the ice-ground interface and is thus frozen to the underlying substrate. A

7891: 7426: 7102: 6751: 6575: 6123: 5943: 5885: 5802: 5787: 5672: 5318: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 4230:

Wunderling, Nico; Willeit, Matteo; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (27 October 2020).

2385: 1363: 1051: 846: 331: 35: 4456: 4313: 3880: 3685: 2778: 1030:); such crevasses often form near the edge of a glacier where interactions with underlying or 7125: 6832: 6512: 6158: 6035: 5843: 5303: 5226: 4512: 4457:"Martian glaciers: did they originate from the atmosphere? ESA Mars Express, 20 January 2006" 4012: 3897: 3895: 3709:

Retreat of the Irian Jaya Glaciers from 2000 to 2002 as Measured from IKONOS Satellite Images

2817:

Benson, C.S., 1961, "Stratigraphic studies in the snow and firn of the Greenland Ice Sheet",

2705: 1967: 1716: 1677: 1563: 1062: 869: 791: 678: 630: 606: 2535: 2068:

and compounding damage from tropical cyclones, flooding, storm surges, and land subsidence.

666:

In temperate glaciers, snow repeatedly freezes and thaws, changing into granular ice called

7827: 7708: 7260: 6868: 6351: 6229: 5890: 5465: 5392: 4887: 4662: 4552: 4325: 4243: 4107: 4061: 3970: 3925: 3466: 3410: 3347: 3291: 3228: 3216: 3144: 3074: 3039: 3011: 2989:

Easterbrook, Don J., Surface Processes and Landforms, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1999

2874: 2634: 2122: 2086: 1725: 787: 743: 7834: 7265: 4421: 4075: 4027: 3892: 2856:

Paul, Frank; Kääb, Andreas; Maisch, Max; Kellenberger, Tobias; Haeberli, Wilfried (2004).

584:

is always below the freezing threshold from the surface to its base, although the surface

8: 7881: 7713: 7062: 6889: 6807: 6368: 6143: 5377: 5372: 2239: 2155: 1755: 1660:

Larger pieces of rock that are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called "

1500: 1391: 1300: 915: 892: 682: 476:. Ice caps have an area less than 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi) by definition. 242:

on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude

4556: 4329: 4247: 4111: 3974: 3929: 3414: 3351: 3295: 3220: 3148: 3078: 3043: 3015: 2878: 2857: 2638: 2028: 1266: 941:

Differential erosion enhances relief, as clear in this incredibly steep-sided Norwegian

7816: 7351: 6894: 6691: 6196: 6128: 6045: 5895: 5860: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5382: 4860:

A comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior.

4576: 4542: 4424:

Martian Polar Ice Sheets and Mid-Latitude Debris-Rich Glaciers, and Terrestrial Analogs

4264: 4231: 4189: 4168:"Climate at the core: how scientists study ice cores to reveal Earth's climate history" 4141: 3994: 3379: 3315: 2960: 2658: 2420: 2203: 1970:

in Washington photographs from 1928 to 2003 showing the recent rapid glacier retreating

1579: 1567: 1556: 1466: 1407: 1359: 1288: 1284: 967: 424: 338: 6989: 4095: 3765: 2100:

A geomorphological feature created by the same process on a smaller scale is known as

1836: 580:

is at a melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base. The ice of a

448:

form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a

7886: 7213: 7177: 7140: 6964: 6681: 6568: 6430: 6093: 5838: 5604: 5397: 5360: 5147: 5101: 4851: 4841: 4806: 4796: 4774: 4764: 4747: 4737: 4720: 4710: 4692: 4682: 4635: 4568: 4397: 4341: 4269: 4181: 4145: 4133: 3986: 3941: 3916: 3791: 3744: 3602: 3371: 3363: 3307: 3262: 2964: 2950: 2749: 2650: 2625: 2609: 2445: 2439: 2424: 2405: 2388: 2323: 2276: 2244: 2126: 2044: 1892: 1868: 1591: 1527:, though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form. 1399: 1277: 1100: 711: 441:

Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior.

434: 287: 4876: 4580: 3383: 2662: 673:

Glacial ice has a distinctive blue tint because it absorbs some red light due to an

7865: 7592: 7182: 7082: 6979: 6909: 6771: 6650: 6473: 6040: 6023: 5964: 5855: 5619: 5343: 5216: 5152: 4895: 4560: 4504: 4333: 4259: 4251: 4123: 4115: 3998: 3978: 3961: 3933: 3866: 3813: 3562: 3533: 3418: 3355: 3319: 3299: 3254: 3224: 3162: 3152: 3082: 3047: 3019: 2942: 2882: 2768: 2741: 2642: 2410: 2400: 2185: 2117: 2113: 1928: 1896: 1788: 1387: 1326: 1314: 1236:

involves liquid water moving through pipe-like conduits, like a sub-glacial river;

703: 537: 533: 142: 107: 101: 4096:"Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase in temperature matters" 2389:"HIMALA: Climate Impacts on Glaciers, Snow, and Hydrology in the Himalayan Region" 1241:

surface topography of ice sheets, which slump down into vacated subglacial lakes.

990:

The top 50 m (160 ft) of a glacier are rigid because they are under low

7242: 7077: 7052: 6934: 6847: 6736: 6425: 6346: 6310: 6239: 6213: 6201: 6118: 6050: 5925: 5782: 5404: 5355: 5333: 3558: 3525: 3476: 2745: 2740:. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer Netherlands. pp. 157–161. 2646: 2197: 1934:

deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the

1784: 1779: 1775: 1661: 1524: 1520: 1439: 1355: 1273: 1159: 1003: 729: 602: 303: 298:

store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of

136: 87: 3622: 2235:"Pakistan has more glaciers than almost anywhere on Earth. But they are at risk" 7797: 7787: 7597: 7019: 6969: 6954: 6827: 6812: 6741: 6726: 6660: 6645: 6378: 6234: 6176: 6171: 6013: 5902: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5482: 5419: 5157: 5137: 5096: 5017: 4944: 4837: 4789: 4675: 4337: 4255: 3489: 3282:

Schoof, C. (2010). "Ice-sheet acceleration driven by melt supply variability".

2797: 2465: 2191: 2060: 2010: 2006: 1999: 1939: 1867:. Outwash plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as " 1852: 1819: 1803: 1693: 1535: 1455: 1023: 751: 399: 342: 327: 291: 243: 239: 3258: 3087: 3066: 2946: 2032: 1083: 479:

Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi) are called

196: 63: 7875: 7612: 7564: 7549: 7417: 7150: 7092: 7072: 7067: 7014: 7009: 6994: 6939: 6822: 6797: 6676: 6451: 6383: 6108: 5930: 5915: 5850: 5745: 4829: 4345: 3945: 3598: 3367: 2248: 2172: 2076: 1815: 1746: 1721: 1601: 1451: 1431: 1419: 1211:

Secondly, the increased pressure can facilitate melting. Most importantly, τ

1143: 1027: 525: 513: 295: 6884: 4899: 4810: 4778: 4751: 4724: 4696: 4357: 4355: 4180:

Reviewed by Erich Osterberg and David Anderson. Applied instruments include

4119: 3537: 3423: 3399:"Velocity variations and hydrological drainage at Baltoro Glacier, Pakistan" 3398: 3359: 3157: 3132: 2415: 7622: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7422: 7392: 7206: 7030: 6959: 6716: 6711: 6655: 6336: 6133: 5777: 5767: 5424: 5308: 5221: 4572: 4407: 4273: 4137: 3990: 3795: 3375: 3311: 2654: 2163: 2024: 1888: 1823: 1595: 1575: 1504: 1496: 1423: 1343: 1305: 1151: 626: 529: 366: 235: 78: 4975: 4949: 4232:"Global warming due to loss of large ice masses and Arctic summer sea ice" 1491:

Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable. Areas of the

1103:; the resultant meltwater is then forced into the cavity arising in their 937: 7792: 7698: 7582: 7554: 7544: 7539: 7477: 7462: 7447: 7432: 7356: 7320: 7145: 7024: 7004: 6999: 6984: 6944: 6802: 6686: 6363: 5880: 5872: 5132: 4855: 4352: 3566: 2887: 2094: 2090: 1906: 1403: 1395: 1335: 1224: 1219: 1147: 1044: 1040: 500: 495: 319: 315: 283: 247: 46: 7728: 4564: 4509:"Pluto updates from AGU and DPS: Pretty pictures from a confusing world" 4288: 4128: 3982: 3303: 3103:"Moulin 'Blanc': NASA Expedition Probes Deep Within a Greenland Glacier" 2821:, U.S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Res Establ., Corps of Eng., 120 pp. 1761: 1283:

In glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one km per year,

1134: 732:, glands, and layers. The snowpack also never reaches the melting point. 489:. Several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only 7782: 7662: 7647: 7607: 7602: 7482: 7457: 7407: 7382: 7286: 7172: 7155: 7135: 7087: 6721: 6635: 6395: 5772: 4883: 4658: 4310: 3519:"Seasonality and Increasing Frequency of Greenland Glacial Earthquakes" 2018: 1961: 1586: 1508: 1470: 1014: 569: 509: 407: 403: 377: 272: 259: 71: 4630:. Routledge Fundamentals of Physical Geography Series (3rd ed.). 3167: 2858:"Rapid disintegration of Alpine glaciers observed with satellite data" 1899:". Glacial deposits that take the shape of hills or mounds are called 1879: 1818:. If multiple cirques encircle a single mountain, they create pointed 1656:: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified by size. 1616:

The rate of glacier erosion varies. Six factors control erosion rate:

1551: 1186:

is the basal shear stress, a function of bed temperature and softness.

978: 721:

The accumulation zone can be subdivided based on its melt conditions.

693: 564: 7754: 7744: 7723: 7652: 7497: 7472: 7452: 7387: 7377: 7346: 7341: 7306: 6761: 6701: 6630: 6625: 6620: 5350: 4939: 4631: 3937: 1983: 1799: 1672: 1606: 1532: 1512: 1484: 1473: 1443: 1415: 1394:. In New Guinea, small, rapidly diminishing, glaciers are located on 1371: 1351: 1155: 1154:

and allowing the glacier to slide over the terrain on which it sits.

660: 505: 481: 472: 460:. A large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or 299: 276: 251: 231: 51: 4920: 3051: 3023: 2798:"What causes the blue color that sometimes appears in snow and ice?" 1766: 1740:), while a longer slope is left in the ice's direction of movement ( 429: 310:

Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g.,

302:

as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a

27:

This article is about the geological formation. For other uses, see

7764: 7759: 7749: 7718: 7682: 7677: 7667: 7519: 7467: 7442: 7301: 7296: 7115: 7110: 6863: 6787: 6696: 4547: 4205: 3396: 2771:"Processes and patterns of glacial erosion", (In Coates, D.R. ed., 2568: 1994: 1462: 1447: 1411: 1383: 1379: 1258: 1227:, a prominent subglacial lake beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. 1177:

is the driving stress, and α the ice surface slope in radians.

1104: 1019: 999: 991: 767: 674: 642: 585: 556:

that are much less affected by climate change than other glaciers.

358: 267: 263: 204: 83: 41:

Persistent body of ice that is moving downhill under its own weight

7838: 6924: 3561:

Tsai, V. C. and G. Ekström (2007). J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03S22,

1811: 1791:. If a glacial valley runs into a large body of water, it forms a 1610: 656: 7774: 7672: 7642: 7587: 7577: 7402: 7336: 7331: 7316: 7291: 7057: 7047: 6974: 6746: 6731: 6640: 6615: 5328: 4986: 4229: 3469:

The Evolution of a Glacier Surge Observed with the ERS Satellites

2298:"Millions at risk as melting Pakistan glaciers raise flood fears" 2209: 2147: 2036: 1924: 1864: 1860: 1732: 1685: 1516: 1331: 955: 782: 773: 549: 548:. As the ice reaches the sea, pieces break off or calve, forming 490: 466: 461: 224: 216: 200: 67: 4815:

A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities

4174:. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 3337: 1798:

Typically glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller

1479: 950:

representing the sum of the velocities of all the layers below.

7703: 7326: 6929: 6610: 6605: 6331: 4596:"Probing the Mysterious Glacial Flow on Pluto's Frozen 'Heart'" 3030:

Kleman, John (2008). "Geomorphology: Where glaciers cut deep".

1895:

and clusters, remain after the glacier melts and are known as "

1492: 1435: 1082:

Movement of the overlying glacier may cause the bed to undergo

983: 742:

The health of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the

715: 646: 212: 3001: 2059:

Water runoff from melting glaciers causes global sea level to

1418:

to the far north, New Zealand and the subantarctic islands of

250:. Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the 187: 163: 125: 7657: 7572: 7487: 7412: 7246: 7239: 7120: 6949: 6766: 6245:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

5338: 4950:

Photo project tracks changes in Himalayan glaciers since 1921

4825:

A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet.

2168: 1931: 1911: 1792: 1375: 1347: 1272:

A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called

1008: 959: 942: 418: 388: 255: 220: 208: 1945: 1891:

alluvial deposits. These deposits, in the forms of columns,

34:"Ice river" redirects here. For the Chinese ski course, see 7492: 7437: 7397: 7130: 6899: 6706: 6560: 3547: 3545: 3106: 2576: 2154:

found ice under a thin layer of rocks in formations called

2138: 2064: 1901: 1705: 1689: 1367: 1110:

As well as affecting the sediment stress, fluid pressure (p

667: 443: 437:

in Peru is the second-largest glaciated area in the tropics

184: 178: 160: 119: 4372:. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2022. 4093: 3958: 3913: 3067:"A short history of scientific investigations on glaciers" 2855: 1855:. When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a 1774:

Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic

1257:

The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by

227:

and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.

122: 7229: 6421:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

3889:, pp. 263–264, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 3741:"Hawaiian Glaciers Reveal Clues to Global Climate Change" 2787:, pp. 260–262, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 1629:

Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier

1158:

may be produced by pressure-induced melting, friction or

172: 154: 148: 113: 4278:

Source mentions ice-albedo and melt-elevation feedbacks.

4161: 4159: 4157: 4155: 3715:. Portland, Maine, USA. pp. 147–157. Archived from 3542: 1562:

Glaciers erode terrain through two principal processes:

910:= a constant between 2–4 (typically 3 for most glaciers) 4873:

Vanishing Ice: Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Rising Seas

4225: 4223: 3705: 3512: 7198: 3130: 756:

glaciers around the Earth have retreated substantially

326:

are considered among the most sensitive indicators of

230:

On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast

7849: 6262:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

4894:

12 May 2017, Vol. 356, Issue 6338, pp. 580–581,

4152: 4036:, pp. 271, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 1762:

Glacial valleys, cirques, arêtes, and pyramidal peaks

918: 895: 872: 849: 803: 181: 157: 4976:

Mountain glaciers and their role in the Earth system

4665:, which was accessed in the version of 24 July 2005. 4220: 4084:, p. 264, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 3904:, p. 263, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 2936: 2080:

Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust

1728:

is evident in the orientation of the various mounds.

175: 151: 116: 4763:. University of British Columbia Press, UCL Press. 4393:

Global Warming Cycles: Ice Ages and Glacial Retreat

2932: 2930: 2928: 2832:"Glacier change and related hazards in Switzerland" 2622: 2200: – Artificial process used for making glaciers 1635:

Permeability and water pressure at the glacier base

504:. In Antarctica, many ice streams drain into large 258:, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, 169: 145: 110: 4788: 4674: 4200: 4198: 3064: 2341:"170'000 km cube d'eau dans les glaciers du monde" 2188: – Landform created by the action of glaciers 925: 902: 879: 856: 829: 649:landform (alternatively known as a corrie or as a 559: 508:. Some drain directly into the sea, often with an 406:. Glaciers are important components of the global 3207:Clarke, G. K. C. (2005). "Subglacial processes". 2735: 2514:. American Meteorological Society. Archived from 766:"Ice flow" redirects here. For floating ice, see 7873: 6462:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 4087: 3528:, Ekström, G., M. Nettles, and V.C. Tsai (2006) 3206: 2925: 2444:(5 ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. 2322:National Geographic Almanac of Geography, 2005, 1150:by the presence of liquid water, reducing basal 1078:Porosity may vary through a range of methods. 4195: 337:A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, 203:. It acquires distinguishing features, such as 4731: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3202: 3200: 3198: 2985: 2983: 2539:, Department of Geography and Geology (2015). 2399:(4). International Mountain Society: 401–404. 2270: 348: 266:in Iran. With more than 7,000 known glaciers, 234:(also known as "continental glaciers") in the 90:is one of the world's longest alpine glaciers. 7214: 6576: 5207:History of climate change policy and politics 5002: 4497: 4281: 3867:"On the Zoogeography of the Holarctic Region" 3682:, National Mapping Fab, Geoscience Australia" 3661: 3390: 3209:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 2363:"Ice, Snow, and Glaciers and the Water Cycle" 2013:. Human influence is the principal driver of 4705:Benn, Douglas I.; Evans, David J.A. (1999). 4681:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 4672: 4526: 3029: 2731: 2729: 2487:"Retreat of Alaskan glacier Juneau icefield" 1469:lowers precipitation so much that with high 1434:. During glacial periods of the Quaternary, 1129: 402:. The corresponding area of study is called 5324:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 4913:"Global Glacier Changes: Facts and Figures" 4587: 3840:. July 28, 2017. p. 15. Archived from 3706:Kincaid, Joni L.; Klein, Andrew G. (2004). 3592: 3577: 3326: 3235: 2997: 2995: 2980: 2275:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 2271:Post, Austin; LaChapelle, Edward R (2000). 973: 650: 392: 381: 370: 7221: 7207: 6583: 6569: 6543: 6531: 5988: 5009: 4995: 4503: 4054: 3812:. Beringia.com. 1999-04-12. Archived from 3275: 3175: 3124: 2541:"Morphological Classification of Glaciers" 1845: 1450:also had large alpine glaciers, while the 1195:, the shear stress, is the lower of τ 419:Classification by size, shape and behavior 6283: 6089:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 5232:United Nations Climate Change conferences 4734:Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms 4704: 4546: 4263: 4127: 4045: 3743:. Geology.com. 2007-01-26. Archived from 3422: 3166: 3156: 3086: 2886: 2726: 2414: 2404: 1946:Retreat of glaciers due to climate change 1822:; particularly steep examples are called 1338:in New Zealand finishes near a rainforest 922: 899: 876: 853: 826: 5793:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 4828: 4532: 4363:"IPCC AR6 WGII Summary for Policymakers" 3251:Glacier Science and Environmental Change 2992: 2910:"Recent Global Glacier Retreat Overview" 2264: 2121: 2075: 2023: 1883:Landscape produced by a receding glacier 1878: 1814:is left. This structure may result in a 1765: 1715: 1671: 1605:Glacially plucked granitic bedrock near 1600: 1550: 1478: 1330: 1299: 1248: 1218: 1203:. It controls the rate of plastic flow. 1133: 1061: 1013: 977: 936: 772: 692: 620: 563: 428: 330:and are a major source of variations in 282:Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of 77: 57: 45: 6149:National Adaptation Programme of Action 5938:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 4758: 4625: 4593: 4081: 4033: 3901: 3886: 3684:. Ga.gov.au. 2010-11-18. Archived from 3248: 2784: 2669: 2437: 2228: 2226: 1754:. One of these fields is found east of 1744:). Drumlins are found in groups called 1325:Further information on this topic: 1057: 781:Glaciers move downhill by the force of 14: 7874: 5798:Economics of climate change mitigation 5761:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 5284: 5112:Scientific consensus on climate change 4818: 4786: 4673:Hambrey, Michael; Alean, Jürg (2004). 4389: 3766:"French Colonies – Crozet Archipelago" 3680:Australian Landforms and their History 3281: 3229:10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122621 2738:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers 2212: – Accumulation of ice in a river 1632:Thermal conditions at the glacier base 645:. A glacier usually originates from a 7202: 6564: 6457:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6282: 5987: 5723: 5283: 5195: 5076: 5028: 4990: 4983:– Before/After Images by Simon Oberli 4732:Bennett, M.R.; Glasser, N.F. (1996). 4650: 4379:from the original on 22 January 2023. 4295:from the original on 29 January 2023. 4178:from the original on 28 January 2023. 4165: 3644:"10 Countries With The Most Glaciers" 2590: 2295: 2232: 994:. This upper section is known as the 830:{\displaystyle \Sigma =k\tau ^{n},\,} 74:(3.768 m), second highest in Austria. 7823: 6479:Representative Concentration Pathway 5430:Tipping points in the climate system 5106:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 4917:United Nations Environment Programme 4046:Benn, Douglas; Evans, David (1998). 3810:"Yukon Beringia Interpretive Center" 2223: 2071: 1829: 6250:Nationally determined contributions 5960:Individual action on climate change 5175:World energy supply and consumption 4050:. London: Arnold. pp. 324–326. 3785: 2939:Dynamics of Ice Sheets and Glaciers 2706:"What types of glaciers are there?" 2107: 1874: 1146:, where the base of the glacier is 588:may experience seasonal melting. A 24: 6389:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 5016: 4875:(Columbia University Press, 2019) 4865: 4821:Introduction to Physical Geography 4657:This article draws heavily on the 3133:"How dynamic are ice-stream beds?" 2379: 1942:can be important in this process. 1541: 1007:isolated peaks in the ice, called 933:= a temperature-dependent constant 850: 804: 70:. The mountain to the left is the 25: 7908: 6316:Satellite temperature measurement 5921:forestry for carbon sequestration 5212:History of climate change science 4905: 4021:National Snow and Ice Data Center 3623:"Glossary of Glacier Terminology" 3552:"Analysis of Glacial Earthquakes" 2714:National Snow and Ice Data Center 2606:National Snow and Ice Data Center 2466:"Glossary of Glacier Terminology" 2393:Mountain Research and Development 2206: – Geomorphology of glaciers 1918: 50:Glacier of the Geikie Plateau in 7859: 7833: 7822: 7812: 7811: 7188:Template:Periglacial environment 6542: 6530: 6519: 6518: 6506: 6167:Climate Change Performance Index 4940:Glacial structures – photo atlas 4783:An undergraduate-level textbook. 4216:from the original on 2019-12-21. 3768:. Discoverfrance.net. 2010-12-09 3578:Summerfield, Michael A. (1991). 2898:from the original on 2007-06-04. 2557:from the original on 2017-08-12. 2406:10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00071.1 2053:World Glacier Monitoring Service 1975: 1960: 1555:Diagram of glacial plucking and 1265:per day, such as in Greenland's 141: 106: 6306:Instrumental temperature record 6257:Sustainable Development Goal 13 4618: 4594:Umurhan, O. (January 8, 2016). 4488: 4479: 4470: 4449: 4438:from the original on 2008-02-27 4414: 4383: 4304: 4039: 4005: 3952: 3907: 3859: 3827: 3802: 3779: 3758: 3733: 3699: 3670: 3636: 3615: 3595:Surface Processes and Landforms 3586: 3571: 3503: 3482: 3460: 3431: 3095: 3058: 2977:W.S.B. Paterson, Physics of ice 2971: 2937:Greve, R.; Blatter, H. (2009). 2902: 2849: 2824: 2811: 2790: 2762: 2698: 2616: 2561: 2548:www.uwsp.edu/Pages/default.aspx 2529: 2504: 2479: 2047:with glaciers. For example, in 2021:of which glaciers are a part. 1859:. When the deposition is in an 1770:Features of a glacial landscape 1170:= ρgh sin α 560:Classification by thermal state 361:from French and goes back, via 238:, but glaciers may be found in 6374:Climate variability and change 5724: 5415:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 4795:. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. 4626:Huggett, Richard John (2011). 4318:Environmental Research Letters 4206:"The Causes of Climate Change" 4166:Dusto, Amy (28 January 2023). 2458: 2431: 2355: 2333: 2316: 2289: 1952:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 546:Southern Patagonian Ice Fields 13: 1: 6484:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 6019:Climate emergency declaration 4628:Fundamentals Of Geomorphology 4186:scanning electron microscopes 2489:. Nichols.edu. Archived from 2347:. Aug 6, 2015. Archived from 2216: 2194: – Geological phenomenon 1863:, the sediments are known as 1654:Fluvial and outwash sediments 1503:in Antarctica are considered 572:is an advancing polar glacier 554:cycles of advance and retreat 6590: 6467:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 5693:Middle East and North Africa 5029: 4919:(UNEP). 2008. Archived from 3109:. 2006-12-11. Archived from 2866:Geophysical Research Letters 2746:10.1007/978-90-481-2642-2_72 2677:"Description of Ice Streams" 2647:10.1126/science.252.5003.242 2009:in the air, causing current 1620:Velocity of glacial movement 1320: 688: 616: 7: 5196: 4962:The Mountains of California 4390:Casper, Julie Kerr (2010). 4013:"Glacial Landforms: Trough" 3625:. Pubs.usgs.gov. 2012-06-20 3073:. Special issue (S1): 4–5. 3065:Clarke, Garry K.C. (1987). 2179: 2152:Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 1711: 1667: 1458:were completely glaciated. 349:Etymology and related terms 82:With 7,253 known glaciers, 10: 7913: 6301:Global surface temperature 6192:Popular culture depictions 6104:Ecosystem-based adaptation 5834:Carbon capture and storage 5756:Carbon offsets and credits 5077: 4934:Global Environment Outlook 4888:Saying goodbye to glaciers 4823:. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. 4663:Spanish-language Knowledge 4256:10.1038/s41467-020-18934-3 3597:(2 ed.). New Jersey: 3593:Easterbrook, D.J. (1999). 2441:Cassell's Latin Dictionary 2111: 1949: 1546: 1324: 1142:Glaciers may also move by 864:= shear strain (flow) rate 765: 605:, as sliding ice promotes 422: 62:The Taschachferner in the 33: 26: 7806: 7773: 7737: 7691: 7635: 7618:Short-track speed skating 7563: 7515: 7506: 7365: 7279: 7253: 7236: 7168: 7101: 7040: 6917: 6908: 6877: 6856: 6780: 6669: 6598: 6513:Climate change portal 6500: 6439: 6406:Extreme event attribution 6324: 6293: 6289: 6278: 6222: 6157: 6079: 6029:School Strike for Climate 6001: 5997: 5983: 5952: 5908:Climate-smart agriculture 5869: 5826: 5736: 5732: 5719: 5643: 5506: 5453: 5296: 5292: 5279: 5202: 5191: 5120: 5089: 5085: 5072: 5055:Climate change adaptation 5050:Climate change mitigation 5045:Effects of climate change 5035: 5024: 4966:California Legacy Project 4787:Knight, Peter G. (1999). 4759:Hambrey, Michael (1994). 4736:. John Wiley & Sons. 4048:Glaciers & Glaciation 3259:10.1002/9780470750636.ch2 3088:10.3189/S0022143000215785 2947:10.1007/978-3-642-03415-2 2512:"Glossary of Meteorology" 2233:Craig, Tim (2016-08-12). 2131:Ismenius Lacus quadrangle 2097:region of North America. 1398:. Africa has glaciers on 1295: 1130:Basal melting and sliding 857:{\displaystyle \Sigma \,} 761: 651: 341:, as large quantities of 6416:Global warming potential 6223:International agreements 5870:Preserving and enhancing 5314:Arctic methane emissions 5236:Years in climate change 5143:Greenhouse gas emissions 5040:Causes of climate change 4945:NOW on PBS "On Thin Ice" 4338:10.1088/1748-9326/ad25a4 3532:, 311, 5768, 1756–1758, 2681:British Antarctic Survey 1936:Midwestern United States 1810:narrow ridge, called an 1428:Grande Terre (Kerguelen) 1244: 1223:Location and diagram of 974:Fracture zone and cracks 685:of bubbles in the ice.) 641:of snow and ice exceeds 637:Glaciers form where the 413: 29:Glacier (disambiguation) 7228: 6447:Climate change scenario 6099:Disaster risk reduction 5751:Carbon emission trading 5561:U.S. insurance industry 5541:Civilizational collapse 5388:sea surface temperature 4900:10.1126/science.aam9625 4819:Walley, Robert (1992). 4707:Glaciers and Glaciation 4396:. Infobase Publishing. 4120:10.1126/science.abo1324 3538:10.1126/science.1122112 3509:Meier & Post (1969) 3443:www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu 3424:10.5194/tc-18-1085-2024 3360:10.1126/science.1136897 3158:10.5194/tc-12-1615-2018 3028:Non-technical summary: 2569:"Sea Level and Climate" 2537:University of Wisconsin 2045:positive feedback loops 2043:Global warming creates 1927:deposition site. These 1846:Alluvial stratification 1676:Glacial moraines above 1531:located near or in the 1483:Black ice glacier near 1107:, where it re-freezes. 880:{\displaystyle \tau \,} 452:, or alternatively, an 199:over many years, often 6440:Research and modelling 6124:Nature-based solutions 5944:Nature-based solutions 5886:Carbon dioxide removal 5803:Fossil fuel divestment 5788:Climate risk insurance 5698:Small island countries 5319:Arctic sea ice decline 4981:GletscherVergleiche.ch 4289:"Global Glacier State" 2834:. UNEP. Archived from 2438:Simpson, D.P. (1979). 2296:Staff (June 9, 2020). 2137:The polar ice caps of 2134: 2081: 2040: 2029:Ice lagoon Jökulsárlón 1884: 1771: 1729: 1681: 1613: 1559: 1488: 1364:Scandinavian Mountains 1339: 1309: 1254: 1228: 1139: 1067: 1035: 1018:Shear or herring-bone 987: 946: 927: 904: 881: 858: 831: 778: 699: 634: 573: 438: 393: 382: 371: 91: 75: 55: 36:Ice River (ski course) 7126:Giant current ripples 6401:Earth's energy budget 6284:Background and theory 6172:Climate crisis (term) 5844:Fossil fuel phase-out 5738:Economics and finance 5703:by individual country 5645:By country and region 5620:Security and conflict 5615:Psychological impacts 5304:Abrupt climate change 5227:Charles David Keeling 5060:By country and region 4659:corresponding article 4513:The Planetary Society 4459:. Esa.int. 2006-01-20 4422:"Kargel, J.S. et al.: 4236:Nature Communications 3786:Collins, Henry Hill. 3071:Journal of Glaciology 2773:Glacial Geomorphology 2125: 2079: 2027: 1968:South Cascade Glacier 1950:Further information: 1882: 1769: 1719: 1675: 1604: 1554: 1482: 1334: 1303: 1252: 1222: 1137: 1065: 1017: 981: 940: 928: 905: 882: 859: 832: 776: 696: 631:Perito Moreno Glacier 624: 567: 432: 423:Further information: 81: 61: 49: 6230:Glasgow Climate Pact 5891:Carbon sequestration 5466:Mass mortality event 4971:Dynamics of Glaciers 4964:by John Muir, 1894. 4954:Short radio episode 4761:Glacial Environments 4507:(21 December 2015). 3835:"Earth History 2001" 3601:, Inc. p. 546. 3580:Global Geomorphology 3567:10.1029/2006JF000596 2888:10.1029/2004GL020816 2156:lobate debris aprons 2087:post-glacial rebound 1726:Laurentide Ice Sheet 1623:Thickness of the ice 1304:Forbes bands on the 1058:Subglacial processes 916: 893: 870: 847: 801: 754:'s end around 1850, 744:glacier mass balance 487:continental glaciers 324:glacial mass changes 7714:Iceman (occupation) 7063:Moraine-dammed lake 6890:Subglacial eruption 6369:Climate sensitivity 6144:The Adaptation Fund 5600:Infectious diseases 5507:Social and economic 4957:California Glaciers 4834:Physics of Glaciers 4565:10.1038/nature18289 4557:2016Natur.534...82M 4330:2024ERL....19c4022K 4248:2020NatCo..11.5177W 4112:2023Sci...379...78R 4064:. Britannica Online 3983:10.1038/nature15385 3975:2015Natur.526..100K 3930:2010Geo....38..423D 3788:Europe and the USSR 3467:T. Strozzi et al.: 3415:2024TCry...18.1085W 3352:2007Sci...315.1544F 3346:(5818): 1544–1548. 3304:10.1038/nature09618 3296:2010Natur.468..803S 3221:2005AREPS..33..247C 3149:2018TCry...12.1615D 3079:1987JGlac..33S...4C 3044:2008NatGe...1..343K 3016:2008NatGe...1..365K 2879:2004GeoRL..3121402P 2639:1991Sci...252..242B 2598:"Types of Glaciers" 2351:on August 17, 2017. 2240:The Washington Post 2063:, a phenomenon the 2049:ice–albedo feedback 2033:Vatnajökull Glacier 2031:at the foot of the 1756:Rochester, New York 1501:McMurdo Dry Valleys 1392:last glacial period 1390:was present in the 1289:glacial earthquakes 1285:glacial earthquakes 1232:in two main modes: 926:{\displaystyle k\,} 903:{\displaystyle n\,} 683:Rayleigh scattering 376:, derived from the 7266:Crystalline phases 6895:Subglacial volcano 6878:Volcanic relations 5940:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 5912:Forest management 5896:Direct air capture 5861:Sustainable energy 5818:Net zero emissions 5813:Low-carbon economy 5808:Green Climate Fund 5595:Indigenous peoples 5498:Plant biodiversity 5286:Effects and issues 4932:, a report in the 4651:General references 4299:chart on Wikimedia 4190:gas chromatographs 4182:mass spectrometers 3667:Grunewald, p. 129. 3557:2008-10-07 at the 3524:2008-10-07 at the 3475:2014-11-11 at the 2204:Glacier morphology 2135: 2082: 2041: 1885: 1772: 1730: 1682: 1614: 1592:glacial striations 1580:Timpanogos Glacier 1560: 1489: 1467:Hadley circulation 1408:Rwenzori Mountains 1340: 1310: 1255: 1229: 1140: 1068: 1036: 988: 982:Ice cracks in the 947: 923: 900: 877: 854: 827: 779: 700: 635: 599:warm-based glacier 595:cold-based glacier 574: 568:Webber Glacier on 521:Tidewater glaciers 439: 425:Glacier morphology 246:countries such as 92: 76: 56: 7847: 7846: 7828:Wikimedia Commons 7631: 7630: 7196: 7195: 7164: 7163: 6682:Accumulation zone 6558: 6557: 6496: 6495: 6492: 6491: 6431:Radiative forcing 6274: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6094:Adaptive capacity 5979: 5978: 5975: 5974: 5839:Energy transition 5715: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5435:Tropical cyclones 5361:Urban heat island 5275: 5274: 5187: 5186: 5183: 5182: 5148:Carbon accounting 5102:Greenhouse effect 5068: 5067: 4871:Gornitz, Vivien. 4847:978-0-08-013972-2 4802:978-0-7487-4000-0 4770:978-0-7748-0510-0 4743:978-0-471-96344-8 4716:978-0-470-23651-2 4688:978-0-521-82808-6 4641:978-0-203-86008-3 4505:Lakdawalla, Emily 4403:978-0-8160-7262-0 3969:(7571): 100–103. 3608:978-0-13-860958-0 3290:(7325): 803–806. 3268:978-0-470-75063-6 3253:. pp. 2–22. 3032:Nature Geoscience 3004:Nature Geoscience 2956:978-3-642-03414-5 2800:. Webexhibits.org 2755:978-90-481-2641-5 2451:978-0-304-52257-6 2282:978-0-295-97910-6 2127:Protonilus Mensae 2102:dilation-faulting 2072:Isostatic rebound 1830:Roches moutonnées 1789:paternoster lakes 1680:, Alberta, Canada 1400:Mount Kilimanjaro 1308:glacier in France 1278:supraglacial lake 792:Glen–Nye flow law 712:accumulation zone 578:temperate glacier 534:Ellesmere Islands 494:water are called 435:Quelccaya Ice Cap 387:, and ultimately 343:water appear blue 16:(Redirected from 7904: 7864: 7863: 7862: 7855: 7837: 7826: 7825: 7815: 7814: 7513: 7512: 7223: 7216: 7209: 7200: 7199: 7083:Terminal moraine 6915: 6914: 6651:Piedmont glacier 6585: 6578: 6571: 6562: 6561: 6546: 6545: 6534: 6533: 6522: 6521: 6511: 6510: 6509: 6474:Paleoclimatology 6291: 6290: 6280: 6279: 6041:Ecological grief 6024:Climate movement 5999: 5998: 5985: 5984: 5965:Plant-based diet 5856:Renewable energy 5734: 5733: 5721: 5720: 5556:Economic impacts 5488:Invasive species 5344:Coastal flooding 5294: 5293: 5281: 5280: 5217:Svante Arrhenius 5193: 5192: 5163:from agriculture 5153:Carbon footprint 5138:Greenhouse gases 5087: 5086: 5074: 5073: 5026: 5025: 5011: 5004: 4997: 4988: 4987: 4931: 4929: 4928: 4859: 4836:(3rd ed.). 4830:Paterson, W.S.B. 4824: 4814: 4794: 4782: 4755: 4728: 4700: 4680: 4645: 4612: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4550: 4530: 4524: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4501: 4495: 4492: 4486: 4483: 4477: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4464: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4444: 4443: 4437: 4430: 4418: 4412: 4411: 4387: 4381: 4380: 4378: 4367: 4359: 4350: 4349: 4308: 4302: 4296: 4285: 4279: 4277: 4267: 4227: 4218: 4217: 4210:climate.nasa.gov 4202: 4193: 4179: 4163: 4150: 4149: 4131: 4091: 4085: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4069: 4062:"Kettle geology" 4058: 4052: 4051: 4043: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4024: 4009: 4003: 4002: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3938:10.1130/G30576.1 3911: 3905: 3899: 3890: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3874: 3863: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3847:on March 3, 2016 3846: 3839: 3831: 3825: 3824: 3822: 3821: 3806: 3800: 3799: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3774: 3773: 3762: 3756: 3755: 3753: 3752: 3737: 3731: 3730: 3728: 3727: 3721: 3714: 3703: 3697: 3696: 3694: 3693: 3674: 3668: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3656: 3655: 3640: 3634: 3633: 3631: 3630: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3575: 3569: 3549: 3540: 3516: 3510: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3498: 3497: 3486: 3480: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3454: 3445:. 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Archived from 2594: 2588: 2587: 2585: 2584: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2545: 2533: 2527: 2526: 2524: 2523: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2499: 2498: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2474: 2473: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2418: 2416:2060/20110015312 2408: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2374: 2373: 2359: 2353: 2352: 2337: 2331: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2311: 2310: 2293: 2287: 2286: 2268: 2262: 2261: 2256: 2255: 2230: 2186:Glacial landform 2118:Sputnik Planitia 2114:Glaciers on Mars 2108:On other planets 2007:greenhouse gases 2002:concentrations. 1979: 1964: 1897:glacial deposits 1875:Glacial deposits 1720:Drumlins around 1662:glacial erratics 1402:in Tanzania, on 1388:Mount Kosciuszko 1327:List of glaciers 1267:Jakobshavn Isbræ 932: 930: 929: 924: 909: 907: 906: 901: 886: 884: 883: 878: 863: 861: 860: 855: 836: 834: 833: 828: 822: 821: 677:of the infrared 654: 653: 590:subpolar glacier 538:Southeast Alaska 458:mountain glacier 396: 385: 374: 363:Franco-Provençal 316:mean temperature 194: 193: 190: 189: 186: 183: 180: 177: 174: 171: 166: 165: 162: 159: 156: 153: 150: 147: 140: 132: 131: 128: 127: 124: 121: 118: 115: 112: 105: 21: 7912: 7911: 7907: 7906: 7905: 7903: 7902: 7901: 7897:Montane ecology 7872: 7871: 7870: 7860: 7858: 7850: 7848: 7843: 7802: 7769: 7733: 7687: 7627: 7559: 7508: 7502: 7373:Albedo feedback 7361: 7275: 7261:Amorphous solid 7249: 7232: 7227: 7197: 7192: 7160: 7097: 7078:Sevetti moraine 7036: 6990:Roche moutonnée 6935:Cirque stairway 6904: 6873: 6852: 6776: 6737:Lateral moraine 6665: 6594: 6589: 6559: 6554: 6507: 6505: 6488: 6435: 6426:Orbital forcing 6320: 6285: 6266: 6240:Paris Agreement 6218: 6214:Warming stripes 6153: 6119:Managed retreat 6114:Loss and damage 6075: 6009:Business action 5993: 5971: 5948: 5871: 5865: 5822: 5783:Climate finance 5728: 5707: 5639: 5502: 5478:Extinction risk 5454:Flora and fauna 5449: 5410:Permafrost thaw 5405:Ozone depletion 5334:Extreme weather 5288: 5271: 5198: 5179: 5116: 5081: 5064: 5031: 5020: 5015: 4926: 4924: 4911: 4908: 4868: 4866:Further reading 4863: 4848: 4803: 4771: 4744: 4717: 4689: 4653: 4648: 4642: 4621: 4616: 4615: 4605: 4603: 4592: 4588: 4541:(7605): 82–85. 4531: 4527: 4517: 4515: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4462: 4460: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4441: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4420: 4419: 4415: 4404: 4388: 4384: 4376: 4365: 4361: 4360: 4353: 4309: 4305: 4287: 4286: 4282: 4228: 4221: 4204: 4203: 4196: 4164: 4153: 4106:(6627): 78–83. 4092: 4088: 4080: 4076: 4067: 4065: 4060: 4059: 4055: 4044: 4040: 4032: 4028: 4011: 4010: 4006: 3957: 3953: 3912: 3908: 3900: 3893: 3885: 3881: 3872: 3870: 3865: 3864: 3860: 3850: 3848: 3844: 3837: 3833: 3832: 3828: 3819: 3817: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3790:. p. 263. 3784: 3780: 3771: 3769: 3764: 3763: 3759: 3750: 3748: 3739: 3738: 3734: 3725: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3704: 3700: 3691: 3689: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3666: 3662: 3653: 3651: 3642: 3641: 3637: 3628: 3626: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3609: 3591: 3587: 3576: 3572: 3559:Wayback Machine 3550: 3543: 3526:Wayback Machine 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3495: 3493: 3488: 3487: 3483: 3477:Wayback Machine 3465: 3461: 3452: 3450: 3437: 3436: 3432: 3395: 3391: 3336: 3327: 3280: 3276: 3269: 3247: 3236: 3205: 3176: 3129: 3125: 3116: 3114: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3063: 3059: 3052:10.1038/ngeo210 3024:10.1038/ngeo201 3000: 2993: 2988: 2981: 2976: 2972: 2957: 2935: 2926: 2917: 2915: 2912: 2908: 2907: 2903: 2895: 2860: 2854: 2850: 2841: 2839: 2830: 2829: 2825: 2816: 2812: 2803: 2801: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2783: 2779: 2767: 2763: 2756: 2734: 2727: 2718: 2716: 2704: 2703: 2699: 2690: 2688: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2621: 2617: 2596: 2595: 2591: 2582: 2580: 2567: 2566: 2562: 2554: 2543: 2534: 2530: 2521: 2519: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2496: 2494: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2471: 2469: 2464: 2463: 2459: 2452: 2436: 2432: 2384: 2380: 2371: 2369: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2339: 2338: 2334: 2321: 2317: 2308: 2306: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2269: 2265: 2253: 2251: 2231: 2224: 2219: 2198:Glacier growing 2182: 2120: 2112:Main articles: 2110: 2074: 1991: 1990: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1980: 1972: 1971: 1965: 1954: 1948: 1940:Katabatic winds 1921: 1877: 1848: 1837:roche moutonnée 1832: 1820:pyramidal peaks 1804:hanging valleys 1785:truncated spurs 1764: 1714: 1694:ground moraines 1670: 1549: 1544: 1542:Glacial geology 1525:northern Alaska 1356:Rocky Mountains 1329: 1323: 1298: 1247: 1214: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1185: 1176: 1169: 1160:geothermal heat 1132: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1074: 1060: 976: 917: 914: 913: 894: 891: 890: 871: 868: 867: 848: 845: 844: 817: 813: 802: 799: 798: 771: 764: 691: 629:located on the 619: 562: 427: 421: 416: 351: 240:mountain ranges 168: 144: 135: 134: 109: 100: 99: 88:Baltoro Glacier 42: 39: 32: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7910: 7900: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7869: 7868: 7845: 7844: 7842: 7841: 7830: 7819: 7807: 7804: 7803: 7801: 7800: 7798:Snowball Earth 7795: 7790: 7788:Little Ice Age 7785: 7779: 7777: 7771: 7770: 7768: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7752: 7747: 7741: 7739: 7735: 7734: 7732: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7695: 7693: 7689: 7688: 7686: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7645: 7639: 7637: 7633: 7632: 7629: 7628: 7626: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7598:Figure skating 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7569: 7567: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7516: 7510: 7504: 7503: 7501: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7383:Circle or disc 7380: 7375: 7369: 7367: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7283: 7281: 7277: 7276: 7274: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7257: 7255: 7251: 7250: 7237: 7234: 7233: 7226: 7225: 7218: 7211: 7203: 7194: 7193: 7191: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7169: 7166: 7165: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7107: 7105: 7099: 7098: 7096: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7044: 7042: 7038: 7037: 7035: 7034: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6970:Hanging valley 6967: 6965:Glacial striae 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6921: 6919: 6912: 6906: 6905: 6903: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6881: 6879: 6875: 6874: 6872: 6871: 6866: 6860: 6858: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6828:Periglaciation 6825: 6820: 6818:Outburst flood 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6784: 6782: 6778: 6777: 6775: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6742:Medial moraine 6739: 6734: 6729: 6727:Glacier tongue 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6673: 6671: 6667: 6666: 6664: 6663: 6661:Valley glacier 6658: 6653: 6648: 6646:Outlet glacier 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6595: 6588: 6587: 6580: 6573: 6565: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6552: 6540: 6528: 6516: 6501: 6498: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6443: 6441: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6392: 6391: 6381: 6379:Cloud feedback 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6360: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6334: 6328: 6326: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6297: 6295: 6287: 6286: 6276: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6267: 6265: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6253: 6252: 6247: 6237: 6235:Kyoto Protocol 6232: 6226: 6224: 6220: 6219: 6217: 6216: 6211: 6210: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6189: 6187:Media coverage 6184: 6179: 6177:Climate spiral 6174: 6169: 6163: 6161: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6085: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6073: 6068: 6066:Public opinion 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6032: 6031: 6021: 6016: 6014:Climate action 6011: 6005: 6003: 5995: 5994: 5981: 5980: 5977: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5970: 5969: 5968: 5967: 5956: 5954: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5946: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5933: 5928: 5926:REDD and REDD+ 5923: 5918: 5910: 5905: 5903:Carbon farming 5900: 5899: 5898: 5893: 5883: 5877: 5875: 5867: 5866: 5864: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5847: 5846: 5836: 5830: 5828: 5824: 5823: 5821: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5764: 5763: 5753: 5748: 5742: 5740: 5730: 5729: 5717: 5716: 5713: 5712: 5709: 5708: 5706: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5649: 5647: 5641: 5640: 5638: 5637: 5635:Water security 5632: 5630:Water scarcity 5627: 5625:Urban flooding 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5564: 5563: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5527: 5526: 5521: 5510: 5508: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5483:Forest dieback 5480: 5475: 5470: 5469: 5468: 5457: 5455: 5451: 5450: 5448: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5420:Sea level rise 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5401: 5400: 5395: 5393:stratification 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5365: 5364: 5363: 5358: 5348: 5347: 5346: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5300: 5298: 5290: 5289: 5277: 5276: 5273: 5272: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5189: 5188: 5185: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5171: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5158:Carbon leakage 5155: 5150: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5099: 5097:Climate system 5093: 5091: 5083: 5082: 5070: 5069: 5066: 5065: 5063: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5036: 5033: 5032: 5022: 5021: 5018:Climate change 5014: 5013: 5006: 4999: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4907: 4906:External links 4904: 4903: 4902: 4880: 4879: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4861: 4846: 4838:Pergamon Press 4826: 4816: 4801: 4784: 4769: 4756: 4742: 4729: 4715: 4702: 4687: 4669: 4668: 4667: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4646: 4640: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4614: 4613: 4600:blogs.nasa.gov 4586: 4525: 4496: 4487: 4478: 4469: 4448: 4413: 4402: 4382: 4351: 4303: 4280: 4219: 4212:. NASA. 2019. 4194: 4151: 4086: 4074: 4053: 4038: 4026: 4004: 3951: 3924:(5): 423–426. 3906: 3891: 3879: 3858: 3826: 3801: 3778: 3757: 3732: 3698: 3678:"C.D. Ollier: 3669: 3660: 3635: 3614: 3607: 3585: 3582:. p. 269. 3570: 3541: 3511: 3502: 3481: 3459: 3430: 3403:The Cryosphere 3389: 3325: 3274: 3267: 3234: 3215:(1): 247–276. 3174: 3137:The Cryosphere 3123: 3094: 3057: 2991: 2979: 2970: 2955: 2924: 2901: 2873:(21): L21402. 2848: 2823: 2810: 2789: 2777: 2761: 2754: 2725: 2697: 2668: 2615: 2612:on 2010-04-17. 2589: 2573:USGS FS 002-00 2560: 2528: 2503: 2478: 2457: 2450: 2430: 2378: 2354: 2332: 2315: 2288: 2281: 2263: 2221: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2213: 2207: 2201: 2195: 2192:Glacial motion 2189: 2181: 2178: 2109: 2106: 2073: 2070: 2011:global warming 2000:carbon dioxide 1981: 1974: 1973: 1966: 1959: 1958: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1947: 1944: 1920: 1919:Loess deposits 1917: 1876: 1873: 1853:alluvial plain 1847: 1844: 1831: 1828: 1763: 1760: 1747:drumlin fields 1713: 1710: 1696:, also called 1669: 1666: 1658: 1657: 1651: 1637: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1536:Atacama Desert 1456:Crozet Islands 1322: 1319: 1297: 1294: 1246: 1243: 1212: 1205: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1131: 1128: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1096: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1072: 1059: 1056: 1024:Emmons Glacier 975: 972: 935: 934: 921: 911: 898: 888: 875: 865: 852: 838: 837: 825: 820: 816: 812: 809: 806: 763: 760: 752:Little Ice Age 750:Following the 740: 739: 736: 733: 726: 690: 687: 618: 615: 561: 558: 454:alpine glacier 450:valley glacier 420: 417: 415: 412: 350: 347: 328:climate change 296:polar climates 244:oceanic island 40: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7909: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7892:Bodies of ice 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7879: 7877: 7867: 7857: 7856: 7853: 7840: 7836: 7831: 7829: 7820: 7818: 7809: 7808: 7805: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7780: 7778: 7776: 7772: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7742: 7740: 7736: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7696: 7694: 7690: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7640: 7638: 7636:Constructions 7634: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7613:Speed skating 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7566: 7562: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7517: 7514: 7511: 7505: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7428: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7370: 7368: 7364: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7322: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7278: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7258: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7241: 7235: 7231: 7224: 7219: 7217: 7212: 7210: 7205: 7204: 7201: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7167: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7108: 7106: 7104: 7103:Glaciofluvial 7100: 7094: 7093:Veiki moraine 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7073:Rogen moraine 7071: 7069: 7068:Pulju moraine 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7053:Erratic block 7051: 7049: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7039: 7033: 7032: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7015:Tunnel valley 7013: 7011: 7010:Trough valley 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6940:Crag and tail 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6922: 6920: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6907: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6882: 6880: 6876: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6855: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6823:Overdeepening 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6798:Basal sliding 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6785: 6783: 6779: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6677:Ablation zone 6675: 6674: 6672: 6668: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6603: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6586: 6581: 6579: 6574: 6572: 6567: 6566: 6563: 6551: 6550: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6529: 6527: 6526: 6517: 6515: 6514: 6503: 6502: 6499: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6468: 6465: 6464: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6452:Climate model 6450: 6448: 6445: 6444: 6442: 6438: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6387: 6386: 6385: 6384:Cloud forcing 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6323: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6281: 6277: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6242: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6227: 6225: 6221: 6215: 6212: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6160: 6159:Communication 6156: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6139:Vulnerability 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6109:Flood control 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6086: 6084: 6082: 6078: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5986: 5982: 5966: 5963: 5962: 5961: 5958: 5957: 5955: 5951: 5945: 5942: 5939: 5936: 5932: 5931:reforestation 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5916:afforestation 5914: 5913: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5874: 5868: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5851:Nuclear power 5849: 5845: 5842: 5841: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5831: 5829: 5825: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5746:Carbon budget 5744: 5743: 5741: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5722: 5718: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5650: 5648: 5646: 5642: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5584: 5583:Mental health 5581: 5580: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5525: 5524:United States 5522: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5463: 5462: 5459: 5458: 5456: 5452: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5378:deoxygenation 5376: 5374: 5373:acidification 5371: 5370: 5369: 5366: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5353: 5352: 5349: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5301: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5282: 5278: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5201: 5194: 5190: 5176: 5173: 5169: 5168:from wetlands 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5128:Deforestation 5126: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5110: 5107: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5075: 5071: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5034: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5012: 5007: 5005: 5000: 4998: 4993: 4992: 4989: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4958: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936:(GEO) series. 4935: 4923:on 2018-12-25 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4878: 4877:online review 4874: 4870: 4869: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4798: 4793: 4792: 4785: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4766: 4762: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4739: 4735: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4712: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4684: 4679: 4678: 4671: 4670: 4666: 4664: 4660: 4655: 4654: 4643: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4624: 4623: 4601: 4597: 4590: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4529: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4491: 4482: 4473: 4458: 4452: 4434: 4427: 4425: 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content 5309:Anoxic event 5222:James Hansen 4961: 4955: 4925:. Retrieved 4921:the original 4891: 4872: 4833: 4820: 4790: 4760: 4733: 4706: 4676: 4656: 4627: 4619:Bibliography 4604:. Retrieved 4599: 4589: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4516:. Retrieved 4499: 4490: 4481: 4472: 4461:. Retrieved 4451: 4440:. Retrieved 4423: 4416: 4408:Google Books 4406:– via 4392: 4385: 4369: 4321: 4317: 4306: 4283: 4239: 4235: 4209: 4171: 4129:10852/108771 4103: 4099: 4089: 4082:Huggett 2011 4077: 4066:. Retrieved 4056: 4047: 4041: 4034:Huggett 2011 4029: 4016: 4007: 3966: 3960: 3954: 3921: 3915: 3909: 3902:Huggett 2011 3887:Huggett 2011 3882: 3871:. Retrieved 3861: 3849:. Retrieved 3842:the original 3829: 3818:. Retrieved 3814:the original 3804: 3787: 3781: 3770:. Retrieved 3760: 3749:. Retrieved 3745:the original 3735: 3724:. Retrieved 3717:the original 3708: 3701: 3690:. Retrieved 3686:the original 3679: 3672: 3663: 3652:. Retrieved 3650:. 2023-07-11 3647: 3638: 3627:. Retrieved 3617: 3594: 3588: 3579: 3573: 3529: 3514: 3505: 3494:. Retrieved 3484: 3468: 3462: 3451:. 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Retrieved 2238: 2167:flew by the 2164:New Horizons 2162: 2161:In 2015, as 2160: 2136: 2101: 2099: 2083: 2058: 2042: 2004: 1992: 1922: 1910: 1900: 1886: 1857:valley train 1856: 1849: 1835: 1833: 1808: 1797: 1773: 1751: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1731: 1701: 1697: 1683: 1659: 1653: 1648:Glacial till 1647: 1642: 1638: 1615: 1584: 1576:rock glacier 1572: 1561: 1529: 1497:Banks Island 1490: 1460: 1344:subantarctic 1341: 1311: 1306:Mer de Glace 1282: 1271: 1263: 1256: 1237: 1233: 1230: 1210: 1206: 1173:where τ 1152:shear stress 1141: 1109: 1097: 1077: 1069: 1049: 1045:snow bridges 1037: 995: 989: 968:James Forbes 964: 952: 948: 839: 788:plastic flow 780: 749: 741: 720: 708: 701: 672: 665: 639:accumulation 636: 633:in Argentina 627:glacier cave 610: 598: 594: 589: 581: 577: 575: 519: 518: 499: 486: 480: 478: 471: 465: 457: 453: 449: 442: 440: 391: 380: 369: 367:Vulgar Latin 354: 352: 339:appears blue 336: 309: 304:water source 281: 229: 95: 93: 43: 7793:Pleistocene 7507:Ice-related 7418:Frost heave 7352:Stalactites 7146:Outwash fan 7141:Kettle hole 7025:Valley step 7005:Trough lake 6985:Ribbon lake 6945:Finger lake 6687:Bergschrund 6364:Carbon sink 6342:atmospheric 6207:video games 5881:Blue carbon 5514:Agriculture 5493:Marine life 5440:Water cycle 5398:temperature 5133:Fossil fuel 4884:Moon, Twila 4606:January 24, 4242:(1): 5177. 4172:climate.gov 2273:Glacier ice 2144:sublimation 2095:Great Lakes 2091:Scandinavia 1800:tributaries 1678:Lake Louise 1578:, like the 1487:, Argentina 1404:Mount Kenya 1396:Puncak Jaya 1374:glacier in 1336:Fox Glacier 1225:Lake Vostok 1041:bergschrund 611:polythermal 536:in Canada, 506:ice shelves 501:ice streams 496:ice shelves 320:cloud cover 284:fresh water 248:New Zealand 64:Ötztal Alps 7882:Glaciology 7876:Categories 7839:Wiktionary 7783:Glaciology 7738:Other uses 7608:Ice racing 7603:Ice hockey 7578:Iceboating 7509:activities 7280:Formations 7271:Superionic 7173:Glaciology 7156:Urstromtal 7136:Kame delta 7088:Till plain 6885:Jökulhlaup 6843:Starvation 6722:Ice divide 6636:Ice stream 6396:Cryosphere 6357:permafrost 6129:Resilience 6081:Adaptation 6056:Litigation 6046:Governance 5991:adaptation 5773:Carbon tax 5726:Mitigation 5663:Antarctica 5551:Disability 4927:2014-11-10 4709:. Arnold. 4548:1903.05571 4518:24 January 4463:2013-01-04 4442:2013-01-04 4068:2009-03-12 3873:2013-01-04 3820:2013-01-04 3772:2013-01-04 3751:2013-01-04 3726:2009-01-05 3692:2013-01-04 3654:2024-07-03 3629:2013-01-04 3496:2013-01-04 3453:2014-02-06 3439:"Glaciers" 3168:2164/10495 3117:2009-01-05 3038:(6): 343. 3010:(6): 365. 2918:2013-01-04 2842:2009-01-05 2804:2013-01-04 2719:2017-08-12 2691:2009-01-26 2583:2009-01-05 2522:2013-01-04 2497:2009-01-05 2472:2017-03-13 2372:2021-05-25 2309:2020-06-09 2303:Al Jazeera 2254:2020-09-04 2217:References 2019:cryosphere 1984:ice sheets 1889:stratified 1587:rock flour 1515:, lowland 1509:Quaternary 1499:, and the 1495:, such as 1474:snow lines 1471:insolation 1378:Mountain, 1366:, and the 1238:sheet flow 1199:and τ 1148:lubricated 1101:stoss side 730:ice lenses 570:Grant Land 540:, and the 510:ice tongue 482:ice sheets 408:cryosphere 404:glaciology 400:glaciation 378:Late Latin 372:glaciārium 273:Antarctica 260:New Guinea 232:ice sheets 72:Wildspitze 7866:Mountains 7550:Sculpture 7366:Phenomena 6918:Erosional 6910:Landforms 6781:Processes 6762:Randkluft 6757:Penitente 6702:Dirt cone 6631:Ice shelf 6626:Ice sheet 6621:Ice field 6411:Feedbacks 6182:Education 5683:Caribbean 5678:Australia 5605:Migration 5568:Fisheries 5519:Livestock 5445:Wildfires 5351:Heat wave 4632:Routledge 4346:1748-9326 4146:255441012 4017:nsidc.org 3946:0091-7613 3869:. Wku.edu 3368:0036-8075 2965:128734526 2710:nsidc.org 2602:nsidc.org 2425:129545865 2330:, p. 149. 2249:0190-8286 2056:change. 1995:ice cores 1776:"V" shape 1607:Mariehamn 1582:in Utah. 1533:hyperarid 1513:Manchuria 1485:Aconcagua 1463:latitudes 1444:Mauna Kea 1416:Jan Mayen 1372:Snezhnika 1352:Himalayas 1321:Geography 1234:pipe flow 1156:Meltwater 1084:dilatancy 1020:crevasses 1000:crevasses 874:τ 851:Σ 815:τ 805:Σ 689:Structure 617:Formation 473:ice field 365:, to the 353:The word 332:sea level 300:meltwater 288:temperate 277:Patagonia 252:Himalayas 205:crevasses 201:centuries 52:Greenland 7887:Glaciers 7817:Category 7775:Ice ages 7729:Yakhchāl 7709:Icehouse 7535:Climbing 7530:Blocking 7525:Blasting 7443:Hair ice 7393:Crystals 7178:Category 7116:Diluvium 7111:Alpentor 7020:U-valley 6864:Ice core 6833:Plucking 6788:Ablation 6772:Terminus 6697:Crevasse 6692:Blue ice 6592:Glaciers 6537:Glossary 6525:Category 6347:biologic 6061:Politics 5953:Personal 5658:Americas 5531:Children 5297:Physical 5090:Overview 5030:Overview 4892:Science, 4832:(1994). 4811:42656957 4791:Glaciers 4779:30512475 4752:33359888 4725:38329570 4697:54371738 4677:Glaciers 4581:30903520 4573:27251279 4433:Archived 4374:Archived 4293:Archived 4274:33110092 4214:Archived 4176:Archived 4138:36603094 3991:26432248 3851:July 28, 3555:Archived 3522:Archived 3473:Archived 3384:35995169 3376:17303716 3312:21150994 2893:Archived 2663:17336434 2655:17769268 2552:Archived 2180:See also 2158:(LDAs). 2093:and the 1893:terraces 1780:U-shaped 1733:Drumlins 1712:Drumlins 1686:moraines 1684:Glacial 1668:Moraines 1568:abrasion 1564:plucking 1557:abrasion 1448:Tenerife 1412:Svalbard 1384:latitude 1380:Bulgaria 1360:Caucasus 1259:friction 1105:lee side 1090:process. 992:pressure 956:nunataks 887:= stress 840:where: 768:Ice floe 704:terminus 675:overtone 643:ablation 607:plucking 586:snowpack 550:icebergs 542:Northern 491:nunataks 446:glaciers 359:loanword 268:Pakistan 264:Zard-Kuh 217:moraines 197:ablation 84:Pakistan 7699:Cutting 7673:Pykrete 7593:Cycling 7588:Curling 7583:Cricket 7555:Skating 7545:Rafting 7540:Fishing 7520:Bathing 7463:Nucleus 7448:Jacking 7427:sea ice 7425: ( 7357:Volcano 7321:calving 7319: ( 7317:Iceberg 7312:Glacier 7058:Moraine 7048:Drumlin 6975:Nunatak 6838:Retreat 6803:Calving 6747:Moraine 6732:Icefall 6670:Anatomy 6641:Ledoyom 6616:Ice cap 6352:oceanic 6202:fiction 6051:Justice 6002:Society 5610:Poverty 5329:Drought 5197:History 5121:Sources 4661:in the 4553:Bibcode 4370:ipcc.ch 4326:Bibcode 4265:7591863 4244:Bibcode 4108:Bibcode 4100:Science 3999:4461215 3971:Bibcode 3926:Bibcode 3917:Geology 3796:1573476 3530:Science 3492:. 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