429:
405:
324:
417:
765:(outcrossing), and thus tends to reduce the expression of recessive deleterious mutations present in a population. In trees, compensation is realized mainly through increased seed production by females. This in turn is facilitated by a lower contribution of reproduction to population growth, which results in no demonstrable net costs of having males in the population compared to being hermaphroditic. Dioecy may also accelerate or retard lineage diversification in
677:
748:. The definition avoids reference to male and female reproductive structures, which are rare in fungi. An individual of a dioecious fungal species not only requires a partner for mating, but performs only one of the roles in nuclear transfer, as either the donor or the recipient. A monoecious fungal species can perform both roles, but may not be self-compatible.
208:
381:" when each sporophyte plant has only one kind of spore-producing organ, all of whose spores give rise either to male gametophytes, which produce only male gametes (sperm), or to female gametophytes, which produce only female gametes (egg cells). For example, a single flowering plant sporophyte of a fully dioecious species like
756:
Dioecy has the demographic disadvantage compared with hermaphroditism that only about half of reproductive adults are able to produce offspring. Dioecious species must therefore have fitness advantages to compensate for this cost through increased survival, growth, or reproduction. Dioecy excludes
584:
Dioecy evolves due to male or female sterility, although it is unlikely that mutations for male and female sterility occurred at the same time. In angiosperms unisexual flowers evolve from bisexual ones. Dioecy occurs in almost half of plant families, but only in a minority of genera, suggesting
2361:
Bruijning, Marjolein; Visser, Marco D.; Muller-Landau, Helene C.; Wright, S. Joseph; Comita, Liza S.; Hubbell, Stephen P.; de Kroon, Hans; Jongejans, Eelke (2017). "Surviving in a
Cosexual World: A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Dioecy in Tropical Trees".
428:
653:
from hermaphroditism at least 5 or 9 times. The reverse transition, from dioecy back to hermaphroditism has also been observed, both in
Asteraceae and in bryophytes, with a frequency about half of that for the forward transition.
385:
has either flowers with functional stamens producing pollen containing male gametes (staminate or 'male' flowers), or flowers with functional carpels producing female gametes (carpellate or 'female' flowers), but not both. (See
507:
species are dioecious, but almost all conifers are monoecious. In gymnosperms, the sexual systems dioecy and monoecy are strongly correlated with the mode of pollen dispersal, monoecious species are predominantly wind dispersed
327:
Alternation of generations in plants: the sporophyte generation produces spores that give rise to the gametophyte generation, which produces gametes that fuse to give rise to a new sporophyte generation.
769:. Dioecious lineages are more diversified in certain genera, but less in others. An analysis suggested that dioecy neither consistently places a strong brake on diversification, nor strongly drives it.
932:
581:
and greater protection against deleterious mutations. Regardless of the evolutionary pathway the intermediate states need to have fitness advantages compared to cosexual flowers in order to survive.
577:
multiple times either from hermaphroditic species or from monoecious species. A previously untested hypothesis is that this reduces inbreeding; dioecy has been shown to be associated with increased
1560:
Bachtrog, Doris; Mank, Judith E.; Peichel, Catherine L.; Kirkpatrick, Mark; Otto, Sarah P.; Ashman, Tia-Lynn; Hahn, Matthew W.; Kitano, Jun; Mayrose, Itay; Ming, Ray; Perrin, Nicolas (2014-07-01).
404:
236:
species are gonochoric, almost all vertebrate species are gonochoric, and all bird and mammal species are gonochoric. Dioecy may also describe colonies within a species, such as the colonies of
1679:
Muyle, Aline; Martin, Hélène; Zemp, Niklaus; Mollion, Maéva; Gallina, Sophie; Tavares, Raquel; Silva, Alexandre; Bataillon, Thomas; Widmer, Alex; Glémin, Sylvain; Touzet, Pascal (2021-03-01).
535:
species. In most dioecious plants, whether male or female gametophytes are produced is determined genetically, but in some cases it can be determined by the environment, as in
740:
refer to the donor and recipient roles in mating, where a nucleus is transferred from one haploid hypha to another, and the two nuclei then present in the same cell merge by
617:
mainly from mutations that resulted in male sterility. However, since the ancestral state is unclear, more work is needed to clarify the evolution of dioecy via monoecy.
416:
461:
are also used. A dioicous gametophyte either produces only male gametes (sperm) or produces only female gametes (egg cells). About 60% of liverworts are dioicous.
1449:
343:), the gametophytes are fully independent plants. Seed plant gametophytes are dependent on the sporophyte and develop within the spores, a condition known as
175:
is biparental reproduction. Dioecy has costs, since only the female part of the population directly produces offspring. It is one method for excluding
2423:
Sabath, Niv; Goldberg, Emma E.; Glick, Lior; Einhorn, Moshe; Ashman, Tia-Lynn; Ming, Ray; Otto, Sarah P.; Vamosi, Jana C.; Mayrose, Itay (2016).
2135:
Transitions
Between Sexual Systems: Understanding the Mechanisms of, and Pathways Between, Dioecy, Hermaphroditism and Other Sexual Systems
604:
ancestors that have flowers containing both functional stamens and functional carpels. Some authors argue monoecy and dioecy are related.
2067:"Two's Company, Three's a Crowd: Experimental Evaluation of the Evolutionary Maintenance of Trioecy in Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae)"
1414:
Matallana, G.; Wendt, T.; Araujo, D.S.D.; Scarano, F.R. (2005), "High abundance of dioecious plants in a tropical coastal vegetation",
1010:(2005). "Molecular Phylogenetics of the Siphonophora (Cnidaria), with Implications for the Evolution of Functional Specialization".
687:
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387:
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2020:
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370:" when each sporophyte plant has both kinds of spore-producing organ but in separate flowers or cones. For example, a single
88:
1737:
852:
2133:
1845:
585:
recent evolution. For 160 families that have dioecious species, dioecy is thought to have evolved more than 100 times.
823:
1818:
1521:
1487:
720:
146:
69:
2160:
367:
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1465:
613:, since there is a distribution of sexual systems, it has been postulated that dioecy evolved from monoecy through
434:
By comparson, each bisexual (perfect) tulip flower has both pollen-producing stamens and carpels containing ovules.
378:
183:(outcrossing), and thus tends to reduce the expression of recessive deleterious mutations present in a population.
1333:"Ecological constraints on the evolution of breeding systems in seed plants: dioecy and dispersal in gymnosperms"
1533:
LuthringerR, Cormier A, Ahmed S, Peters AF, Cock JM, Coelho, SM (2014). "Sexual dimorphism in the brown algae".
2425:"Dioecy does not consistently accelerate or slow lineage diversification across multiple genera of angiosperms"
1282:
793:
196:
1921:
788:
2010:
1226:
Walas, Łukasz; Mandryk, Wojciech; Thomas, Peter A.; Tyrała-Wierucka, Żanna; Iszkuło, Grzegorz (2018-09-01).
218:, is a dioecious colonial marine animal; the reproductive medusae within the colony are all of the same sex.
2534:
2529:
1983:
1227:
1791:
410:
In dioecious holly, some plants only have 'male' flowers with functional stamens that produce pollen...
2473:
261:
2524:
17:
910:
2519:
702:
215:
1681:"Dioecy Is Associated with High Genetic Diversity and Adaptation Rates in the Plant Genus Silene"
863:
834:
2275:
Esser, K. (1971). "Breeding systems in fungi and their significance for genetic recombination".
953:
2539:
79:
464:
Dioecy occurs in a wide variety of plant groups. Examples of dioecious plant species include
257:
1103:
228:
In zoology, dioecy means that an animal is either male or female, in which case the synonym
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323:
8:
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that develops into a new individual. In land plants, by contrast, one generation – the
176:
1985:
Embryology of
Flowering Plants: Terminology and Concepts, Vol. 3: Reproductive Systems
374:
of a monoecious species has both functional stamens and carpels, in separate flowers.
316:, which produce gametes. A male gamete and a female gamete then fuse to produce a new
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2016:
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1601:
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1431:
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1179:
1148:
1130:
Botanical Latin: History, grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary, Fourth edition
1027:
988:
938:
798:
663:, since there is no monoecy, it is suggested that dioecy evolved through gynodioecy.
578:
156:
2304:
1906:
1621:"Sex-oriented research on dioecious crops of Indian subcontinent: an updated review"
1546:
1317:
1267:
983:
966:
626:
187:
have several other methods of preventing self-fertilization including, for example,
2436:
2409:
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108:
43:
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477:
382:
371:
336:
1104:"Case studies : -oicy : Dioicous, dioecious, monoicous and monoecious"
698:
1793:
Reproductive
Diversity of Plants: An Evolutionary Perspective and Genetic Basis
1461:
1372:
1309:
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1007:
159:
that have distinct unisexual individuals, each producing either male or female
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2203:
1873:"Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants"
1620:
2450:
2401:
2339:
2318:
Charlesworth D, Willis JH (2009). "The genetics of inbreeding depression".
2229:
2188:"Diversity of sexual systems within different lineages of the genus Silene"
2118:
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1722:
1662:
1605:
1435:
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1031:
992:
555:
550:
488:
2296:
1427:
1178:(Fourth ed.). Middlewood Green, Suffolk, U.K.: C & M Floristics.
838:
422:...while other holly plants only have 'female' flowers that produce ovules
2186:
Casimiro-Soriguer, Inés; Buide, Maria L.; Narbona, Eduardo (2015-01-01).
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223:
2187:
1763:
Atwell, Brian James; Kriedemann, Paul E.; Turnbull, Colin G. N. (1999).
2384:
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1968:
1400:
1110:. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium
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609:
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520:
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289:
277:
2441:
2424:
741:
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229:
192:
188:
95:
2331:
1514:
Seaweeds of the
British Isles Volume 1 Rhodophyta Part 3A Ceramiales
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1281:
Walas Ł, Mandryk W, Thomas PA, Tyrała-Wierucka Ż, Iszkuło G (2018).
2375:
2162:
Ecological
Genomics: Ecology and the Evolution of Genes and Genomes
2065:
Perry, Laura E.; Pannell, John R.; Dorken, Marcel E. (2012-04-19).
1005:
967:"Evolution and development: some insights from evolutionary theory"
762:
537:
513:
473:
340:
284:. Without further dividing, a sperm and an egg cell fuse to form a
273:
180:
2360:
1766:
Plants in Action: Adaptation in Nature, Performance in
Cultivation
1619:
Sarkar, Sutanu; Banerjee, Joydeep; Gantait, Saikat (2017-05-29).
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1225:
803:
638:
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317:
305:
281:
241:
164:
1202:
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Ecology of Flowering Plants: Patterns and Processes
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828:
745:
737:
659:
469:
465:
352:
348:
297:
285:
265:
233:
160:
31:
2012:
Monocots: Systematics and
Evolution: Systematics and Evolution
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K. S. Bawa (1980). "Evolution of Dioecy in Flowering Plants".
1559:
480:. As its specific name implies, the perennial stinging nettle
120:
55:
2185:
1532:
1447:
545:
524:
493:
356:
293:
269:
184:
85:
1199:
Tandon, Rajesh; Shivanna, K. R.; Koul, Monika (2020-08-07).
1043:
1041:
347:. In flowering plants, the male gametophytes develop within
1371:
390:
for further details, including more complex cases, such as
332:
207:
135:
129:
114:
61:
49:
2495:(5th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning.
2422:
523:
species are entirely dioecious and about 7% of angiosperm
292:
generation – consists of individuals that produce haploid
240:(Portuguese man-of-war), which may be either dioecious or
123:
1070:
1068:
1038:
554:, are dioecious. Dioecy is prevalent in the brown algae (
527:
contain some dioecious species. Dioecy is more common in
1762:
2159:
Landry, Christian R.; Aubin-Horth, Nadia (2013-11-25).
1817:
Núñez-Farfán, Juan; Valverde, Pedro Luis (2020-07-30).
558:) and may have been the ancestral state in that group.
1678:
1065:
694:
1618:
1365:
1142:
1089:
The Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms
1053:
366:
The sporophyte generation of a seed plant is called "
147:
138:
70:
58:
2165:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 9.
1816:
377:
The sporophyte generation of seed plants is called "
111:
46:
2354:
2009:Wilson, Karen L.; Morrison, David A. (2000-05-19).
1820:
Evolutionary Ecology of Plant-Herbivore Interaction
1486:Fusco, Giuseppe; Minelli, Alessandro (2019-10-10).
1377:"Dioecy and its correlates in the flowering plants"
117:
52:
2416:
2317:
2064:
1562:"Sex Determination: Why So Many Ways of Doing It?"
1198:
1143:Vanderpoorten A, Goffinet B (2009). "Liverworts".
2158:
2511:
592:, dioecy is likely the ancestral sexual system.
733:Very few dioecious fungi have been discovered.
264:. In animals, typically an individual produces
2493:Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology
2034:
2032:
2008:
1790:Karasawa, Marines Marli Gniech (2015-11-23).
1147:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1136:
355:, and the female gametophytes develop within
2311:
1485:
1450:"Introduction to Parasitic Flowering Plants"
1127:
453:generation of non-vascular plants, although
2044:. Vol. 2. Academic Press. 2016-04-14.
2029:
1492:. Cambridge University Press. p. 329.
1330:
964:
860:UK English Dictionary UK English Dictionary
600:Dioecious flowering plants can evolve from
1946:
1526:
1086:
924:
512:) and dioecious species animal-dispersed (
2440:
2383:
2274:
2219:
2108:
2090:
1888:
1870:
1739:Evolutionary Biology: A Plant Perspective
1712:
1652:
1595:
1577:
1348:
1283:"Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review"
1228:"Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review"
982:
721:Learn how and when to remove this message
280:of the individual producing them, so are
27:Having distinct male and female organisms
2270:
2268:
2266:
1981:
1975:
1949:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1789:
1742:. Oxford University Press. p. 377.
1674:
1672:
1166:
1164:
971:Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências
693:Relevant discussion may be found on the
322:
206:
2490:
2467:
2131:
1923:The Papaya: Botany, Production and Uses
1769:. Macmillan Education AU. p. 249.
1512:Maggs, C.A. and Hommersand, M.H. 1993.
1324:
1074:
1059:
1047:
620:
14:
2512:
2152:
1940:
1735:
1516:. The Natural History Museum, London.
1448:Nickrent D.L., Musselman L.J. (2004).
1095:
1080:
930:
705:to additional sources at this section.
561:
486:is dioecious, while the annual nettle
276:. The gametes have half the number of
232:is more often used. For example, most
2263:
1919:
1843:
1669:
1274:
1170:
1161:
2041:Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology
1101:
934:Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology
670:
351:grains produced by the sporophyte's
256:) differ from animals in that their
1961:10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.000311
751:
24:
1736:Cruzan, Mitchell B. (2018-09-11).
1350:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1980.tb04034.x
1087:Hickey, M. & King, C. (2001).
686:relies largely or entirely upon a
25:
2551:
2242:
2015:. Csiro Publishing. p. 264.
1871:Ainsworth, Charles (2000-08-01).
155:) is a characteristic of certain
2132:Leonard, Janet L. (2019-05-21).
1844:Reeve, Eric C. R. (2014-01-14).
1823:. Springer Nature. p. 177.
1205:. Springer Nature. p. 179.
890:Oxford English Dictionary online
675:
427:
415:
403:
107:
42:
2461:
2236:
2179:
2125:
2058:
2002:
1913:
1864:
1837:
1810:
1783:
1756:
1729:
1685:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1612:
1553:
1506:
1479:
1441:
1407:
1219:
1192:
1121:
984:10.1590/s0001-37652001000300008
595:
2277:Molecular and General Genetics
2249:. APH Publishing. p. 77.
1982:Batygina, T. B. (2019-04-23).
1176:New Flora of the British Isles
999:
958:
903:
874:
845:
816:
794:Self-incompatibility in plants
666:
566:For evolution in animals, see
13:
1:
1091:. Cambridge University Press.
809:
789:Plant reproductive morphology
388:Plant reproductive morphology
359:produced by the sporophyte's
202:
101: 'two households'; adj.
2092:10.1371/journal.pone.0035597
1579:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899
633:but may also evolve through
625:Dioecy usually evolves from
568:Gonochorism § Evolution
247:
7:
1920:Mitra, Sisir (2020-09-01).
1547:10.1127/2198-011X/2014/0002
1489:The Biology of Reproduction
1454:The Plant Health Instructor
772:
10:
2556:
2491:Mauseth, James D. (2014).
2474:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
1850:. Routledge. p. 616.
1462:10.1094/PHI-I-2004-0330-01
1416:American Journal of Botany
1381:American Journal of Botany
1310:10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009
1252:10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009
1145:Introduction to bryophytes
565:
548:, such as some species of
439:Slightly different terms,
304:by dividing repeatedly by
300:. Spores do not fuse, but
262:alternation of generations
221:
87:
86:
29:
1988:. CRC Press. p. 43.
1637:10.1007/s13205-017-0723-8
1535:Perspectives in Phycology
1375:; R. E. Ricklefs (1995).
1290:Basic and Applied Ecology
1232:Basic and Applied Ecology
1024:10.1080/10635150500354837
892:. Oxford University Press
492:is monoecious. Dioecious
2138:. Springer. p. 91.
1847:Encyclopedia of Genetics
1796:. Springer. p. 31.
1006:Dunn, C.W.; Pugh, P.R.;
931:Kliman, Richard (2016).
308:to give rise to haploid
30:Not to be confused with
2364:The American Naturalist
954:Alternative archive URL
864:Oxford University Press
835:Oxford University Press
2470:The Kew Plant Glossary
2468:Beentje, Henk (2010).
1890:10.1006/anbo.2000.1201
1697:10.1093/molbev/msaa229
911:"Animal Diversity Web"
736:Monoecy and dioecy in
573:In plants, dioecy has
449:, may be used for the
328:
219:
173:Dioecious reproduction
163:, either directly (in
2204:10.1093/aobpla/plv037
1926:. CABI. p. 161.
1428:10.3732/ajb.92.9.1513
1128:Stearn, W.T. (1992).
1108:Australian Bryophytes
841:on December 21, 2021.
831:UK English Dictionary
651:evolved independently
575:evolved independently
326:
222:Further information:
216:Portuguese man o' war
210:
2472:. Richmond, Surrey:
1331:Givnish, TJ (1980).
1132:. David and Charles.
1102:Lepp, Heino (2007).
965:David, J.R. (2001).
699:improve this article
621:From hermaphroditism
296:rather than haploid
268:of one kind, either
197:self-incompatibility
167:) or indirectly (in
2535:Reproductive system
2530:Sexual reproduction
2246:A Textbook of Fungi
2083:2012PLoSO...735597P
1302:2018BApEc..31....1W
1244:2018BApEc..31....1W
1050:, pp. 204–205.
562:Evolution of dioecy
519:About 6 percent of
496:are predominant in
2289:10.1007/bf00276051
2198:(plv037): plv037.
1012:Systematic Biology
937:. Academic Press.
870:on April 12, 2021.
759:self-fertilization
649:, dioecy may have
329:
220:
177:self-fertilization
2502:978-1-4496-6580-7
2483:978-1-84246-422-9
2442:10.1111/nph.13696
2256:978-81-7648-737-5
2172:978-94-007-7347-9
2145:978-3-319-94139-4
2051:978-0-12-800426-5
2022:978-0-643-09929-6
1995:978-1-4398-4436-6
1933:978-1-78924-190-7
1857:978-1-134-26350-9
1830:978-3-030-46012-9
1803:978-3-319-21254-8
1776:978-0-7329-4439-1
1749:978-0-19-088268-6
1499:978-1-108-49985-9
1212:978-981-15-4210-7
1185:978-1-5272-2630-2
1154:978-0-521-70073-3
944:978-0-12-800426-5
799:Sexual dimorphism
731:
730:
723:
579:genetic diversity
312:individuals, the
212:Physalia physalis
16:(Redirected from
2547:
2525:Dioecious plants
2506:
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2454:
2444:
2435:(3): 1290–1300.
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1937:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1892:
1877:Annals of Botany
1868:
1862:
1861:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1716:
1676:
1667:
1666:
1656:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1599:
1581:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1530:
1524:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1464:. Archived from
1445:
1439:
1438:
1422:(9): 1513–1519,
1411:
1405:
1404:
1369:
1363:
1362:
1352:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1287:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1168:
1159:
1158:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1125:
1119:
1118:
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1115:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1084:
1078:
1072:
1063:
1057:
1051:
1045:
1036:
1035:
1003:
997:
996:
986:
962:
956:
952:
947:. Archived from
928:
922:
921:
919:
917:
907:
901:
900:
898:
897:
878:
872:
871:
866:. Archived from
849:
843:
842:
837:. Archived from
820:
752:Adaptive benefit
726:
719:
715:
712:
706:
679:
678:
671:
431:
419:
407:
151:
145:
144:
141:
140:
137:
132:
131:
126:
125:
122:
119:
116:
113:
99:
93:
92:
91:
74:
68:
67:
64:
63:
60:
57:
54:
51:
48:
21:
2555:
2554:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2520:Plant sexuality
2510:
2509:
2503:
2484:
2464:
2459:
2458:
2429:New Phytologist
2421:
2417:
2359:
2355:
2332:10.1038/nrg2664
2320:Nat. Rev. Genet
2316:
2312:
2273:
2264:
2257:
2241:
2237:
2184:
2180:
2173:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2130:
2126:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2038:
2037:
2030:
2023:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1980:
1976:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1918:
1914:
1869:
1865:
1858:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1734:
1730:
1677:
1670:
1617:
1613:
1572:(7): e1001899.
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1531:
1527:
1511:
1507:
1500:
1484:
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1469:
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1393:10.2307/2445418
1370:
1366:
1329:
1325:
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1279:
1275:
1224:
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1213:
1197:
1193:
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1169:
1162:
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1141:
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1111:
1100:
1096:
1085:
1081:
1073:
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1054:
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1039:
1008:Haddock, S.H.D.
1004:
1000:
963:
959:
951:on May 6, 2021.
945:
929:
925:
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913:
909:
908:
904:
895:
893:
880:
879:
875:
851:
850:
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821:
817:
812:
775:
754:
727:
716:
710:
707:
701:by introducing
692:
680:
676:
669:
627:hermaphroditism
623:
598:
571:
564:
521:flowering plant
435:
432:
423:
420:
411:
408:
372:flowering plant
331:In bryophytes (
250:
226:
205:
149:
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110:
106:
72:
45:
41:
35:
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2376:10.1086/690137
2370:(3): 297–314.
2353:
2326:(11): 783–96.
2310:
2262:
2255:
2243:Gupta, Rajni.
2235:
2178:
2171:
2151:
2144:
2124:
2057:
2050:
2028:
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2001:
1994:
1974:
1939:
1932:
1912:
1883:(2): 211–221.
1863:
1856:
1836:
1829:
1809:
1802:
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1748:
1728:
1691:(3): 805–818.
1668:
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1498:
1478:
1440:
1406:
1387:(5): 596–606.
1364:
1343:(5): 959–972.
1323:
1273:
1218:
1211:
1191:
1184:
1160:
1153:
1135:
1120:
1094:
1079:
1077:, p. 218.
1075:Mauseth (2014)
1064:
1062:, p. 487.
1060:Mauseth (2014)
1052:
1048:Mauseth (2014)
1037:
1018:(6): 916–935.
998:
977:(3): 385–395.
957:
943:
923:
902:
873:
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814:
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811:
808:
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806:
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668:
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2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2283:(1): 86–100.
2282:
2278:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2258:
2252:
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2102:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2077:(4): e35597.
2076:
2072:
2068:
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2053:
2047:
2043:
2042:
2035:
2033:
2024:
2018:
2014:
2013:
2005:
1997:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1935:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1882:
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1848:
1840:
1832:
1826:
1822:
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1813:
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1786:
1778:
1772:
1768:
1767:
1759:
1751:
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1720:
1715:
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1522:0-11-310045-0
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1495:
1491:
1490:
1482:
1468:on 2016-10-05
1467:
1463:
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1455:
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1444:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
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1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1373:Renner, S. S.
1368:
1360:
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1342:
1338:
1334:
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784:Hermaphrodite
782:
780:
777:
776:
770:
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764:
761:and promotes
760:
749:
747:
743:
739:
734:
725:
722:
714:
704:
700:
696:
690:
689:
688:single source
684:This section
682:
673:
672:
664:
662:
661:
655:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
618:
616:
612:
611:
607:In the genus
605:
603:
593:
591:
586:
582:
580:
576:
569:
559:
557:
553:
552:
547:
542:
540:
539:
534:
533:heterotrophic
530:
526:
522:
517:
515:
511:
506:
503:About 65% of
501:
499:
495:
491:
490:
485:
484:
483:Urtica dioica
479:
475:
471:
467:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
447:
442:
430:
425:
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413:
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397:
393:
389:
384:
380:
375:
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369:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
325:
321:
319:
315:
311:
310:multicellular
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
252:Land plants (
245:
243:
239:
238:Siphonophorae
235:
231:
225:
217:
213:
209:
200:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
153:
143:
104:
100:
98:
90:
84:
81:
80:Ancient Greek
77:
76:
66:
39:
33:
19:
2492:
2469:
2462:Bibliography
2432:
2428:
2418:
2367:
2363:
2356:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2280:
2276:
2245:
2238:
2195:
2191:
2181:
2161:
2154:
2134:
2127:
2074:
2070:
2060:
2040:
2011:
2004:
1984:
1977:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1922:
1915:
1880:
1876:
1866:
1846:
1839:
1819:
1812:
1792:
1785:
1765:
1758:
1738:
1731:
1688:
1684:
1628:
1624:
1614:
1569:
1566:PLOS Biology
1565:
1555:
1541:(1): 11–25.
1538:
1534:
1528:
1513:
1508:
1488:
1481:
1470:. Retrieved
1466:the original
1453:
1443:
1419:
1415:
1409:
1384:
1380:
1367:
1340:
1336:
1326:
1293:
1289:
1276:
1235:
1231:
1221:
1201:
1194:
1175:
1172:Stace, C. A.
1144:
1138:
1129:
1123:
1112:. Retrieved
1107:
1097:
1088:
1082:
1055:
1015:
1011:
1001:
974:
970:
960:
949:the original
933:
926:
914:. Retrieved
905:
894:. Retrieved
889:
883:
876:
868:the original
856:
847:
839:the original
827:
818:
755:
735:
732:
717:
708:
685:
658:
656:
624:
608:
606:
599:
596:From monoecy
587:
583:
572:
556:Phaeophyceae
551:Polysiphonia
549:
543:
536:
529:woody plants
518:
502:
489:Urtica urens
487:
481:
478:African teak
463:
458:
454:
444:
440:
438:
376:
365:
330:
320:sporophyte.
314:gametophytes
254:embryophytes
251:
227:
211:
172:
102:
96:
94:
83:
37:
36:
2385:2066/168955
882:"diœcious,
853:"dioecious"
779:Gonochorism
767:angiosperms
667:In mycology
643:heterostyly
641:or through
635:androdioecy
451:gametophyte
396:androdioecy
278:chromosomes
224:Gonochorism
169:seed plants
78:; from
2514:Categories
2192:AoB Plants
1472:2017-01-10
1114:2021-06-21
896:2021-12-21
810:References
744:to form a
647:Asteraceae
637:, through
631:gynodioecy
615:gynodioecy
610:Sagittaria
602:monoecious
590:Caricaceae
510:anemophily
505:gymnosperm
459:monoecious
392:gynodioecy
368:monoecious
337:liverworts
290:sporophyte
258:life cycle
242:monoecious
203:In zoology
152:-sh(ee-)əs
2394:0003-0147
2212:2041-2851
2101:1932-6203
1955:: 15–39.
1899:0305-7364
1705:0737-4038
1645:2190-5738
1631:(2): 93.
1625:3 Biotech
1588:1544-9173
1337:Evolution
1260:1439-1791
742:karyogamy
711:June 2021
703:citations
695:talk page
645:. In the
541:species.
455:dioecious
446:monoicous
379:dioecious
345:endospory
341:hornworts
302:germinate
274:egg cells
260:involves
248:In botany
230:gonochory
193:herkogamy
189:dichogamy
103:dioecious
18:Unisexual
2451:26467174
2402:28221824
2340:19834483
2305:11353336
2230:25862920
2119:22532862
2071:PLOS ONE
1907:85039623
1723:32926156
1663:28555429
1606:24983465
1436:21646169
1359:28581147
1318:90740232
1268:90740232
1174:(2019).
1032:16338764
993:11600899
916:27 April
824:"dioecy"
773:See also
763:allogamy
629:through
544:Certain
538:Arisaema
514:zoophily
498:tropical
474:cannabis
441:dioicous
181:allogamy
2410:6839285
2297:5102399
2221:4433491
2110:3330815
2079:Bibcode
1969:2096901
1714:7947750
1654:5447520
1597:4077654
1401:2445418
1298:Bibcode
1296:: 1–9.
1240:Bibcode
1238:: 1–9.
804:Trioecy
639:distyly
470:willows
466:ginkgos
361:carpels
353:stamens
318:diploid
306:mitosis
298:gametes
282:haploid
266:gametes
165:animals
161:gametes
157:species
97:dioikía
89:διοικία
2499:
2480:
2449:
2408:
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2392:
2348:771357
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2048:
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1967:
1930:
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1800:
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1434:
1399:
1357:
1316:
1266:
1258:
1209:
1182:
1151:
1030:
991:
941:
858:Lexico
829:Lexico
746:zygote
660:Silene
531:, and
525:genera
357:ovules
349:pollen
333:mosses
294:spores
286:zygote
234:animal
195:, and
185:Plants
38:Dioecy
32:Dioicy
2406:S2CID
2344:S2CID
2301:S2CID
1965:JSTOR
1903:S2CID
1397:JSTOR
1314:S2CID
1286:(PDF)
1264:S2CID
738:fungi
546:algae
494:flora
383:holly
270:sperm
82:
2497:ISBN
2478:ISBN
2447:PMID
2398:PMID
2390:ISSN
2336:PMID
2293:PMID
2251:ISBN
2226:PMID
2208:ISSN
2167:ISBN
2140:ISBN
2115:PMID
2097:ISSN
2046:ISBN
2017:ISBN
1990:ISBN
1928:ISBN
1895:ISSN
1852:ISBN
1825:ISBN
1798:ISBN
1771:ISBN
1744:ISBN
1719:PMID
1701:ISSN
1659:PMID
1641:ISSN
1602:PMID
1584:ISSN
1518:ISBN
1494:ISBN
1432:PMID
1355:PMID
1256:ISSN
1207:ISBN
1180:ISBN
1149:ISBN
1028:PMID
989:PMID
939:ISBN
918:2014
476:and
457:and
443:and
394:and
339:and
75:-see
2437:doi
2433:209
2380:hdl
2372:doi
2368:189
2328:doi
2285:doi
2281:110
2216:PMC
2200:doi
2105:PMC
2087:doi
1957:doi
1885:doi
1709:PMC
1693:doi
1649:PMC
1633:doi
1592:PMC
1574:doi
1543:doi
1458:doi
1424:doi
1389:doi
1345:doi
1306:doi
1248:doi
1020:doi
979:doi
884:adj
657:In
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398:.)
272:or
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148:dy-
71:dy-
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2291:.
2279:.
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2190:.
2113:.
2103:.
2095:.
2085:.
2073:.
2069:.
2031:^
1963:.
1953:11
1951:.
1901:.
1893:.
1881:86
1879:.
1875:.
1717:.
1707:.
1699:.
1689:38
1687:.
1683:.
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