170:
1322:
2580:). These traits appear to be common to all early diverging lineages of non-vascular plants on the land. Their life-cycle is strongly dominated by the haploid gametophyte generation. The sporophyte remains small and dependent on the parent gametophyte for its entire brief life. All other living groups of land plants have a life cycle dominated by the diploid sporophyte generation. It is in the diploid sporophyte that vascular tissue develops. In some ways, the term "non-vascular" is a misnomer. Some mosses and liverworts do produce a special type of vascular tissue composed of complex water-conducting cells. However, this tissue differs from that of "vascular" plants in that these water-conducting cells are not lignified. It is unlikely that water-conducting cells in the mosses is homologous with the vascular tissue in "vascular" plants.
1228:
2779:. Starting from a plant which disperses by spores, highly complex changes are needed to produce seeds. The sporophyte has two kinds of spore-forming organs or sporangia. One kind, the megasporangium, produces only a single large spore, a megaspore. This sporangium is surrounded by sheathing layers or integuments which form the seed coat. Within the seed coat, the megaspore develops into a tiny gametophyte, which in turn produces one or more egg cells. Before fertilization, the sporangium and its contents plus its coat is called an ovule; after fertilization a seed. In parallel to these developments, the other kind of sporangium, the microsporangium, produces microspores. A tiny gametophyte develops inside the wall of a microspore, producing a
154:
1144:
1198:
2527:
124:
2753:
841:
110:
1171:
207:
1267:
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2593:
5994:
184:
1302:
2424:
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140:
2715:
The euphyllophytes, making up more than 99% of living vascular plant species, have large 'true' leaves (megaphylls), which effectively grow from the sides or the apex, via marginal or apical meristems. One theory is that megaphylls evolved from three-dimensional branching systems by first 'planation'
2730:
The ferns and horsetails (the
Polypodiophyta) form a clade; they use spores as their main method of dispersal. Traditionally, whisk ferns and horsetails were historically treated as distinct from 'true' ferns. Living whisk ferns and horsetails do not have the large leaves (megaphylls) which would be
2583:
Like the vascular plants, they have differentiated stems, and although these are most often no more than a few centimeters tall, they provide mechanical support. Most have leaves, although these typically are one cell thick and lack veins. They lack true roots or any deep anchoring structures. Some
2694:
All the vascular plants which disperse through spores were once thought to be related (and were often grouped as 'ferns and allies'). However, recent research suggests that leaves evolved quite separately in two different lineages. The lycophytes or lycopodiophytes – modern clubmosses, spikemosses
1002:) into a diploid multicellular sporophyte, takes place within the archegonium where it is both protected and provided with nutrition. This second feature is the origin of the term 'embryophyte' – the fertilized egg develops into a protected embryo, rather than dispersing as a single cell. In the
2634:
have a similar life-cycle but have simple tracheids and so are a kind of vascular plant. It was assumed that the gametophyte dominant phase seen in bryophytes used to be the ancestral condition in terrestrial plants, and that the sporophyte dominant stage in vascular plants was a derived trait.
1390:
An updated phylogeny of
Embryophytes based on the work by Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015 and Hao and Xue 2013 with plant taxon authors from Anderson, Anderson & Cleal 2007 and some additional clade names. Puttick et al./Nishiyama et al. are used for the basal clades.
2795:). When a pollen grain reaches an ovule, it enters via a microscopic gap in the coat, the micropyle. The tiny gametophyte inside the pollen grain then produces sperm cells which move to the egg cell and fertilize it. Seed plants include two clades with living members, the
2695:
and quillworts – make up less than 1% of living vascular plants. They have small leaves, often called 'microphylls' or 'lycophylls', which are borne all along the stems in the clubmosses and spikemosses, and which effectively grow from the base, via an intercalary
989:
and grow into a gametophyte, thus completing the cycle. Embryophytes have two features related to their reproductive cycles which distinguish them from all other plant lineages. Firstly, their gametophytes produce sperm and eggs in multicellular structures (called
1013:. Metamers are repeated units of development, in which each unit derives from a single cell, but the resulting product tissue or part is largely the same for each cell. The whole organism is thus constructed from similar, repeating parts or
2638:
During the
Devonian period, vascular plants diversified and spread to many different land environments. In addition to vascular tissues which transport water throughout the body, tracheophytes have an outer layer or cuticle that resists
1106:, streptophytes invaded the land and began the evolution of the embryophyte land plants. Present day embryophytes form a clade. Becker and Marin speculate that land plants evolved from streptophytes because living in fresh water pools
2716:– flattening to produce a two dimensional branched structure – and then 'webbing' – tissue growing out between the flattened branches. Others have questioned whether megaphylls evolved in the same way in different groups.
2635:
However, the gametophyte and sporophyte stages were probably equally independent from each other, and that the mosses and vascular plants in that case are both derived, and have evolved in opposite directions.
4319:Štorch, Petr; Žárský, Viktor; Bek, Jiří; Kvaček, Jiří; Libertín, Milan (May 28, 2018). "Sporophytes of polysporangiate land plants from the early Silurian period may have been photosynthetically autonomous".
2803:
or flowering plants. In gymnosperms, the ovules or seeds are not further enclosed. In angiosperms, they are enclosed within the carpel. Angiosperms typically also have other, secondary structures, such as
4365:
Pryer, K.M.; Schuettpelz, E.; Wolf, P.G.; Schneider, H.; Smith, A.R. & Cranfill, R. (2004), "Phylogeny and evolution of ferns (monilophytes) with a focus on the early leptosporangiate divergences",
1099:. The streptophyte algae (i.e. excluding the land plants) have around 122 genera; they adapted to fresh water very early in their evolutionary history and have not spread back into marine environments.
2546:(Marchantiophyta), are relatively small plants, often confined to environments that are humid or at least seasonally moist. They are limited by their reliance on water needed to disperse their
3363:
Gerrienne, Philippe; Gonez, Paul (January 2011). "Early evolution of life cycles in embryophytes: A focus on the fossil evidence of gametophyte/sporophyte size and morphological complexity".
1110:
them to tolerate a range of environmental conditions found on land, such as exposure to rain, tolerance of temperature variation, high levels of ultra-violet light, and seasonal dehydration.
3465:
Frangedakis, Eftychios; Shimamura, Masaki; Villarreal, Juan Carlos; Li, Fay-Wei; Tomaselli, Marta; Waller, Manuel; Sakakibara, Keiko; Renzaglia, Karen S.; Szövényi, Péter (January 2021).
2929:
Syllabus der
Vorlesungen über specielle und medicinisch-pharmaceutische Botanik: Eine Uebersicht über das ganze Pflanzensystem mit Berücksichtigung der Medicinal- und Nutzpflanzen.
998:'), and fertilization of the ovum takes place within the archegonium rather than in the external environment. Secondly, the initial stage of development of the fertilized egg (the
5824:
2882:
Rubinstein, C.V.; Gerrienne, P.; De La Puente, G.S.; Astini, R.A. & Steemans, P. (2010), "Early Middle
Ordovician evidence for land plants in Argentina (eastern Gondwana)",
4221:
Nishiyama, Tomoaki; Wolf, Paul G.; Kugita, Masanori; Sinclair, Robert B.; Sugita, Mamoru; Sugiura, Chika; Wakasugi, Tatsuya; Yamada, Kyoji; Yoshinaga, Koichi (2004-10-01).
2584:
species grow a filamentous network of horizontal stems, but these have a primary function of mechanical attachment rather than extraction of soil nutrients (Palaeos 2008).
3304:
Puttick, Mark N.; Morris, Jennifer L.; Williams, Tom A.; Cox, Cymon J.; Edwards, Dianne; Kenrick, Paul; Pressel, Silvia; Wellman, Charles H.; Schneider, Harald (2018).
2846:
Gray, J.; Chaloner, W.G. & Westoll, T.S. (1985), "The
Microfossil Record of Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 1970-1984 ",
1883:
2731:
expected of euphyllophytes. This has probably resulted from reduction, as evidenced by early fossil horsetails, in which the leaves are broad with branching veins.
5829:
1113:
The preponderance of molecular evidence as of 2006 suggested that the groups making up the embryophytes are related as shown in the cladogram below (based on Qiu
2628:
have water-conducting tissue more like that of mosses, but a different life-cycle in which the sporophyte is more developed than the gametophyte. Genera such as
1006:
the sporophyte remains dependent on the gametophyte, while in all other embryophytes the sporophyte generation is dominant and capable of independent existence.
7061:
2622:). Some extinct early plants appear to be between the grade of organization of bryophytes and that of true vascular plants (eutracheophytes). Genera such as
7049:
2702:
Although the living lycophytes are all relatively small and inconspicuous plants, more common in the moist tropics than in temperate regions, during the
7055:
5962:
6865:
2058:
7067:
3875:
4693:
Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809
4111:
The early
Devonian Posongchong flora of Yunnan: a contribution to an understanding of the evolution and early diversification of vascular plants
3408:
Su, Danyan; Yang, Lingxiao; Shi, Xuan; Ma, Xiaoya; Zhou, Xiaofan; Hedges, S Blair; Zhong, Bojian (2021-07-29). Battistuzzi, Fabia Ursula (ed.).
7197:
6030:
4433:
Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010), "Rainforest collapse triggered
Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica",
7458:
3120:
1321:
169:
7522:
6877:
5880:
3985:
Qiu, Y.L.; Li, L.; Wang, B.; Chen, Z.; et al. (2006), "The deepest divergences in land plants inferred from phylogenomic evidence",
6993:
2791:. Pollen grains can also transfer to an ovule of the same plant, either with the same flower or between two flowers of the same plant (
3850:
3654:
Donoghue, Philip C.J.; Harrison, C. Jill; Paps, Jordi; Schneider, Harald (October 2021). "The evolutionary emergence of land plants".
3193:
Margulis, L (1971). "Whittaker's five kingdoms of organisms: minor revisions suggested by considerations of the origin of mitosis".
5696:
2699:. It is believed that microphylls evolved from outgrowths on stems, such as spines, which later acquired veins (vascular traces).
7445:
4602:
Rutishauser, R. (1999). "Polymerous Leaf Whorls in
Vascular Plants: Developmental Morphology and Fuzziness of Organ Identities".
1227:
4646:
4547:
2550:; a few are truly aquatic. Most are tropical, but there are many arctic species. They may locally dominate the ground cover in
4751:
4733:
4715:
4676:
4418:
4149:
4119:
4092:
3954:
7450:
7517:
2488:
4470:& Fleming, A.J. (2007), "Zimmermann's telome theory of megaphyll leaf evolution: a molecular and cellular critique",
2460:
6023:
1095:. The chlorophytes, with around 700 genera, were originally marine algae, although some groups have since spread into
5886:
4401:
Boyce, C.K. (2005), "The evolutionary history of roots and leaves", in
Holbrook, N.M. & Zwieniecki, M.A. (eds.),
4202:
3961:
The hemitracheophytes form a monophyletic group that unites the bryophytes and the tracheophytes (or vascular plants)
2507:
3002:
6073:
4781:
2467:
7463:
6068:
5220:
206:
5701:
3410:"Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analyses Reveal the Monophyly of Bryophytes and Neoproterozoic Origin of Land Plants"
2445:
1021:'s definition of Metaphyta places some algae in this group). In all land plants a disc-like structure called a
2830:
integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors allow for shifts to asexuality.
6152:
6142:
6125:
6016:
5151:
2474:
4647:"Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World. Report for the Australian Biological Resources Study"
5870:
5457:
4972:
4270:
Gitzendanner, Matthew A.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Wong, Gane K.-S.; Ruhfel, Brad R.; Soltis, Douglas E. (2018).
2618:), plants evolved which possessed true vascular tissue, including cells with walls strengthened by lignin (
2441:
5952:
5706:
1017:. Accordingly, these plants are sometimes termed 'metaphytes' and classified as the group Metaphyta (but
3078:
2530:
Most bryophytes, such as these mosses, produce stalked sporophytes from which their spores are released.
2456:
946:, generally giving them a bright green color. Embryophyte cells also generally have an enlarged central
5686:
3036:
2577:
2521:
958:
863:
The Embryophytes emerged either a half-billion years ago, at some time in the interval between the mid-
809:
3879:
3810:
5836:
3684:
3340:
4171:
3148:
7484:
6008:
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5819:
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3169:
6157:
2434:
7476:
4194:
3946:
1197:
1026:
153:
7375:
5804:
5728:
3143:
2561:
They are usually studied together because of their many similarities. All three groups share a
1143:
448:
5533:
4546:
Smith, A.R.; Pryer, K.M.; Schuettpelz, E.; Korall, P.; Schneider, H. & Wolf, P.G. (2006).
7471:
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6120:
5969:
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739:
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123:
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7353:
7099:
5691:
5588:
5543:
5215:
4774:
4479:
4442:
3994:
3854:
3759:
3663:
3317:
3249:
3135:
2855:
2752:
1010:
871:, or almost a billion years ago, during the Tonian or Cryogenian, probably from freshwater
349:
5191:
4142:
Brief history of the gymnosperms: classification, biodiversity, phytogeography and ecology
840:
780:
during the early stages of its multicellular development within the tissues of the parent
8:
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6501:
6411:
6259:
5861:
5406:
3409:
2823:
2481:
880:
4483:
4446:
4272:"Plastid phylogenomic analysis of green plants: A billion years of evolutionary history"
3998:
3893:
Becker, B. & Marin, B. (2009), "Streptophyte algae and the origin of embryophytes",
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3667:
3321:
3253:
3139:
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910:
green algae, but differ in that in cell division the daughter nuclei are separated by a
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6249:
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3390:
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1749:
1498:
957:
In common with all groups of multicellular algae they have a life cycle which involves
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703:
691:
672:
428:
201:
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The embryophytes are informally called "land plants" because they thrive primarily in
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7161:
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6357:
6147:
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4729:
4711:
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4578:
4529:
4512:
Tomescu, A. (2009), "Megaphylls, microphylls and the evolution of leaf development",
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3376:
3345:
3287:
3275:
3267:
3218:
3161:
2942:
2911:
2896:
2555:
1996:
899:. Embryophytes are primarily adapted for life on land, although some are secondarily
785:
439:
328:
4348:
4039:
Crane, P.R.; Herendeen, P. & Friis, E.M. (2004), "Fossils and plant phylogeny",
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109:
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3608:
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3486:
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3421:
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3372:
3335:
3325:
3306:"The Interrelationships of Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte"
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481:
457:
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5538:
4525:
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Niklas, K.J.; Kutschera, U. (2010), "The evolution of the land plant life cycle",
1053:, and appears to be essential in the adaptation towards a terrestrial life style.
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4767:
3157:
2018:
1467:
1296:
1070:
1050:
906:
On a microscopic level, the cells of charophytes are broadly similar to those of
761:), while the related green algae are primarily aquatic. Embryophytes are complex
758:
735:
664:
379:
273:
3007:
Revista de la Facultad Nacional de Agronomia, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín
2738:. A stereotypical fern has broad, much divided leaves, which grow by unrolling.
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7125:
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6837:
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6760:
6708:
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321:
300:
189:
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Seed plants, which first appeared in the fossil record towards the end of the
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341:
59:
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2643:. The sporophyte is the dominant generation, and in modern species develops
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7179:
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6540:
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grain. Pollen grains can be physically transferred between plants by the
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2613:
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1586:
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991:
970:
931:
907:
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754:
668:
367:
308:
34:
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1301:
903:. Accordingly, they are often called land plants or terrestrial plants.
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7270:
7238:
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6432:
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2448: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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multicellular generation with twice the number of chromosomes – the
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6132:
5917:
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5851:
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4671:(2nd ed.), Amsterdam; Boston: Academic Press, pp. 508ff,
4615:
3876:"All Land Plants Evolved From Single Type of Algae, Scientists Say"
2757:
2696:
2619:
2608:
2604:
2539:
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1038:
950:
enclosed by a vacuolar membrane or tonoplast, which maintains cell
864:
805:
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656:
285:
159:
74:
69:
54:
49:
39:
4223:"Chloroplast Phylogeny Indicates that Bryophytes Are Monophyletic"
7437:
7233:
6936:
6735:
6192:
5102:
5097:
5014:
5004:
3597:"Xyloglucan evolution and the terrestrialization of green plants"
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2735:
2574:
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2175:
1682:
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5555:
5447:
5367:
5321:
5311:
5272:
5210:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
4790:
3715:
Pickett-Heaps, J. (1976). "Cell division in eucaryotic algae".
2827:
2809:
2805:
2788:
2780:
2630:
2551:
2547:
1817:
1451:
999:
951:
935:
825:
6627:
4139:
3837:"Phragmoplastin, green algae and the evolution of cytokinesis"
2987:
Rothmaler, Werner. Über das natürliche System der Organismen.
139:
7219:
6632:
6330:
6044:
5779:
5713:
5635:
5603:
5560:
5452:
5394:
5389:
5384:
5372:
5357:
5326:
5247:
4905:
4896:
4364:
3653:
2033:
1944:
1062:
982:
934:, which conduct photosynthesis and store food in the form of
856:
817:
652:
564:
560:
361:
218:
4269:
4074:
3794:
Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Philipp August (28 September 1894).
3556:"Plant evolution: landmarks on the path to terrestrial life"
3076:
7004:
6723:
5630:
5625:
5277:
5117:
5092:
5087:
5071:
4930:
4545:
4220:
3937:
Lecointre, Guillaume; Guyader, Hervé Le (August 28, 2006).
2784:
2776:
2725:
2652:
2644:
2535:
1659:
1257:
1250:
1166:
883:. The emergence of the Embryophytes depleted atmospheric CO
852:
844:
723:
715:
631:
625:
616:
610:
604:
592:
580:
545:
536:
533:
521:
334:
279:
145:
115:
7489:
6332:
3798:. Berlin : Georg Reimer – via Internet Archive.
598:
5550:
5112:
4759:
2558:
habitats or the epiphyte flora in rain forest habitats.
938:, and are characteristically pigmented with chlorophylls
3303:
4744:
Paleobotany, The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants
4728:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
4669:
Paleobotany, The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants
4432:
3037:"The taxa of the higher plants above the rank of order"
6046:
4706:
Raven, P.H.; Evert, R.F. & Eichhorn, S.E. (2005),
3851:"Invasions of the Algae - ScienceNOW - News - Science"
3512:
3510:
3467:"The hornworts: morphology, evolution and development"
2943:"Embryopsida, a new name for the class of land plants"
2818:
in sexual land plants provides a direct mechanism for
2734:
Ferns are a large and diverse group, with some 12,000
4318:
3077:
Cronquist, A.; Takhtajan, A.; Zimmermann, W. (1966).
973:– produces sperm and eggs which fuse and grow into a
622:
601:
577:
551:
542:
539:
4742:
Taylor, T.N.; Taylor, E.L. & Krings, M. (2009),
2712:) formed huge forests that dominated the landscape.
628:
607:
589:
586:
548:
530:
527:
4746:(2nd ed.), Amsterdam; Boston: Academic Press,
4038:
3507:
3236:Delwiche, Charles F.; Timme, Ruth E. (2011-06-07).
2845:
619:
595:
583:
524:
518:
16:
Subclade of green plants, also known as land plants
6854:
4741:
4705:
4666:
4186:
3938:
3750:Mayr, E. (1990), "A natural system of organisms",
6803:
6527:
4360:
4358:
3708:
3553:
753:having evolved secondarily to live once again in
96:(Spores from Dapingian (early Middle Ordovician))
7504:
6356:
4405:, Burlington: Academic Press, pp. 479–499,
4185:Lecointre, Guillaume; Guyader, Hervé Le (2006).
4184:
3936:
2672:
930:surrounded by two membranes. The latter include
784:. With very few exceptions, embryophytes obtain
7035:
4723:
4667:Taylor, T.N.; Taylor, E.L.; Krings, M. (2009),
4595:
4466:
4189:The Tree of Life: A Phylogenetic Classification
3987:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3941:The Tree of Life: A Phylogenetic Classification
3886:
3516:
3299:
3297:
2826:appears to be needed for maintaining long-term
1029:, a trait only found in the land plants in the
6985:
6634:
4689:
4687:
4355:
3362:
3003:"Un esbozo de clasificación de los organismos"
1009:Embryophytes also differ from algae by having
6176:
6024:
4775:
3984:
3714:
3235:
1033:lineage, some species within their relatives
985:at maturity. The spores divide repeatedly by
5881:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
3978:
3294:
2655:, while the gametophyte remains very small.
4724:Stewart, W.N. & Rothwell, G.W. (1993),
4684:
4601:
4108:Hao, Shougang & Xue, Jinzhuang (2013),
3972:
3892:
3407:
2940:
2413:
1868:(Clubmosses, Spikemosses & Quillworts)
7349:
6031:
6017:
4782:
4768:
2587:
6903:
6652:
4539:
4287:
4238:
4052:
4016:
4006:
3914:
3771:
3685:1983/662d176e-fcf4-40bf-aa8c-5694a86bd41d
3683:
3622:
3612:
3571:
3554:de Vries, J; Archibald, JM (March 2018).
3530:
3490:
3441:
3384:
3341:1983/ad32d4da-6cb3-4ed6-add2-2415f81b46da
3339:
3329:
3261:
3147:
3118:
3034:
2905:
2895:
2867:
2534:The non-vascular land plants, namely the
2508:Learn how and when to remove this message
5825:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
4710:(7th ed.), New York: W.H. Freeman,
4101:
3192:
2751:
2676:
2591:
2525:
839:
4726:Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants
4644:
4638:
4604:International Journal of Plant Sciences
4511:
4140:Anderson, Anderson & Cleal (2007).
4114:, Beijing: Science Press, p. 366,
3793:
3594:
3121:"New concepts of kingdoms or organisms"
2839:
2719:
1061:The green algae and land plants form a
7505:
4107:
1117:2006 with additional names from Crane
643:. They are the most familiar group of
7374:
7373:
6626:
6012:
4763:
4400:
4075:Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni (2015).
2706:period tree-like lycophytes (such as
4193:. Harvard University Press. p.
4144:. Vol. 20. SANBI. p. 280.
3945:. Harvard University Press. p.
3809:John, Whitfield (19 February 2001).
3808:
3749:
3595:Del-Bem, Luiz-Eduardo (2018-05-31).
3365:Journal of Systematics and Evolution
3079:"On the Higher Taxa of Embryobionta"
2446:adding citations to reliable sources
2417:
7523:Extant Ordovician first appearances
4548:"A classification for extant ferns"
3000:
1073:estimates, the Viridiplantae split
13:
14:
7534:
5830:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
2941:Pirani, J. R.; Prado, J. (2012).
7348:
5993:
5992:
4472:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
4411:10.1016/B978-012088457-5/50025-3
3532:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03054.x
3377:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2010.00096.x
2897:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03433.x
2422:
1320:
1300:
1265:
1226:
1196:
1169:
1142:
965:generation with a single set of
573:
514:
205:
182:
168:
152:
138:
122:
108:
32:
4699:
4660:
4505:
4460:
4426:
4394:
4312:
4263:
4227:Molecular Biology and Evolution
4214:
4178:
4133:
4068:
4032:
3966:
3930:
3868:
3843:
3829:
3811:"Land plants divided and ruled"
3802:
3787:
3743:
3647:
3588:
3547:
3458:
3414:Molecular Biology and Evolution
3401:
3356:
3229:
3186:
3112:
2433:needs additional citations for
7359:Current definitions of Plantae
3070:
3028:
2994:
2981:
2976:Keys to the phyla of organisms
2968:
2934:
2921:
2875:
2741:
835:
776:of nurturing the young embryo
772:. The name derives from their
706:. Living embryophytes include
698:. Embryophytes consist of the
1:
4526:10.1016/j.tplants.2008.10.008
2833:
2673:Lycophytes and euphyllophytes
2596:Reconstruction of a plant of
5871:History of plant systematics
5458:Thorns, spines, and prickles
4403:Vascular Transport in Plants
3158:10.1126/science.163.3863.150
2569:) life cycle and unbranched
2408:
1056:
895:, and thereby precipitating
671:, having emerged within the
7:
7518:Dapingian first appearances
4645:Chapman, Arthur D. (2009).
2775:-resistant capsules called
1393:
1049:species of the algae order
954:and keeps the plant rigid.
875:, a clade of multicellular
10:
7539:
5687:Alternation of generations
4789:
4368:American Journal of Botany
4276:American Journal of Botany
4079:. Liga-Pres. p. 685.
4041:American Journal of Botany
3823:10.1038/conference010222-8
3796:"Systematische phylogenie"
2989:Biologisches Zentralblatt.
2978:. Missoula, Montana. 1939.
2931:Berlin: Gebr. Borntraeger.
2822:in reproductive tissues.
2787:or animals, most commonly
2745:
2723:
2687:
2657:
2522:Alternation of generations
2519:
1025:forms where the cell will
959:alternation of generations
7382:
7331:
7247:
7206:
7095:
7080:
7031:
7022:
6981:
6961:
6950:
6899:
6890:
6850:
6835:
6831:
6791:
6787:
6722:
6695:
6663:
6648:
6644:
6622:
6570:
6554:
6536:
6490:
6486:
6420:
6399:
6387:
6383:
6352:
6323:
6301:
6283:
6231:
6211:
6191:
6187:
6172:
6056:
5988:
5936:
5900:
5837:Cultivated plant taxonomy
5800:Biological classification
5790:
5663:
5579:
5475:
5425:
5150:
5080:
5023:
4985:
4959:
4895:
4815:
4797:
4492:10.1016/j.pbi.2006.11.006
4333:10.1038/s41477-018-0140-y
4085:10.13140/RG.2.1.4745.6164
3676:10.1016/j.cub.2021.07.038
3331:10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063
3263:10.1016/j.cub.2011.04.021
3119:Whittaker, R. H. (1969).
2215:
2197:
2190:
2171:
2164:
2146:
2139:
2095:
2079:
2072:
2054:
2047:
2029:
2022:
2012:
1993:
1986:
1968:
1961:
1940:
1933:
1879:
1863:
1856:
1838:
1831:
1813:
1806:
1788:
1781:
1771:
1746:
1730:
1712:
1705:
1698:
1679:
1672:
1656:
1649:
1631:
1624:
1606:
1599:
1583:
1576:
1558:
1551:
1535:
1528:
1509:
1502:
1465:
1449:
1442:
1423:
1416:
1406:
1315:
1290:
1283:
1254:
1244:
1221:
1214:
1191:
1184:
1164:
1157:
1137:
1130:
1128:Living embryophytes
774:innovative characteristic
434:
427:
262:
257:
202:Scientific classification
200:
102:
23:
5697:Evolutionary development
4077:Modern plant systematics
3013:: 83–103. Archived from
2808:, which together form a
2542:(Anthocerotophyta), and
2414:Non-vascular land plants
740:diplobiontic life cycles
267:Non-vascular land plants
5348:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
4514:Trends in Plant Science
4008:10.1073/pnas.0603335103
3973:Becker & Marin 2009
2588:Rise of vascular plants
1884:Zosterophyllum deciduum
1085: million years ago
1078: million years ago
981:which produces haploid
820:in order to synthesize
5963:by author abbreviation
5887:Plant taxonomy systems
5805:Botanical nomenclature
4380:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1582
4054:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1683
3817:: conference010222–8.
3426:10.1093/molbev/msab106
2869:10.1098/rstb.1985.0077
2764:
2762:Aesculus hippocastanum
2685:
2600:
2531:
860:
663:. Embryophytes have a
337:– ferns and horsetails
30:Mid Ordovician–Present
7472:Paleobiology Database
5970:Botanical expeditions
4649:. Canberra, Australia
4240:10.1093/molbev/msh203
3035:Takhtajan, A (1964).
2771:era, reproduce using
2755:
2682:Lycopodiella inundata
2680:
2658:Further information:
2595:
2529:
2520:Further information:
1102:Some time during the
843:
738:). Embryophytes have
7354:List of plant orders
7234:Pinopsida (conifers)
7220:Cycadopsida (cycads)
7212:(living gymnosperms)
6709:Leiosporocerotopsida
6428:Nephroselmidophyceae
5702:Evolutionary history
5692:Double fertilization
5544:Cellular respiration
3882:on January 26, 2002.
2720:Ferns and horsetails
2614:440 to 360
2442:improve this article
1045:, as well as within
747:terrestrial habitats
391:Traditional groups:
350:Pteridospermatophyta
7062:Archaeopteridopsida
6795:Polysporangiophytes
6519:Klebsormidiophyceae
6502:Mesostigmatophyceae
6448:Chlorodendrophyceae
6412:Pyramimonadophyceae
6366:Prasinodermophyceae
6260:Compsopogonophyceae
4921:Non-vascular plants
4484:2007COPB...10....4B
4447:2010Geo....38.1079S
3999:2006PNAS..10315511Q
3764:1990Natur.348..491M
3668:2021CBio...31R1281D
3662:(19): R1281–R1298.
3560:The New Phytologist
3322:2018CBio...28E.733P
3254:2011CBio...21.R417D
3140:1969Sci...163..150W
2860:1985RSPTB.309..167G
2824:Sexual reproduction
1499:Polysporangiomorpha
881:Klebsormidiophyceae
770:reproductive organs
704:polysporangiophytes
7253:(flowering plants)
7174:Lyginopteridopsida
6967:Eophyllophytopsida
6920:Zosterophyllopsida
6858:Paratracheophytes*
6636:sensu strictissimo
6546:Coleochaetophyceae
6529:Phragmoplastophyta
6371:Palmophyllophyceae
6293:Glaucocystophyceae
6255:Stylonematophyceae
6250:Porphyridiophyceae
6039:Classification of
5426:Surface structures
5221:Flower development
4209:hemitracheophytes.
3907:10.1093/aob/mcp044
2991:67: 242-250. 1948.
2962:10.1002/tax.615014
2793:self-fertilization
2765:
2686:
2660:Polysporangiophyte
2601:
2532:
1750:Zosterophyllopsida
1426:Anthocerotophytina
961:. A multicellular
879:similar to extant
861:
692:Coleochaetophyceae
673:Phragmoplastophyta
382:– flowering plants
316:Zosterophyllophyta
7500:
7499:
7376:Taxon identifiers
7367:
7366:
7327:
7326:
7323:
7322:
7319:
7318:
7315:
7314:
7311:
7310:
7307:
7306:
7303:
7302:
7299:
7298:
7295:
7294:
7291:
7290:
7261:Basal angiosperms
7162:Gigantopteridales
7111:seed plant groups
7109:and other extinct
7076:
7075:
7050:Noeggerathiopsida
7018:
7017:
6973:Trimerophytopsida
6946:
6945:
6886:
6885:
6842:(vascular plants)
6807:Protracheophytes*
6783:
6782:
6779:
6778:
6746:Andreaeobryopsida
6687:Jungermanniopsida
6618:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6610:
6609:
6606:
6605:
6602:
6601:
6598:
6597:
6594:
6593:
6590:
6589:
6507:Chlorokybophyceae
6482:
6481:
6478:
6477:
6438:Chloropicophyceae
6379:
6378:
6358:Prasinodermophyta
6319:
6318:
6006:
6005:
5645:Herbaceous plants
5471:
5470:
4753:978-0-12-373972-8
4735:978-0-521-38294-6
4717:978-0-7167-1007-3
4708:Biology of Plants
4678:978-0-12-373972-8
4441:(12): 1079–1082,
4420:978-0-12-088457-5
4289:10.1002/ajb2.1048
4233:(10): 1813–1819.
4151:978-1-919976-39-6
4121:978-7-03-036616-0
4094:978-966-397-276-3
3956:978-0-6740-2183-9
3614:10.1111/nph.15191
3573:10.1111/nph.14975
3483:10.1111/nph.16874
3316:(5): 733–745.e2.
3248:(11): R417–R422.
3134:(3863): 150–160.
3001:Barkley, Fred A.
2974:Barkley, Fred A.
2927:Engler, A. 1892.
2854:(1138): 167–195,
2616:million years ago
2518:
2517:
2510:
2492:
2406:
2405:
2397:Paratracheophytes
2391:
2390:
2382:
2381:
2373:
2372:
2364:
2363:
2355:
2354:
2346:
2345:
2337:
2336:
2328:
2327:
2319:
2318:
2310:
2309:
2301:
2300:
2292:
2291:
2283:
2282:
2274:
2273:
2265:
2264:
2256:
2255:
2247:
2246:
2238:
2237:
2229:
2228:
2127:
2126:
2118:
2117:
2109:
2108:
1997:Trimerophytopsida
1922:
1921:
1913:
1912:
1904:
1903:
1895:
1894:
1760:
1759:
1488:
1487:
1479:
1478:
1468:Marchantiophytina
1387:
1386:
1378:
1377:
1369:
1368:
1360:
1359:
1351:
1350:
1342:
1341:
1333:
1332:
1087:into two clades:
786:biological energy
768:with specialized
682:green algae as a
647:that make up the
506:
505:
500:
491:
485:
476:
467:
461:
452:
443:
329:Trimerophytophyta
253:
97:
7530:
7493:
7492:
7480:
7479:
7467:
7466:
7454:
7453:
7441:
7440:
7428:
7427:
7418:
7417:
7416:
7403:
7402:
7401:
7371:
7370:
7352:
7351:
7266:Core angiosperms
7254:
7213:
7208:Acrogymnospermae
7186:Peltaspermopsida
7168:Glossopteridales
7150:Corystospermales
7132:Callistophytales
7112:
7104:
7098:
7093:
7092:
7089:
7088:
7056:Aneurophytopsida
7038:
7033:
7032:
7029:
7028:
7025:
6983:
6982:
6959:
6958:
6955:
6914:Barinophytopsida
6901:
6900:
6897:
6896:
6893:
6857:
6852:
6851:
6848:
6847:
6844:
6843:
6833:
6832:
6815:Horneophytopsida
6806:
6801:
6800:
6797:
6789:
6788:
6729:
6714:Anthocerotopsida
6702:
6697:Anthocerotophyta
6677:Haplomitriopsida
6670:
6661:
6660:
6657:
6650:
6649:
6646:
6645:
6638:
6624:
6623:
6577:
6568:
6567:
6562:Zygnematophyceae
6552:
6551:
6534:
6533:
6525:
6524:
6495:
6488:
6487:
6463:Trebouxiophyceae
6433:Picocystophyceae
6397:
6396:
6393:
6385:
6384:
6354:
6353:
6350:
6349:
6346:
6336:
6238:
6189:
6188:
6185:
6184:
6181:
6174:
6173:
6085:
6065:
6050:
6033:
6026:
6019:
6010:
6009:
5996:
5995:
5975:Individual trees
5650:Secondary growth
5621:Succulent plants
5609:Prostrate shrubs
5492:Apical dominance
5477:Plant physiology
5438:Epicuticular wax
4983:
4982:
4976:
4967:Plant morphology
4784:
4777:
4770:
4761:
4760:
4756:
4738:
4720:
4694:
4691:
4682:
4681:
4664:
4658:
4657:
4655:
4654:
4642:
4636:
4635:
4599:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4589:
4583:
4577:. Archived from
4567:10.2307/25065646
4552:
4543:
4537:
4536:
4509:
4503:
4502:
4464:
4458:
4457:
4455:10.1130/G31182.1
4430:
4424:
4423:
4398:
4392:
4390:
4362:
4353:
4352:
4316:
4310:
4309:
4291:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4242:
4218:
4212:
4211:
4192:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4169:
4165:
4163:
4155:
4137:
4131:
4130:
4129:
4128:
4105:
4099:
4098:
4072:
4066:
4065:
4056:
4036:
4030:
4029:
4020:
4010:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3944:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3918:
3895:Annals of Botany
3890:
3884:
3883:
3878:. Archived from
3872:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3862:
3853:. Archived from
3847:
3841:
3840:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3806:
3800:
3799:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3775:
3773:10.1038/348491a0
3747:
3741:
3740:
3712:
3706:
3705:
3687:
3651:
3645:
3644:
3626:
3616:
3607:(4): 1150–1153.
3592:
3586:
3585:
3575:
3566:(4): 1428–1434.
3551:
3545:
3544:
3534:
3514:
3505:
3504:
3494:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3445:
3420:(8): 3332–3344.
3405:
3399:
3398:
3388:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3343:
3333:
3301:
3292:
3291:
3265:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3180:
3174:
3168:. Archived from
3151:
3125:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3083:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3041:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
2998:
2992:
2985:
2979:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2956:(5): 1096–1098.
2947:
2938:
2932:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2909:
2899:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2843:
2664:Horneophytopsida
2617:
2611:periods (around
2513:
2506:
2502:
2499:
2493:
2491:
2450:
2426:
2418:
2193:
2192:
2167:
2166:
2142:
2141:
2075:
2074:
2050:
2049:
2025:
2024:
2015:
2014:
1989:
1988:
1964:
1963:
1936:
1935:
1859:
1858:
1834:
1833:
1809:
1808:
1784:
1783:
1774:
1773:
1734:Barinophytopsida
1708:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1675:
1674:
1652:
1651:
1627:
1626:
1602:
1601:
1579:
1578:
1554:
1553:
1531:
1530:
1513:Horneophytopsida
1505:
1504:
1445:
1444:
1419:
1418:
1409:
1408:
1399:
1398:
1394:
1324:
1304:
1297:flowering plants
1286:
1285:
1269:
1247:
1246:
1230:
1217:
1216:
1200:
1187:
1186:
1173:
1160:
1159:
1146:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1124:
1086:
1079:
824:while releasing
759:aquatic habitats
736:flowering plants
696:Zygnematophyceae
638:
637:
634:
633:
630:
627:
624:
621:
618:
613:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
567:, also known as
558:
557:
554:
553:
550:
547:
544:
541:
538:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
520:
495:
489:
480:
471:
465:
456:
447:
438:
344:(spermatophytes)
293:Horneophytopsida
286:Anthocerotophyta
248:
210:
209:
186:
172:
156:
142:
126:
112:
95:
94:
31:
27:Temporal range:
21:
20:
7538:
7537:
7533:
7532:
7531:
7529:
7528:
7527:
7503:
7502:
7501:
7496:
7488:
7483:
7475:
7470:
7462:
7457:
7449:
7444:
7436:
7431:
7423:
7421:
7412:
7411:
7406:
7397:
7396:
7391:
7378:
7368:
7363:
7287:
7252:
7251:
7243:
7211:
7210:
7202:
7156:Czekanowskiales
7110:
7108:
7106:
7105:
7102:
7096:
7086:
7085:
7081:
7072:
7036:
7023:
7014:
6986:Moniliformopses
6977:
6951:
6942:
6892:Eutracheophytes
6891:
6882:
6855:
6841:
6840:
6836:
6827:
6804:
6792:
6775:
6766:Polytrichopsida
6761:Tetraphidopsida
6727:
6726:
6718:
6700:
6699:
6691:
6682:Marchantiopsida
6668:
6667:
6665:Marchantiophyta
6653:
6640:
6586:
6575:
6574:
6566:
6550:
6523:
6491:
6474:
6416:
6407:Mamiellophyceae
6388:
6375:
6344:
6338:
6328:
6327:
6315:
6297:
6279:
6275:Florideophyceae
6265:Rhodellophyceae
6245:Cyanidiophyceae
6236:
6235:
6227:
6207:
6177:
6168:
6167:
6083:
6061:
6052:
6037:
6007:
6002:
5984:
5953:Botanical terms
5946:
5932:
5896:
5842:Citrus taxonomy
5820:Author citation
5786:
5680:
5659:
5581:
5575:
5571:Turgor pressure
5479:
5467:
5421:
5236:Floral symmetry
5154:
5146:
5076:
5065:Vascular bundle
5060:Vascular tissue
5019:
4979:
4970:
4969:
4955:
4926:Vascular plants
4891:
4887:Plant pathology
4811:
4793:
4788:
4754:
4736:
4718:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4685:
4679:
4665:
4661:
4652:
4650:
4643:
4639:
4600:
4596:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4550:
4544:
4540:
4510:
4506:
4465:
4461:
4431:
4427:
4421:
4399:
4395:
4374:(10): 1582–98,
4363:
4356:
4317:
4313:
4268:
4264:
4219:
4215:
4205:
4183:
4179:
4167:
4166:
4157:
4156:
4152:
4138:
4134:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4106:
4102:
4095:
4073:
4069:
4047:(10): 1683–99,
4037:
4033:
3993:(42): 15511–6,
3983:
3979:
3971:
3967:
3957:
3935:
3931:
3901:(7): 999–1004,
3891:
3887:
3874:
3873:
3869:
3860:
3858:
3849:
3848:
3844:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3807:
3803:
3792:
3788:
3748:
3744:
3729:10.2307/1297481
3713:
3709:
3656:Current Biology
3652:
3648:
3601:New Phytologist
3593:
3589:
3552:
3548:
3519:New Phytologist
3515:
3508:
3471:New Phytologist
3463:
3459:
3406:
3402:
3361:
3357:
3310:Current Biology
3302:
3295:
3242:Current Biology
3234:
3230:
3207:10.2307/2406516
3191:
3187:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3149:10.1.1.403.5430
3123:
3117:
3113:
3098:10.2307/1217531
3081:
3075:
3071:
3056:10.2307/1216134
3039:
3033:
3029:
3020:
3018:
2999:
2995:
2986:
2982:
2973:
2969:
2945:
2939:
2935:
2926:
2922:
2884:New Phytologist
2880:
2876:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2750:
2744:
2728:
2722:
2692:
2675:
2670:
2612:
2590:
2524:
2514:
2503:
2497:
2494:
2451:
2449:
2439:
2427:
2416:
2411:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2392:
2383:
2374:
2365:
2356:
2347:
2338:
2329:
2320:
2311:
2302:
2293:
2284:
2275:
2266:
2257:
2248:
2239:
2230:
2204:(paraphyletic)
2203:
2128:
2119:
2110:
2019:Moniliformopses
1923:
1914:
1905:
1896:
1761:
1695:Eutracheophytes
1489:
1480:
1388:
1379:
1370:
1361:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1251:Polypodiophytes
1081:
1074:
1071:molecular clock
1069:. According to
1059:
1051:Trentepohliales
886:
859:in a greenhouse
838:
810:carbon fixation
800:to harvest the
665:common ancestor
645:photoautotrophs
615:
576:
572:
517:
513:
490:Whittaker, 1969
389:
331:– trimerophytes
318:– zosterophylls
303:(tracheophytes)
301:Vascular plants
274:Marchantiophyta
247:
204:
196:
195:
194:
193:
192:
187:
179:
178:
173:
164:
163:
162:
157:
149:
148:
143:
134:
133:
132:
127:
119:
118:
113:
98:
93:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
42:
37:
29:
28:
25:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7536:
7526:
7525:
7520:
7515:
7498:
7497:
7495:
7494:
7481:
7468:
7455:
7442:
7429:
7419:
7404:
7388:
7386:
7380:
7379:
7365:
7364:
7362:
7361:
7356:
7346:
7340:
7332:
7329:
7328:
7325:
7324:
7321:
7320:
7317:
7316:
7313:
7312:
7309:
7308:
7305:
7304:
7301:
7300:
7297:
7296:
7293:
7292:
7289:
7288:
7286:
7285:
7284:
7283:
7278:
7273:
7263:
7257:
7255:
7245:
7244:
7242:
7241:
7236:
7231:
7222:
7216:
7214:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7200:
7194:
7192:Pentoxylopsida
7188:
7182:
7176:
7170:
7164:
7158:
7152:
7146:
7140:
7134:
7128:
7126:Calamopityales
7122:
7115:
7113:
7090:
7083:Spermatophytes
7078:
7077:
7074:
7073:
7071:
7070:
7064:
7058:
7052:
7045:
7043:
7040:Progymnosperms
7026:
7020:
7019:
7016:
7015:
7013:
7012:
7005:Polypodiopsida
7002:
7000:Cladoxylopsida
6996:
6989:
6987:
6979:
6978:
6976:
6975:
6969:
6962:
6956:
6953:Euphyllophytes
6948:
6947:
6944:
6943:
6941:
6940:
6925:Lycopodiopsida
6922:
6916:
6909:
6907:
6894:
6888:
6887:
6884:
6883:
6881:
6880:
6874:
6868:
6866:Cooksoniopsida
6861:
6859:
6845:
6829:
6828:
6826:
6825:
6817:
6810:
6808:
6798:
6785:
6784:
6781:
6780:
6777:
6776:
6774:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6756:Oedipodiopsida
6753:
6748:
6743:
6738:
6732:
6730:
6720:
6719:
6717:
6716:
6711:
6705:
6703:
6693:
6692:
6690:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6673:
6671:
6658:
6642:
6641:
6620:
6619:
6616:
6615:
6612:
6611:
6608:
6607:
6604:
6603:
6600:
6599:
6596:
6595:
6592:
6591:
6588:
6587:
6585:
6584:
6580:
6578:
6565:
6564:
6558:
6556:
6549:
6548:
6543:
6537:
6531:
6522:
6521:
6516:
6509:
6504:
6498:
6496:
6484:
6483:
6480:
6479:
6476:
6475:
6473:
6472:
6471:
6470:
6465:
6460:
6450:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6424:
6422:
6418:
6417:
6415:
6414:
6409:
6403:
6401:
6400:Prasinophytina
6394:
6381:
6380:
6377:
6376:
6374:
6373:
6368:
6362:
6360:
6347:
6321:
6320:
6317:
6316:
6314:
6313:
6307:
6305:
6303:incertae sedis
6299:
6298:
6296:
6295:
6289:
6287:
6281:
6280:
6278:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6241:
6239:
6229:
6228:
6226:
6225:
6217:
6215:
6209:
6208:
6206:
6205:
6197:
6195:
6182:
6179:Archaeplastida
6170:
6169:
6166:
6165:
6164:
6163:
6162:
6161:
6158:Mesomycetozoea
6155:
6150:
6140:
6130:
6129:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6107:
6106:
6094:Diaphoretickes
6091:
6086:
6081:
6076:
6071:
6066:
6058:
6057:
6054:
6053:
6041:Archaeplastida
6036:
6035:
6028:
6021:
6013:
6004:
6003:
6001:
6000:
5989:
5986:
5985:
5983:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5966:
5965:
5955:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5944:
5943:Related topics
5941:
5937:
5934:
5933:
5931:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5915:
5910:
5904:
5902:
5898:
5897:
5895:
5894:
5892:Taxonomic rank
5889:
5884:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5867:
5866:
5865:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5844:
5834:
5833:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5810:Botanical name
5802:
5796:
5794:
5792:Plant taxonomy
5788:
5787:
5785:
5784:
5783:
5782:
5777:
5776:
5775:
5768:Megasporangium
5765:
5764:
5763:
5756:Microsporangia
5748:
5747:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5710:
5709:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5683:
5681:
5679:
5678:
5673:
5667:
5661:
5660:
5658:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5641:
5640:
5639:
5638:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5617:
5616:
5611:
5601:
5596:
5594:Cushion plants
5585:
5583:
5577:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5541:
5531:
5529:Plant hormones
5526:
5521:
5520:
5519:
5512:Photosynthesis
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5483:
5481:
5473:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5429:
5427:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5398:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5377:
5376:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5350:
5345:
5344:
5343:
5342:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5330:
5329:
5324:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5290:
5285:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5245:
5244:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5231:Floral formula
5228:
5226:Floral diagram
5223:
5218:
5208:
5207:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5195:
5194:
5189:
5179:
5169:
5164:
5158:
5156:
5155:(incl. Flower)
5148:
5147:
5145:
5144:
5143:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5131:
5130:
5125:
5115:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5084:
5082:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5074:
5069:
5068:
5067:
5057:
5055:Storage organs
5052:
5047:
5046:
5045:
5035:
5029:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4991:
4989:
4980:
4978:
4977:
4963:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4941:Spermatophytes
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4911:Archaeplastida
4908:
4902:
4900:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4873:
4872:
4865:Phytogeography
4862:
4860:Phytochemistry
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4821:
4819:
4817:Subdisciplines
4813:
4812:
4810:
4809:
4804:
4798:
4795:
4794:
4787:
4786:
4779:
4772:
4764:
4758:
4757:
4752:
4739:
4734:
4721:
4716:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4695:
4683:
4677:
4659:
4637:
4616:10.1086/314221
4594:
4561:(3): 705–731.
4538:
4504:
4468:Beerling, D.J.
4459:
4425:
4419:
4393:
4354:
4327:(5): 269–271.
4311:
4282:(3): 291–301.
4262:
4213:
4203:
4177:
4168:|journal=
4150:
4132:
4120:
4100:
4093:
4067:
4031:
3977:
3975:, p. 1001
3965:
3955:
3929:
3885:
3867:
3842:
3828:
3801:
3786:
3742:
3723:(7): 445–450.
3707:
3646:
3587:
3546:
3506:
3477:(2): 735–754.
3457:
3400:
3355:
3293:
3228:
3201:(1): 242–245.
3185:
3111:
3092:(4): 129–134.
3069:
3050:(5): 160–164.
3027:
2993:
2980:
2967:
2933:
2920:
2874:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2758:horse chestnut
2756:Large seed of
2746:Main article:
2743:
2740:
2724:Main article:
2721:
2718:
2690:Lycopodiophyta
2688:Main article:
2674:
2671:
2589:
2586:
2516:
2515:
2430:
2428:
2421:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2220:(seed plants)
2218:Spermatophytes
2214:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2201:Progymnosperms
2196:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2170:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2098:Polypodiopsida
2094:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2083:Cladoxylopsida
2078:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2059:Pauthecophyton
2053:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2028:
2023:
2021:
2013:
2011:
2005:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1992:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1973:Eophyllophyton
1967:
1962:
1960:
1958:Euphyllophytes
1954:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1939:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1866:Lycopodiopsida
1862:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1848:
1847:
1837:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1782:
1780:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1711:
1706:
1704:
1699:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1678:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1655:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1557:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1534:
1529:
1527:
1525:Tracheophytina
1521:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1508:
1503:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1477:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1456:
1448:
1443:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1422:
1417:
1415:
1407:
1405:
1397:
1385:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1314:
1311:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1280:Spermatophytes
1276:
1275:
1272:
1271:
1253:
1245:
1243:
1241:Euphyllophytes
1237:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1220:
1215:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1190:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1149:
1148:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1123:
1058:
1055:
1035:Coleochaetales
893:global cooling
891:), leading to
889:greenhouse gas
884:
837:
834:
814:carbon dioxide
790:photosynthesis
504:
503:
502:
501:
492:
486:
477:
468:
462:
453:
444:
432:
431:
425:
424:
423:
422:
417:
409:
401:
388:
387:
386:
385:
384:
383:
377:
371:
365:
359:
353:
338:
335:Polypodiophyta
332:
325:
322:Lycopodiophyta
319:
312:
311:– rhyniophytes
297:
296:
295:
289:
283:
277:
260:
259:
255:
254:
242:
235:
234:
229:
222:
221:
216:
212:
211:
198:
197:
188:
181:
180:
174:
167:
166:
165:
158:
151:
150:
144:
137:
136:
135:
128:
121:
120:
114:
107:
106:
105:
104:
103:
100:
99:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
43:
38:
33:
26:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7535:
7524:
7521:
7519:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7510:
7508:
7491:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7460:
7456:
7452:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7434:
7430:
7426:
7420:
7415:
7409:
7405:
7400:
7394:
7390:
7389:
7387:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7372:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7347:
7345:
7341:
7338:
7334:
7333:
7330:
7282:
7279:
7277:
7274:
7272:
7269:
7268:
7267:
7264:
7262:
7259:
7258:
7256:
7250:
7246:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7228:
7223:
7221:
7218:
7217:
7215:
7209:
7205:
7199:
7195:
7193:
7189:
7187:
7183:
7181:
7177:
7175:
7171:
7169:
7165:
7163:
7159:
7157:
7153:
7151:
7147:
7145:
7141:
7139:
7135:
7133:
7129:
7127:
7123:
7121:
7120:Bennettitales
7117:
7116:
7114:
7101:
7100:Pteridosperms
7094:
7091:
7087:(seed plants)
7084:
7079:
7069:
7068:Protopityales
7065:
7063:
7059:
7057:
7053:
7051:
7047:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7034:
7030:
7027:
7021:
7010:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6997:
6995:
6991:
6990:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6974:
6970:
6968:
6964:
6963:
6960:
6957:
6954:
6949:
6938:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6923:
6921:
6917:
6915:
6911:
6910:
6908:
6906:
6902:
6898:
6895:
6889:
6879:
6875:
6873:
6869:
6867:
6863:
6862:
6860:
6853:
6849:
6846:
6839:
6838:Tracheophytes
6834:
6830:
6824:
6823:
6818:
6816:
6812:
6811:
6809:
6802:
6799:
6796:
6790:
6786:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6751:Andreaeopsida
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6733:
6731:
6725:
6721:
6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6706:
6704:
6698:
6694:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6674:
6672:
6666:
6662:
6659:
6656:
6651:
6647:
6643:
6639:
6637:
6630:
6625:
6621:
6582:
6581:
6579:
6576:(land plants)
6573:
6569:
6563:
6560:
6559:
6557:
6553:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6539:
6538:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6526:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6514:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6499:
6497:
6494:
6489:
6485:
6469:
6468:Chlorophyceae
6466:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6455:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6443:Pedinophyceae
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6425:
6423:
6421:Chlorophytina
6419:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6404:
6402:
6398:
6395:
6392:
6386:
6382:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6363:
6361:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6348:
6342:
6337:
6335:
6326:
6325:Viridiplantae
6322:
6312:
6309:
6308:
6306:
6304:
6300:
6294:
6291:
6290:
6288:
6286:
6282:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6270:Bangiophyceae
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6242:
6240:
6234:
6230:
6224:
6223:
6219:
6218:
6216:
6214:
6210:
6204:
6203:
6199:
6198:
6196:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6183:
6180:
6175:
6171:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6145:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6136:
6135:
6134:
6131:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6121:Stramenopiles
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6105:
6102:
6101:
6100:
6097:
6096:
6095:
6092:
6090:
6087:
6084:(major groups
6082:
6080:
6077:
6075:
6072:
6070:
6067:
6064:
6060:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6049:
6042:
6034:
6029:
6027:
6022:
6020:
6015:
6014:
6011:
5999:
5991:
5990:
5987:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5964:
5961:
5960:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5950:
5948:
5942:
5939:
5938:
5935:
5929:
5928:Phytochemical
5926:
5924:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5899:
5893:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5849:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5839:
5838:
5835:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5807:
5806:
5803:
5801:
5798:
5797:
5795:
5793:
5789:
5781:
5778:
5774:
5771:
5770:
5769:
5766:
5762:
5759:
5758:
5757:
5754:
5753:
5752:
5749:
5745:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5726:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5708:
5705:
5704:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5682:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5668:
5666:
5662:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5637:
5634:
5633:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5606:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5591:
5590:
5587:
5586:
5584:
5578:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5566:Transpiration
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5536:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5518:
5515:
5514:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5484:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5430:
5428:
5424:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5382:
5381:
5378:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5355:
5354:
5353:Inflorescence
5351:
5349:
5346:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5319:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5313:
5310:
5309:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5280:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5250:
5249:
5246:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5213:
5212:
5209:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5174:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5120:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5110:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5085:
5083:
5079:
5073:
5070:
5066:
5063:
5062:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5044:
5041:
5040:
5039:
5038:Ground tissue
5036:
5034:
5031:
5030:
5028:
5026:
5022:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4990:
4988:
4984:
4981:
4974:
4968:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4961:Plant anatomy
4958:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4894:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4882:Plant ecology
4880:
4878:
4877:Plant anatomy
4875:
4871:
4868:
4867:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4825:Archaeobotany
4823:
4822:
4820:
4818:
4814:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4799:
4796:
4792:
4785:
4780:
4778:
4773:
4771:
4766:
4765:
4762:
4755:
4749:
4745:
4740:
4737:
4731:
4727:
4722:
4719:
4713:
4709:
4704:
4703:
4690:
4688:
4680:
4674:
4670:
4663:
4648:
4641:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4610:(6): 81–103.
4609:
4605:
4598:
4584:on 2008-02-26
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4542:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4508:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4463:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4429:
4422:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4397:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4361:
4359:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4321:Nature Plants
4315:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4210:
4206:
4204:9780674021839
4200:
4196:
4191:
4190:
4181:
4173:
4161:
4153:
4147:
4143:
4136:
4123:
4117:
4113:
4112:
4104:
4096:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4071:
4064:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4035:
4028:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3981:
3974:
3969:
3962:
3958:
3952:
3948:
3943:
3942:
3933:
3926:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3889:
3881:
3877:
3871:
3857:on 2013-06-02
3856:
3852:
3846:
3838:
3832:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3805:
3797:
3790:
3783:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3758:(6301): 491,
3757:
3753:
3746:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3711:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3650:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3591:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3550:
3542:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3513:
3511:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3461:
3453:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3404:
3396:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3351:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3300:
3298:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3232:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3189:
3175:on 2017-11-17
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3122:
3115:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3038:
3031:
3017:on 2020-04-21
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2997:
2990:
2984:
2977:
2971:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2944:
2937:
2930:
2924:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2878:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2820:repairing DNA
2817:
2813:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2763:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2748:Spermatophyte
2739:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2717:
2713:
2711:
2710:
2709:Lepidodendron
2705:
2704:Carboniferous
2700:
2698:
2691:
2684:, a lycophyte
2683:
2679:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2615:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2594:
2585:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2573:(the plant's
2572:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2556:Arctic–alpine
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2538:(Bryophyta),
2537:
2528:
2523:
2512:
2509:
2501:
2498:November 2018
2490:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2466:
2462:
2459: –
2458:
2457:"Embryophyte"
2454:
2453:Find sources:
2447:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2431:This section
2429:
2425:
2420:
2419:
2394:
2387:
2386:
2378:
2377:
2369:
2368:
2360:
2359:
2351:
2350:
2342:
2341:
2333:
2332:
2324:
2323:
2315:
2314:
2306:
2305:
2297:
2296:
2288:
2287:
2279:
2278:
2270:
2269:
2261:
2260:
2252:
2251:
2243:
2242:
2234:
2233:
2225:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2195:
2194:
2187:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2169:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2144:
2143:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2123:
2122:
2114:
2113:
2105:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2077:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2052:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2027:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1966:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1938:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1918:
1917:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1899:
1891:
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1885:
1877:
1876:
1873:
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1869:
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1854:
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1850:
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1845:
1844:
1836:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1825:
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1821:
1820:
1819:
1811:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1800:
1799:
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1794:
1786:
1785:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1764:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1728:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1717:Adoketophyton
1710:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1677:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1662:
1661:
1654:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1629:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1612:
1604:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1581:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1556:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1539:Cooksoniaceae
1533:
1532:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1507:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1484:
1483:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1470:(Liverworts)
1469:
1463:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1383:
1382:
1374:
1373:
1365:
1364:
1356:
1355:
1347:
1346:
1338:
1337:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1212:
1211:Tracheophytes
1209:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1093:streptophytes
1090:
1084:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1067:Viridiplantae
1064:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
955:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
904:
902:
898:
894:
890:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
833:
831:
827:
823:
822:carbohydrates
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
794:chlorophyll a
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
764:
763:multicellular
760:
756:
752:
748:
743:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
636:
570:
566:
562:
556:
511:
498:
493:
487:
483:
479:Embryobionta
478:
474:
470:Telomobionta
469:
466:Barkley, 1949
463:
459:
454:
450:
445:
441:
436:
435:
433:
430:
426:
421:
418:
416:
413:
410:
408:
405:
402:
400:
397:
394:
393:
392:
381:
380:Magnoliophyta
378:
375:
372:
369:
366:
363:
360:
357:
354:
351:
347:
346:
345:
343:
339:
336:
333:
330:
326:
323:
320:
317:
313:
310:
306:
305:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
287:
284:
281:
278:
275:
272:
271:
270:
268:
264:
263:
261:
256:
251:
246:
243:
240:
237:
236:
233:
230:
227:
224:
223:
220:
217:
214:
213:
208:
203:
199:
191:
185:
177:
171:
161:
155:
147:
141:
131:
125:
117:
111:
101:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
41:
36:
22:
19:
7485:Tree of Life
7384:Embryophytes
7383:
7337:paraphyletic
7249:Angiospermae
7226:
7225:Ginkgoales (
7198:Petriellales
7180:Medullosales
7107:(seed ferns)
6820:
6741:Sphagnopsida
6736:Takakiopsida
6669:(liverworts)
6635:
6629:Embryophytes
6628:
6583:(see below↓)
6541:Charophyceae
6511:
6493:Streptophyta
6345:land plants)
6333:
6302:
6220:
6213:Rhodelphidia
6200:
6143:Opisthokonta
6047:
5923:Horticulture
5913:Floriculture
5815:Correct name
5665:Reproduction
5655:Woody plants
5580:Plant growth
5539:Gas Exchange
5524:Phytomelanin
5402:Plant embryo
5152:Reproductive
5000:Phragmoplast
4743:
4725:
4707:
4700:Bibliography
4668:
4662:
4651:. Retrieved
4640:
4607:
4603:
4597:
4586:. Retrieved
4579:the original
4558:
4554:
4541:
4517:
4513:
4507:
4475:
4471:
4462:
4438:
4434:
4428:
4402:
4396:
4391:, pp. 1582–3
4371:
4367:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4279:
4275:
4265:
4230:
4226:
4216:
4208:
4188:
4180:
4141:
4135:
4125:, retrieved
4110:
4103:
4076:
4070:
4044:
4040:
4034:
3990:
3986:
3980:
3968:
3960:
3940:
3932:
3898:
3894:
3888:
3880:the original
3870:
3859:. Retrieved
3855:the original
3845:
3831:
3814:
3804:
3789:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3720:
3716:
3710:
3659:
3655:
3649:
3604:
3600:
3590:
3563:
3559:
3549:
3525:(1): 27–41,
3522:
3518:
3474:
3470:
3460:
3417:
3413:
3403:
3368:
3364:
3358:
3313:
3309:
3245:
3241:
3231:
3198:
3194:
3188:
3177:. Retrieved
3170:the original
3131:
3127:
3114:
3089:
3085:
3072:
3047:
3043:
3030:
3019:. Retrieved
3015:the original
3010:
3006:
2996:
2988:
2983:
2975:
2970:
2953:
2949:
2936:
2928:
2923:
2890:(2): 365–9,
2887:
2883:
2877:
2851:
2847:
2841:
2814:
2766:
2761:
2733:
2729:
2714:
2707:
2701:
2693:
2681:
2637:
2629:
2625:Horneophyton
2623:
2602:
2597:
2582:
2560:
2533:
2504:
2495:
2485:
2478:
2471:
2464:
2452:
2440:Please help
2435:verification
2432:
2216:
2198:
2188:Lignophytes
2174:
2172:
2149:
2147:
2137:Radiatopses
2096:
2080:
2057:
2055:
2032:
2030:
1994:
1971:
1969:
1943:
1941:
1882:
1880:
1864:
1841:
1839:
1816:
1814:
1791:
1789:
1747:
1731:
1715:
1713:
1680:
1657:
1634:
1632:
1609:
1607:
1584:
1561:
1559:
1536:
1510:
1466:
1450:
1428:(Hornworts)
1424:
1403:Embryophytes
1402:
1389:
1316:
1291:
1255:
1222:
1192:
1165:
1138:
1118:
1114:
1112:
1101:
1089:chlorophytes
1060:
1043:Zygnematales
1031:streptophyte
1023:phragmoplast
1014:
1008:
956:
943:
939:
932:chloroplasts
922:composed of
912:phragmoplast
905:
862:
802:light energy
751:some members
744:
688:Charophyceae
684:sister taxon
640:
568:
510:embryophytes
509:
507:
455:Cormobionta
420:Angiospermae
412:Gymnospermae
404:Pteridophyta
390:
352:– seed ferns
340:
324:– clubmosses
299:
276:– liverworts
269:(bryophytes)
265:
245:Embryophytes
244:
238:
232:Streptophyta
225:
18:
7414:Embryophyta
7408:Wikispecies
7144:Cordaitales
7138:Caytoniales
7024:Lignophytes
7007:(ferns and
6933:spikemosses
6872:Rhyniopsida
6822:Aglaophyton
6701:(hornworts)
6572:Embryophyta
6555:Anydrophyta
6513:Spirotaenia
6458:Ulvophyceae
6391:Chlorophyta
6341:green algae
6311:Algospongia
6285:Glaucophyta
6237:(red algae)
5739:Pollen tube
5734:Pollinators
5724:Pollination
5719:Germination
5534:Respiration
5517:Chlorophyll
5363:Pedicellate
5297:Gametophyte
5216:Aestivation
5167:Antheridium
5162:Archegonium
5010:Plasmodesma
4987:Plant cells
4850:Paleobotany
4845:Ethnobotany
4830:Astrobotany
4520:(1): 5–12,
4478:(1): 4–12,
3815:Nature News
3386:2268/101745
3371:(1): 1–16.
2907:11336/55341
2801:angiosperms
2797:gymnosperms
2773:desiccation
2742:Seed plants
2668:Rhyniopsida
2603:During the
2571:sporophytes
2567:gametophyte
2565:-dominant (
1778:Microphylls
1683:Renaliaceae
1587:Rhyniopsida
1563:Aglaophyton
1452:Bryophytina
1318:Gymnosperms
1293:Angiosperms
1108:pre-adapted
1097:fresh water
971:gametophyte
967:chromosomes
914:. They are
908:chlorophyte
897:glaciations
877:green algae
873:charophytes
836:Description
782:gametophyte
755:semiaquatic
732:angiosperms
728:gymnosperms
669:green algae
641:land plants
569:Embryophyta
484:et al. 1966
437:Cormophyta
368:Ginkgophyta
362:Cycadophyta
342:Seed plants
309:Rhyniophyta
288:– hornworts
24:Land plants
7507:Categories
7271:Magnoliids
7239:Gnetopsida
7009:horsetails
6937:quillworts
6929:clubmosses
6905:Lycophytes
6878:Renaliales
6655:Bryophytes
6233:Rhodophyta
6222:Rhodelphis
5761:Microspore
5751:Sporangium
5729:Artificial
5417:Sporophyte
5412:Sporophyll
5407:Receptacle
5302:Gynandrium
5172:Androecium
5081:Vegetative
4951:Angiosperm
4946:Gymnosperm
4840:Dendrology
4653:2011-03-11
4588:2011-01-28
4127:2019-10-25
3861:2013-03-27
3717:BioScience
3624:1843/36860
3179:2014-11-28
3021:2014-11-04
2834:References
2641:drying out
2578:generation
2544:liverworts
2468:newspapers
2400:Lycophytes
2009:Megaphylls
1793:Hicklingia
1636:Aberlemnia
1262:horsetails
1224:Lycophytes
1140:Liverworts
1104:Ordovician
1004:bryophytes
996:archegonia
992:antheridia
979:sporophyte
916:eukaryotic
869:Ordovician
867:and early
778:sporophyte
766:eukaryotes
720:lycophytes
712:liverworts
700:bryophytes
680:charophyte
677:freshwater
649:vegetation
488:Metaphyta
374:Gnetophyta
358:– conifers
258:Divisions
176:Gymnosperm
130:Angiosperm
6771:Bryopsida
6724:Bryophyta
6453:UTC clade
6202:Picomonas
6138:Amoebozoa
6116:Alveolata
6104:Cryptista
6079:Eukaryota
5958:Botanists
5876:Herbarium
5773:Megaspore
5671:Evolution
5614:Subshrubs
5582:and habit
5507:Nutrition
5502:Cellulose
5497:Bulk flow
5480:Materials
5443:Epidermis
5307:Gynoecium
5288:Endosperm
5283:Dispersal
5199:Staminode
5135:Sessility
5123:Cataphyll
5043:Mesophyll
4995:Cell wall
4936:Lycophyte
4916:Bryophyte
4870:Geobotany
4855:Phycology
4298:0002-9122
4249:0737-4038
4170:ignored (
4160:cite book
3702:238588736
3633:0028-646X
3434:1537-1719
3288:235312105
3272:0960-9822
3195:Evolution
3144:CiteSeerX
2769:Paleozoic
2620:tracheids
2540:hornworts
2409:Diversity
2151:Celatheca
1611:Catenalis
1454:(Mosses)
1439:Setaphyta
1413:Bryophyta
1194:Hornworts
1057:Evolution
1047:subaerial
924:cellulose
920:cell wall
918:, with a
830:byproduct
749:(despite
708:hornworts
675:clade of
657:dry lands
482:Cronquist
473:Takhtajan
464:Euplanta
458:Rothmaler
440:Endlicher
396:Bryophyta
356:Pinophyta
280:Bryophyta
215:Kingdom:
190:Lycophyte
7438:47170524
7422:BioLib:
7393:Wikidata
7281:Eudicots
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