Microfossil - Knowledge

2841: 2361: 2407: 3439: 2376: 2744: 2708: 2463: 2345: 3277: 2911: 2685: 1452:, also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or dating fossils, are the fossilized remains or traces of particular plants or animals that are characteristic of a particular span of geologic time or environment, and can be used to identify and date the containing rocks. To be practical, index fossils must have a limited vertical time range, wide geographic distribution, and rapid evolutionary trends. Rock formations separated by great distances but containing the same index fossil species are thereby known to have both formed during the limited time that the species lived. 2313: 3420: 1522: 2447: 1509:, rather than an individual species — this allows greater precision as the time span in which all of the species in the assemblage existed together is narrower than the time spans of any of the members. Further, if only one species is present in a sample, it can mean either that (1) the strata were formed in the known fossil range of that organism; or (2) that the fossil range of the organism was incompletely known, and the strata extend the known fossil range. If the fossil is easy to preserve and easy to identify, more precise time estimating of the 2726: 3104: 1966: 3476: 2425: 3247: 3466: 2763: 2776: 158: 1872: 2670: 3500: 2328: 823: 1405: 2631: 2122: 3182: 1502:. Different fossils work well for sediments of different ages. To work well, the fossils used must be widespread geographically, so that they can be found in many different places. They must also be short lived as a species, so that the period of time during which they could be incorporated in the sediment is relatively narrow. The longer lived the species, the poorer the stratigraphic precision, so fossils that evolve rapidly. 1753: 2080:) usually produce simple fossils of a very small size, eukaryotic unicellular fossils are usually larger and more complex, with external morphological projections and ornamentation such as spines and hairs that only eukaryotes can produce; as most acritarchs have external projections (e.g., hair, spines, thick cell membranes, etc.), they are predominantly eukaryotes, although simple eukaryote acritarchs also exist. 2802: 5809: 4953: 2647: 22: 2510:, found in some plant tissues and persisting after the decay of the plant. These plants take up silica from the soil, whereupon it is deposited within different intracellular and extracellular structures of the plant. Phytoliths come in varying shapes and sizes. The term "phytolith" is sometimes used to refer to all mineral secretions by plants, but more commonly refers to siliceous plant remains. 2944:. Since the worms themselves were soft-bodied and hence extremely rarely preserved in the fossil record, their jaws constitute the main evidence of polychaetes in the geological past, and the only way to restore the evolution of this important group of animals. Small size of scolecodonts, usually less than 1 mm, puts them into a microfossil category. They are common by-product of conodont, 3298: 2538:) are usually deposited in shallow water near land, since the carbonate is precipitated by marine organisms that need land-derived nutrients. Generally speaking, the farther from land sediments fall, the less calcareous they are. Some areas can have interbedded calcareous sediments due to storms, or changes in ocean currents. 2213:. Siliceous oozes are the least common of the deep sea sediments, and make up approximately 15% of the ocean floor. Oozes are defined as sediments which contain at least 30% skeletal remains of pelagic microorganisms. Siliceous oozes are largely composed of the silica based skeletons of microscopic marine organisms such as 2883:

The element array constituted a feeding apparatus that is radically different from the jaws of modern animals. They are now termed "conodont elements" to avoid confusion. The three forms of teeth (i.e., coniform cones, ramiform bars, and pectiniform platforms) probably performed different functions.

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The ecology of chitinozoa is also open to speculation; some may have floated in the water column, where others may have attached themselves to other organisms. Most species were particular about their living conditions, and tend to be most common in specific paleoenvironments. Their abundance also

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is devoted to the study of pollen, which can be used both for biostratigraphy and to gain information about the abundance and variety of plants alive — which can itself yield important information about paleoclimates. Also, pollen analysis has been widely used for reconstructing past changes in

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stage of their lifecycle. These dinocyst stages are known to occur in 84 of the 350 described freshwater dinoflagellate species, and in about 10% of the known marine species. Dinocysts have a long geological record with geochemical markers suggest a presence that goes back to the

2480: 3532:, and paleoceanographic markers. Their widespread presence around the world and physical toughness makes microfossils important for biostratigraphy, while the manner in which they have reacted to environmental changes makes them helpful when reconstructing past environments. 2894:, fossils used to define and identify geological periods and date strata. Conodonts elements can be used to estimate the temperatures rocks have been exposed to, which allows the thermal maturation levels of sedimentary rocks to be determined, which is important for 3141:, as part of their lifecycles. Dinoflagellates are mainly represented in the fossil record by these dinocysts, typically 15 to 100 micrometres in diameter, which accumulate in sediments as microfossils. Organic-walled dinocysts have resistant cell walls made out of 1791:, which affords it some resistance to the rigours of the fossilisation process that destroy weaker objects. It is produced in huge quantities. There is an extensive fossil record of pollen grains, often disassociated from their parent plant. The discipline of 2375: 2940:- a diverse and abundant group of worms which has been inhabiting different marine environments in the past 500 million years. Composed of highly resistant organic substance, the scolecodonts are frequently found as fossils from the rocks as old as the late 3524:. In micropaleontology, what would otherwise be distinct categories are grouped together based solely on their size, including microscopic organisms and minute parts of larger organisms. Numerous sediments have microfossils, which serve as significant 5916:

Yang, Ben; Steiner, Michael; Zhu, Maoyan; Li, Guoxiang; Liu, Jianni; Liu, Pengju (2016). "Transitional Ediacaran–Cambrian small skeletal fossil assemblages from South China and Kazakhstan: Implications for chronostratigraphy and metazoan evolution".

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Wu, Kui; Tian, Li; Liang, Lei; Metcalfe, Ian; Chu, Daoliang; Tong, Jinnan (2019). "Recurrent biotic rebounds during the Early Triassic: Biostratigraphy and temporal size variation of conodonts from the Nanpanjiang Basin, South China".

2180:, filamentous microfossils have diameters typically less than 5 micrometres and have a length that can range from tens of micrometres to 100 micrometres, and spindle-like microfossils can be as long as 50 micrometres. 5391:

Moheimani, N.R.; Webb, J.P.; Borowitzka, M.A. (2012), "Bioremediation and other potential applications of coccolithophorid algae: A review. . Bioremediation and other potential applications of coccolithophorid algae: A review",

2046:, increasing in abundance, diversity, size, complexity of shape, and especially size and number of spines. Their increasingly spiny forms in the last 1 billion years may indicate an increased need for defence against predation. 4100: 6038:

Smith, E.F.; Nelson, L.L.; Strange, M.A.; Eyster, A.E.; Rowland, S.M.; Schrag, D.P.; MacDonald, F.A. (2016). "The end of the Ediacaran: Two new exceptionally preserved body fossil assemblages from Mount Dunfee, Nevada, USA".

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For many years, conodonts were known only from enigmatic tooth-like microfossils (200 micrometres to 5 millimetres in length) which occur commonly, but not always in isolation, and were not associated with any other fossil.

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A microfossil is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is just at or below the level at which the fossil can be analyzed by the naked eye. A commonly applied cutoff point between "micro" and

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on some specimens. Current scientific opinion is divided between classifying them as polychaetes and regarding it as unsafe to classify them as members of any broader grouping. In 2020, a new study showed the presence of

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affinities have all been entertained. The organisms have been better understood as improvements in microscopy facilitated the study of their fine structure, and it has been suggested that they represent either the

2707: 2114:, and other analytic techniques to the study of the ultrastructure, life history, and systematic affinities of mineralized, but originally organic-walled microfossils, have shown some acritarchs are fossilized 4766:

Marshall, C.; Javaux, E.; Knoll, A.; Walter, M. (2005). "Combined micro-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and micro-Raman spectroscopy of Proterozoic acritarchs: A new approach to Palaeobiology".

2176:, or degrades into oil and gas hydrocarbons. There are three main types of cell morphologies. Though there is no established range of sizes for each type, spheroid microfossils can be as small as about 8 1995:

to the present. Acritarchs are not a specific biological taxon, but rather a group with uncertain or unknown affinities. Most commonly they are composed of thermally altered acid insoluble carbon compounds

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has been a puzzle for more than a century. It has been hypothesized that the first mechanism of chordate tissue mineralization began either in the oral skeleton of conodont or the dermal skeleton of early

731:(geologists who study fossils) are interested in these microfossils because they can use them to determine how environments and climates have changed in the past, and where oil and gas can be found today. 2743: 695:

Microfossils are found in rocks and sediments as the microscopic remains of what were once life forms such as plants, animals, fungus, protists, bacteria and archaea. Terrestrial microfossils include

2221:. Other components of siliceous oozes near continental margins may include terrestrially derived silica particles and sponge spicules. Siliceous oozes are composed of skeletons made from opal silica 4835:

Schopf, J. William; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Sergeev, Vladimir N. (2010). "Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Raman imagery of the late Neoproterozoic Chichkan microbiota of South Kazakhstan".

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in Greek) are tiny, extinct jawless fish that resemble eels. For many years, they were known only from tooth-like microfossils found in isolation and now called conodont elements. The evolution of

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Era and when other fossils are not available. Because most acritarchs are thought to be marine (pre-Triassic), they are also useful for palaeoenvironmental interpretation. The Archean and earliest

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specimens from China bear the marks of multiple attacks, which suggests they survived at least a few of them. The holes made by predators are approximately proportional to the size of the

4096: 2069:. In theory, when the biological source (taxon) of an acritarch does become known, that particular microfossil is removed from the acritarchs and classified with its proper group. 5828:"Fossil Reveals Earth's Oldest Known Animal Guts - The find in a Nevada desert revealed an intestine inside a creature that looks like a worm made of a stack of ice cream cones" 4504:

Colbath, G.Kent; Grenfell, Hugh R. (1995). "Review of biological affinities of Paleozoic acid-resistant, organic-walled eukaryotic algal microfossils (including "acritarchs")".

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Colbath, G.Kent; Grenfell, Hugh R. (1995). "Review of biological affinities of Paleozoic acid-resistant, organic-walled eukaryotic algal microfossils (Including "acritarchs")".

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Gabbott, S.E.; Aldridge, R.J.; Theron, J.N. (1998). "Chitinozoan chains and cocoons from the Upper Ordovician Soom Shale lagerstatte, South Africa; implications for affinity".

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Cloudinids had a wide geographic range, reflected in the present distribution of localities in which their fossils are found, and are an abundant component of some deposits.

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Bohrmann, Gerhard; Abelmann, Andrea; Gersonde, Rainer; Hubberten, Hans; Kuhn, Gerhard (1994). "Pure siliceous ooze, a diagenetic environment for early chert formation".

3419: 2241:. Distance from land masses, water depth and ocean fertility are all factors that affect the opal silica content in seawater and the presence of siliceous oozes. 5085:

Oehler, D.Z.; Robert, F.; Mostefaoui, S.; Meibom, A.; Selo, M.; McKay, D.S. (2006). "Chemical Mapping of Proterozoic Organic Matter at Submicron Spatial Resolution".

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Kempe, A.; Wirth, R.; Altermann, W.; Stark, R.; Schopf, J.; Heckl, W. (2005). "Focussed ion beam preparation and in situ nanoscopic study of Precambrian acritarchs".

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microfossils termed "acritarchs" may actually be prokaryotes. The earliest eukaryotic acritarchs known (as of 2020) are from between 1950 and 2150 million years ago.

2826:. Ostracods are typically about 1 mm (0.039 in) in size, though they can range from 0.2 to 30 mm (0.008 to 1.181 in), with some species such as 3083:

fossils, which are often found in the same beds, have so far shown no such holes. These two points suggest that predators attacked in a selective manner, and the

3021:, growing new cones to avoid being buried by silt. However no specimens have been found embedded in mats, and their mode of life is still an unresolved question. 3675: 4970:

Philp, R.P.; Calvin, M. (1976). "Possible origin for insoluble organic (kerogen) debris in sediments from insoluble cell-wall materials of algae and bacteria".

4596:"MONTENARI, M. & LEPPIG, U. (2003): The Acritarcha: their classification morphology, ultrastructure and palaeoecological/palaeogeographical distribution". 6074:

Mertens KN, Rengefors K, Moestrup Ø, Ellegaard M (2012). "A review of recent freshwater dinoflagellate cysts: Taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology and palaeocology".

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Liang, Yan; Hints, Olle; Tang, Peng; Cai, Chenyang; Goldman, Daniel; Nõlvak, Jaak; Tihelka, Erik; Pang, Ke; Bernardo, Joseph; Wang, Wenhui (1 December 2020).

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Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; slack, John F.; Rittner, Martin; Pirajno, Franco; O'Neil, Jonathan; Little, Crispin T. S. (2 March 2017).

3358:, in the context of a marine sediment, does not refer to the consistency of the sediment but to its biological origin. The term ooze was originally used by 1436: 2065:. The nature of the organisms associated with older acritarchs is generally not well understood, though many are probably related to unicellular marine 3918: 2091:

but are occasionally extracted from carbonate-rich rocks. They are excellent candidates for index fossils used for dating rock formations in the

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Walsh, M. (1991). "Microfossils and possible microfossils from the early Archean Onverwacht Group, Barberton mountain land, South Africa".

3354:(single-celled plankton and benthos microorganisms). Much smaller amounts of precipitated minerals and meteoric dust can also be present. 798:

4.54 billion years ago. Nonetheless, life may have started even earlier, at nearly 4.5 billion years ago, as claimed by some researchers.

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are the earliest vertebrate teeth found in the fossil record, and some conodont teeth are the sharpest that have ever been recorded.

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Cloudinids are important in the history of animal evolution for two reasons. They are among the earliest and most abundant of the

2118:. In the end, it may well be, as Moczydłowska et al. suggested in 2011, that many acritarchs will, in fact, turn out to be algae. 1429: 3285:

Within each colored area, the type of material shown is what dominates, although other materials are also likely to be present.

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that is generally between 0.001 mm and 1 mm in size, the visual study of which requires the use of light or electron

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Betts, Holly C.; Putick, Mark N.; Clark, James W.; Williams, Tom A.; Donoghue, Philip C.J.; Pisani, Davide (20 August 2018).

2550:. Below this depth, calcium carbonate begins to dissolve in the ocean, and only non-calcareous sediments are stable, such as 2049:

Acritarchs may include the remains of a wide range of quite different kinds of organisms—ranging from the egg cases of small

791: 2725: 2424: 1583:. This division focuses on differences in the mineralogical and chemical composition of microfossil remains rather than on 672:

is 1 mm. Microfossils may either be complete (or near-complete) organisms in themselves (such as the marine plankters

58:. A fossil which can be studied with the naked eye or low-powered magnification, such as a hand lens, is referred to as a 2690:

Coccolithophores are the largest global source of biogenic calcium carbonate, and significantly contribute to the global

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Moldowan JM, Talyzina NM (August 1998). "Biogeochemical evidence for dinoflagellate ancestors in the Early Cambrian".

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Castellani, Christopher; Maas, Andreas; Eriksson, Mats E.; Haug, Joachim T.; Haug, Carolin; Waloszek, Dieter (2018).

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Piperno, Dolores R. (2006). Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Paleoecologists. AltaMira Press

5155: 4477: 4172: 3914:"The Microfossil Record of Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 1970–1984" 2025: 6298:

Wierer, U.; Arrighi, S.; Bertola, S.; Kaufmann, G.; Baumgarten, B.; Pedrotti, A.; Pernter, P.; Pelegrin, J. (2018).

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but are classified by fine skeletal details of the small individuals of the colony. As another example, many fossil

4633:"Microfossils from the Paleoproterozoic Hutuo Group, Shanxi, North China: Early evidence for eukaryotic metabolism" 343: 3692: 2522:

can be applied to a fossil, sediment, or sedimentary rock which is formed from, or contains a high proportion of,

3747: 3146: 1650: 217: 5191: 4921:"A Mineralized Alga and Acritarch Dominated Microbiota from the Tully Formation (Givetian) of Pennsylvania, USA" 5676: 5337: 4282:"The Weng'an Biota (Doushantuo Formation): An Ediacaran window on soft-bodied and multicellular microorganisms" 3150: 1804:

period, but at that time it is indistinguishable from spores. It increases in abundance until the present day.

5473:"New species of Mesozoic benthic foraminifera from the former British Petroleum micropalaeontology collection" 3964: 3567: 3115: 1858:

are not part of a sexual cycle but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions.

1299: 1294: 1127: 928: 308: 3250: 2547: 2237:). Silica (Si) is a bioessential element and is efficiently recycled in the marine environment through the 1455:

Index fossils were originally used to define and identify geologic units, then became a basis for defining

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is entirely artificial, it is not without merit, as the form taxa show traits similar to those of genuine

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and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the

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Trotter, Julie A. (2006). "Chemical systematics of conodont apatite determined by laser ablation ICPMS".

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Bengtson, S. (2002). "Origins and early evolution of predation". In Kowalewski, M.; Kelley, P.H. (eds.).

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Jones, David; Evans, Alistair R.; Siu, Karen K. W.; Rayfield, Emily J.; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2012).

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DeMaster, David J. (October 1981). "The supply and accumulation of silica in the marine environment".

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Tegelaar, E.W.; deLeeuw, J.W.; Derenne, S.; Largeau, C. (1989). "A reappraisal of kerogen formation".

3017:, which are limited to shallow water, and it has been suggested that cloudinids lived embedded in the 4316: 3582: 2001: 1949:

or juvenile stage of a marine animal. However, recent research has suggested that they represent the

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periods (i.e. the mid-Paleozoic), the millimetre-scale organisms are abundant in almost all types of

1584: 1350: 1009: 787: 525: 474: 454: 6407: 6358: 4349:"A Discussion and Proposals Concerning Fossil Dinoflagellates, Hystrichospheres, and Acritarchs, Ii" 3834: 3339:

on land, transported by rivers and land runoff, windborne dust, volcanoes, or grinding by glaciers.

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Cunningham, John A.; Vargas, Kelly; Yin, Zongjun; Bengtson, Stefan; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2017).

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cones nested within one another; the appearance of the organism itself remains unknown. The name

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Acritarch diversity reflects major ecological events such as the appearance of predation and the

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across the globe. This wide distribution, and their rapid pace of evolution, makes them valuable

1132: 1004: 615: 492: 5859:"Discovery of bilaterian-type through-guts in cloudinomorphs from the terminal Ediacaran Period" 5753:"The sharpest tools in the box? Quantitative analysis of conodont element functional morphology" 3863:"Integrated genomic and fossil evidence illuminates life's early evolution and eukaryote origin" 3491:

containing radiolarians, calcispheres, calpionellids and a few sponge spicules. The presence of

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samples, but sometimes they occur in the sediments where other fossils are very rare or absent.

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Environmental Micropaleontology : the Application of Microfossils to Environmental Geology

3605:"Cochleatina: an enigmatic Ediacaran–Cambrian survivor among small carbonaceous fossils (SCFs)" 3084: 3046: 2684: 2462: 1321: 1146: 535: 426: 381: 376: 298: 3811: 2344: 6511: 5863: 5138:

Mulder, Thierry; Hüneke, Heiko; Van Loon, A.J. (2011), "Progress in Deep-Sea Sedimentology",

3557: 3367: 2695: 1835: 884: 790:, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" (in a geological time-scale), after 640: 630: 421: 411: 318: 275: 5240:

Hasle, Grethe R.; Syvertsen, Erik E.; Steidinger, Karen A.; Tangen, Karl (25 January 1996).

6311: 6169: 6048: 5996: 5961: 5926: 5872: 5702: 5629: 5535: 5484: 5289: 5214: 5179: 5094: 5050: 5022: 4979: 4932: 4891: 4844: 4804:"Spore-Like Bodies in Some Early Paleozoic Acritarchs: Clues to Chlorococcalean Affinities" 4776: 4740: 4685: 4644: 4560: 4513: 4450: 4360: 4293: 4244: 4197: 4135: 4050: 4039:"Pollen Organ Telangiopsis sp. of Late Devonian Seed Plant and Associated Vegetative Frond" 3927: 3707: 3616: 3332: 3324: 3057: 2312: 1831: 1827: 1716: 1498:

are amongst the many species have been identified as index fossils that are widely used in

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account for the other 55% of the total sediment, and originate in the skeletal remains of

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is a form of calcium carbonate derived from planktonic organisms that accumulates on the

2107: 2039:. Precambrian marine diversity was dominated by acritarchs. They underwent a boom around 1823: 1521: 1510: 838: 684:) of larger animals or plants. Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of 626: 416: 366: 280: 250: 6315: 6173: 6052: 6000: 5987:

Porter, S.M. (1 June 2007). "Seawater Chemistry and Early Carbonate Biomineralization".

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is at best weakly mineralized, whilst sharing the same "funnel-in-funnel" construction.

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and ecological reconstruction difficult. Since their discovery in 1931, suggestions of

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Germs, G.J.B. (October 1972). "New shelly fossils from Nama Group, South West Africa".

5893: 5858: 5832: 5777: 5752: 5718: 5568: 5448: 5421: 5310: 5277: 5147: 4995: 4860: 4613: 4423: 4419: 4213: 4124:"A chitinozoan morphological lineage and its importance in Lower Silurian stratigraphy" 4073: 4038: 3945: 3889: 3862: 3603:

Slater, Ben J.; Harvey, Thomas H. P.; Bekker, Andrey; Butterfield, Nicholas J. (2020).

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Sediments at the bottom of the ocean have two main origins, terrigenous and biogenous.

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tubes, whose original mineral composition is unknown, Cloudinids comprise two genera:

6476: 6466: 6423: 6413: 6374: 6364: 6339: 6282: 6256: 6224: 6185: 6142: 6012: 5898: 5782: 5722: 5600: 5572: 5453: 5422:"A voltage-gated H+ channel underlying pH homeostasis in calcifying coccolithophores" 5373: 5333: 5315: 5249: 5226: 5151: 5120: 5067: 5063: 5034: 4904: 4879: 4864: 4713: 4617: 4578: 4529: 4525: 4462: 4427: 4388: 4262: 4217: 4168: 4078: 4017: 3894: 3725: 3634: 3552: 3521: 3515: 3232: 2658:

of a planktic foraminiferan. There are about 10,000 living species of foraminiferans

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account for about 45% of the total marine sediment, and originate in the erosion of

2818:. They are flattened from side to side and protected with a calcareous or chitinous 2148:

because their cell walls are made of proteins which convert to the organic material

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Kempe, A.; Schopf, J. W.; Altermann, W.; Kudryavtsev, A. B.; Heckl, W. M. (2002).

3475: 6460: 6324: 5438: 5241: 4063: 4008:. Topics in Geobiology, 28. Vol. 28. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 199–227. 3547: 3246: 3236: 2877: 2663: 2539: 2234: 2230: 2062: 2021: 1918: 1855: 1499: 1456: 1202: 1078: 992: 960: 728: 708: 704: 689: 677: 515: 396: 255: 197: 6220: 5407: 4878:

Moczydłowska, Małgorzata; Landing, ED; Zang, Wenlong; Palacios, Teodoro (2011).

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for the silica deposits of radiolarian shells brought to the surface during the

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containing at least 30 per cent from the skeletal remains of marine organisms.

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represent various stages of the life cycle of algae that were ancestral to the

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Your Inner Fish: A Journey into the 3.5 Billion Year History of the Human Body

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Calcareous microfossils from marine sediment consisting mainly of star-shaped

207: 6505: 6427: 6378: 6228: 4533: 4266: 4209: 3986: 3638: 3572: 3492: 3134: 3079: 3018: 3014: 2991: 2828: 2780: 2624: 2278: 2121: 1946: 1880: 1876: 1788: 1764: 1757: 1449: 1366: 1311: 1151: 1114: 977: 935: 906: 901: 772: 743: 712: 585: 570: 560: 245: 157: 6008: 5115: 4148: 4123: 1871: 81:

environments, but also occur in brackish water, fresh water and terrestrial

6343: 6146: 6016: 5902: 5786: 5768: 5497: 5472: 5457: 5420:

Taylor, A.R.; Chrachri, A.; Wheeler, G.; Goddard, H.; Brownlee, C. (2011).

5377: 5319: 5124: 5106: 5071: 5012: 4717: 4698: 4582: 4392: 4082: 3940: 3913: 3898: 3729: 3542: 3254: 3189: 3092: 2891: 2823: 2754: 2691: 2238: 1738: 1708: 1669: 1646: 1620: 1556: 1495: 1381: 1058: 1053: 1035: 853: 779: 755: 716: 673: 595: 555: 545: 235: 192: 177: 149: 6189: 5973: 5677:

Study of microfossils maps extreme global warming and environmental change

4820: 4803: 4373: 3693:"Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates" 2669: 6300:"The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use" 4233:"Fossilized reproductive modes reveal a protistan affinity of Chitinozoa" 3743: 3562: 3499: 3220: 2945: 2922: 2733: 2469: 2338: 2327: 2218: 2210: 2145: 2096: 2087:. They are typically isolated from siliciclastic sedimentary rocks using 2083:

Acritarchs are found in sedimentary rocks from the present back into the

2077: 2054: 1813: 1779: 1681: 1316: 1259: 1173: 940: 872: 724: 669: 550: 265: 106: 102: 82: 70: 59: 33: 5714: 5507: 5471:

Fox, Lyndsey R.; Stukins, Stephen; Hill, Tom; Bailey, Haydon W. (2018).

4306: 4281: 3720: 3028:

of the cloudinids has proved difficult: they were initially regarded as

822: 707:

are the most common microfossils. Everywhere in the oceans, microscopic

5548: 5523: 4609: 4187: 3949: 3629: 3604: 3484: 3205: 3142: 3029: 2983: 2930: 2715: 2630: 2565: 2499: 2177: 2115: 2092: 2041: 2005: 1990: 1973: 1910: 1887: 1792: 1760: 1712: 1704: 1692: 1631: 1604: 1588: 1580: 1564: 1548: 1544: 1471: 1467: 911: 764: 681: 600: 469: 118: 55: 6111:"Towards an Ecological Understanding of Dinoflagellate Cyst Functions" 3965:"The human impact imprint on modern pollen spectra of the Mayan lands" 1796:

vegetation and their associated drivers. Pollen is first found in the

93:

is represented in the microfossil record, the most abundant forms are

6060: 5524:"First record of Cyanobacteria in Cambrian Orsten deposits of Sweden" 4991: 4856: 4257: 4232: 3449: 3186: 3050: 3042: 3033: 2972: 2961: 2949: 2890:

are globally widespread in sediments.Their many forms are considered

2887: 2873: 2675: 2652: 2611: 2607: 2543: 2535: 2531: 2385: 2233:, which are made from skeletons of calcium carbonate organisms (i.e. 2153: 2073: 2058: 1981: 1661: 1642: 1616: 1560: 1552: 1483: 1254: 1247: 1141: 987: 945: 610: 520: 114: 110: 38: 6087: 4573: 4548: 4479:

The fossil record of predation. The Paleontological Society Papers 8

3181: 786:

of Quebec, Canada that may be as old as 4.28 billion years old, the

6203:

Jones, Adam C.; Blum, James E.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (8 August 2005).

4880:"Proterozoic phytoplankton and timing of Chlorophyte algae origins" 3839: 3780: 3453: 3397: 3213: 3209: 3161: 3138: 3109: 3069: 3064: 2979: 2978:

about 550 million years ago, and became extinct at the base of the

2965: 2941: 2937: 2850: 2846: 2811: 2767: 2393: 2318: 2169: 2050: 2017: 1914: 1851: 1801: 1665: 1654: 1596: 1536: 1475: 1242: 1232: 967: 950: 74: 3835:"A timescale for the origin and evolution of all of life on Earth" 2982:. They formed small millimetre size conical fossils consisting of 6073: 5812:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

5169: 4956:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

3807: 3457: 3444:

Marble can contain microfossil foraminiferans, coccolithophores,

3392: 3240: 3165: 3037: 2995: 2933: 2822:

shell. There are about 70,000 known species, 13,000 of which are

2819: 2603: 2527: 2207: 2149: 2126: 2084: 2057:(green algae). It is likely that most acritarch species from the 2029: 1997: 1933: 1752: 1742: 1600: 1237: 1162: 1083: 972: 858: 739: 3748:"Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest" 3680:

Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand". Accessed 11 May 2021.

3480: 2814:

are widespread crustaceans, generally small, sometimes known as

6462:

Marvelous microfossils : creators, timekeepers, architects

5562: 4877: 4671: 3804:"Canadian bacteria-like fossils called oldest evidence of life" 3430: 2801: 2615: 2507: 2397: 2306: 2289: 2285: 2214: 2173: 1941: 1847: 1797: 1784: 1720: 1700: 1696: 1612: 1576: 1572: 1540: 1491: 1487: 1266: 696: 172: 126: 122: 51: 5599:(reprint ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 85–86. 5239: 4919:

Chamberlain, John; Chamberlain, Rebecca; Brown, James (2016).

3216:, providing structural support and defense against predators. 2694:. They are the main constituent of chalk deposits such as the 2646: 2479: 21: 5808: 4952: 3602: 3488: 3362:, the "father of modern oceanography", who proposed the term 2899: 2619: 2301: 2293: 2157: 2009: 1937: 1891: 1843: 1839: 1819: 1673: 982: 751: 700: 78: 6297: 5419: 4674:"Atomic force microscopy of Precambrian microscopic fossils" 4162: 1770:

Green: spore tetrad. Blue: spore with Y-shaped trilete mark.

1535:

Microfossils can be classified by their composition as: (a)

5803: 5192:

10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0207:psoade>2.3.co;2

4918: 4279: 2297: 2222: 2066: 1677: 1100: 1039: 5806:

Institute of Geology at Tallinn University of Technology.

5521: 1668:(tiny oral structures of an extinct chordate group), some 4765: 3223:

spicules can become microfossils, and are referred to as

3087:

which this indicates is commonly cited as a cause of the

2546:. This can only occur if the ocean is shallower than the 6037: 5326: 4834: 4730: 3860: 5757:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

5390: 3911: 1707:(thought to be the egg cases of marine invertebrates), 5857:

Schiffbauer, James D.; et al. (10 January 2020).

5814:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

4958:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

3227:. Larger spicules visible to the naked eye are called 3212:. The meshing of many spicules serves as the sponge's 2876:. Conodont elements are made of a phosphatic mineral, 16:

Fossil that requires the use of a microscope to see it

5856: 5750: 4163:

Jansonius, J.; Jenkins, W.A.M. (1978). "Chitinozoa".

2595: 2277: 1906:

microfossils produced by an as yet unknown organism.

5470: 5278:"Phytoliths in selected broad-leaved trees in China" 5276:

Ge, Yong; Lu, Houyuan; Wang, Can; Gao, Xing (2020).

5137: 3425:

Opal can include microfossil diatoms, radiolarians,

2994:. Fossils consist of a series of stacked vase-like 1988:, are organic-walled microfossils, known from about 5691: 5352:"Diversity, Nomenclature, and Taxonomy of Protists" 1505:Often biostratigraphic correlations are based on a 758:, which are protists are known from shells (called 6209:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 5233: 3912:Gray, J.; Chaloner, W. G.; Westoll, T. S. (1985). 3495:, which are extinct, was used to date this dagger. 3253:images of various microscleres and megascleres of 1953:of a group of protists with uncertain affinities. 4801: 4230: 3919:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 6503: 6356: 6159: 5915: 4121: 4004:Traverse, Alfred (2007). "Devonian Palynology". 2832:being too large to be regarded as microfossils. 2152:as the cell breaks down after death. Kerogen is 6202: 5852: 5850: 5563:Richard C. Brusca & Gary J. Brusca (2003). 4969: 4912: 4678:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4503: 4485:. The Paleontological Society. pp. 289–317 4440: 4406:Martin, Francine (1993). "Acritarchsa Review". 4353:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4037:Wang, De-Ming; Meng, Mei-Cen; Guo, Yun (2016). 3243:. They are found in a range of symmetry types. 3013:is usually found in association with microbial 762:) that were as big as coins, such as the genus 5246:Identifying Marine Diatoms and Dinoflagellates 3962: 3282:Distribution of sediment types on the seafloor 1767:provide the earliest evidence of life on land. 6108: 5951: 5736:Scientists Discover Sharpest Teeth in History 5590: 5588: 5384: 4156: 3999: 3997: 2753:), usually made of calcium carbonate, from a 2333:diatom microfossil from 40 million years ago 2140:Archean life in the Barberton Greenstone Belt 2076:. While archaea, bacteria and cyanobacteria ( 1430: 680:) or component parts (such as small teeth or 648: 6252:Voyage of the Challenger : The Atlantic 5986: 5847: 5819: 5798: 5796: 4802:Kaźmierczak, Józef; Kremer, Barbara (2009). 4475: 3963:Franco-Gaviria, Felipe; et al. (2018). 3208:. They provide structural support and deter 2783:remains of an annulated tubular microfossil 2506:) are rigid, microscopic structures made of 692:to assist in the correlation of rock units. 6357:Armstrong, Howard; Brasier, Martin (2013). 5945: 5275: 4181: 4036: 3854: 3826: 3776:"Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found" 3767: 3736: 3684: 3668: 2392:made up of microfossils in the form of the 1772:Spores are about 30–35 μm across 688:information, and are also commonly used by 6493:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6440:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6391:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6271: 6269: 5980: 5804:Scolecodonts — jaws of polychaete annelids 5585: 3994: 3795: 3156:Dinocysts are produced by a proportion of 3129:Dinoflagellate § Dinoflagellate cysts 1437: 1423: 655: 641: 6333: 6323: 6136: 6126: 5892: 5793: 5776: 5547: 5506: 5496: 5447: 5437: 5367: 5309: 5114: 4944: 4903: 4819: 4707: 4697: 4656: 4572: 4382: 4372: 4340: 4317:1983/d874148a-f20e-498a-97d2-379b3feaa18a 4315: 4305: 4256: 4224: 4147: 4072: 4062: 3985: 3973:Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 3939: 3888: 3719: 3628: 65:Microfossils are a common feature of the 6458: 6278:Introduction to Marine Micropaleontology 5909: 5204: 4167:. Elsevier, New York. pp. 341–357. 4165:Introduction to marine micropaleontology 4003: 3905: 3498: 3474: 3464: 3296: 3275: 3245: 3180: 3102: 2909: 2839: 2800: 2774: 2761: 2478: 2366:elaborate silica shell of a radiolarian 2120: 1964: 1870: 1751: 1520: 1459:, and then for faunal stages and zones. 20: 6266: 5619: 5343: 4115: 3260: 3098: 3049:, the oldest on record, supporting the 2917:from the Ordovician and Silurian 715:which readily fossilise. These include 6504: 6405: 6275:Haq B.U. and Boersma A. (Eds.) (1998) 6255:Cambridge University Press, page235. 5594: 5269: 4405: 3801: 3742: 3204:are structural elements found in most 792:ocean formation 4.41 billion years ago 775:, or microfossils, were discovered in 77:. They are most common in deposits of 6109:Bravo I, Figueroa RI (January 2014). 5047: 5041: 4546: 4506:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 4443:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 4346: 3832: 3773: 711:multiply prolifically, and many grow 5825: 4103:from the original on 5 February 2018 3520:The study of microfossils is called 3509: 3351: 2168:. Over time, it is mineralised into 5654: 5349: 4630: 3654:"Discovering Devonian Microfossils" 3271: 1687:Organic microfossils: The study of 13: 5248:. Academic Press. pp. 5–385. 5148:10.1016/b978-0-444-53000-4.00001-9 4420:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1993.tb01241.x 3651: 3176: 2053:to resting cysts of many kinds of 14: 6523: 5695:Journal of the Geological Society 4286:Journal of the Geological Society 4190:Journal of the Geological Society 3137:, called dinoflagellate cysts or 2484:Phytolith from a leaf of the tree 1727: 6452: 6249:Thomson, Charles Wyville (2014) 5807: 4951: 4905:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01054.x 4549:"Early life: Ancient acritarchs" 3437: 3418: 2845:Conodont element found from the 2742: 2724: 2706: 2683: 2668: 2645: 2629: 2461: 2445: 2423: 2405: 2396:(shells) of centric and pennate 2374: 2359: 2343: 2326: 2311: 2133: 1970:Acritarch from the Weng'an biota 1861: 1404: 1403: 821: 801: 734:Some microfossils are formed by 156: 6399: 6350: 6291: 6243: 6196: 6153: 6102: 6067: 6031: 5939:10.1016/j.precamres.2016.09.016 5826:Joel, Lucas (10 January 2020). 5744: 5729: 5685: 5670: 5648: 5613: 5556: 5515: 5464: 5413: 5350:Ald, S.M.; et al. (2007). 5207:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 5198: 5163: 5131: 5078: 5015:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 5006: 4963: 4871: 4828: 4795: 4789:10.1016/j.precamres.2005.05.006 4759: 4753:10.1016/j.precamres.2005.07.002 4724: 4665: 4658:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105650 4624: 4589: 4540: 4497: 4469: 4434: 4399: 4324: 4273: 4089: 4030: 3956: 3674:Campbell, Hamish (12 Jun 2006) 3147:calcareous dinoflagellate cysts 3036:on the basis of what look like 3002:itself is mineralized, whereas 2905: 2718:with a sprinkling of coccoliths 1807: 1787:has an outer sheath, called a 1747: 1732: 1695:. Organic microfossils include 1651:calcareous dinoflagellate cysts 1168:microbial calcite precipitation 746:), which have relatively large 703:. Marine microfossils found in 218:List of human evolution fossils 5244:. In Tomas, Carmelo R. (ed.). 4631:Yin, Leiming (February 2020). 3774:Ghosh, Pallab (1 March 2017). 3645: 3596: 3151:siliceous dinoflagellate cysts 3032:worms, and then as coral-like 2183: 2144:Cells can be preserved in the 1516: 788:oldest record of life on Earth 1: 6182:10.1126/science.281.5380.1168 6128:10.3390/microorganisms2010011 5642:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2006.03.004 5477:Journal of Micropalaeontology 4808:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 3802:Dunham, Will (1 March 2017). 3589: 3568:Protists in the fossil record 3470:Thickness of marine sediments 3133:Some dinoflagellates produce 2955: 2513: 1960: 1866: 1680:remains (collectively called 1128:marine biogenic calcification 6325:10.1371/journal.pone.0198292 5439:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001085 5227:10.1016/0016-7037(81)90006-5 5064:10.1016/0301-9268(92)90074-X 5035:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90191-9 4598:Paläontologische Zeitschrift 4526:10.1016/0034-6667(94)00148-d 4463:10.1016/0034-6667(94)00148-D 4064:10.1371/journal.pone.0147984 3405: 3342: 3251:Scanning electron microscope 2835: 2796: 2757:ooze on the deep ocean floor 2548:carbonate compensation depth 2323:0.002 to 0.2 mm 2194: 2072:Acritarchs were most likely 1928:Their bizarre form has made 213:List of transitional fossils 7: 6221:10.1016/j.jembe.2005.02.009 5954:American Journal of Science 5408:10.1016/j.algal.2012.06.002 5142:, Elsevier, pp. 1–24, 4014:10.1007/978-1-4020-5610-9_8 3535: 3185:Six-pointed spicule from a 2929:in Latin) are tiny jaws of 2770:benthic foraminifera 2588: 2270: 1676:spines and teeth and other 1357:Biomineralising polychaetes 1123:amorphous calcium carbonate 809:Part of a series related to 329:Mammalian auditory ossicles 136: 10: 6528: 6459:De Wever, Patrick (2020). 6406:Martin, Ronald E. (2000). 5885:10.1038/s41467-019-13882-z 5302:10.1038/s41598-020-72547-w 4946:10.3390/geosciences6040057 4097:"Tree of Life Web Project" 3513: 3409: 3314: 3308: 3264: 3194: 3122: 2856: 2356:0.1 to 0.2 mm 2187: 2137: 1811: 1777: 1736: 1563:, as in the study of some 1389:Burgess Shale preservation 5369:10.1080/10635150701494127 4122:Gary Lee Mullins (2000). 3881:10.1038/s41559-018-0644-x 3583:Small carbonaceous fossil 3288:For further information, 2680:under 0.1 mm 2591: 2563: 2273: 2246: 1957:varied with the seasons. 1660:Phosphatic microfossils: 1630:Calcareous microfossils: 1351:Cupriavidus metallidurans 794:, and not long after the 526:Invertebrate paleontology 475:Biological classification 455:Introduction to evolution 356:Evolution of various taxa 4210:10.1144/gsjgs.155.3.0447 3987:10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a4 3833:Staff (20 August 2018). 3676:"Fossils - Microfossils" 3504:Some marine microfossils 3446:calcareous nannoplankton 3303:Carbonate-silicate cycle 2859:Conodont biostratigraphy 2534:. Calcareous sediments ( 1830:that may be adapted for 1595:Siliceous microfossils: 1072:Teeth, scales, tusks etc 510:Branches of paleontology 498:Timeline of paleontology 28:carbonaceous microfossil 6009:10.1126/science.1137284 4837:Journal of Paleontology 4149:10.1111/1475-4983.00131 3656:. Iowa State University 3487:. The blade is made of 2971:that lived in the late 2896:hydrocarbon exploration 2104:atomic force microscopy 2044: million years ago 1993: million years ago 1883:showing its flask shape 1691:microfossils is called 1641:) microfossils include 1133:calcareous nannofossils 929:Choanoflagellate lorica 616:Vertebrate paleontology 493:History of paleontology 487:History of paleontology 208:Lagerstätte fossil beds 5769:10.1098/rspb.2012.0147 5498:10.5194/jm-37-395-2018 5107:10.1089/ast.2006.6.838 4699:10.1073/pnas.142310299 3941:10.1098/rstb.1985.0077 3506: 3496: 3472: 3306: 3294: 3257: 3192: 3120: 3085:evolutionary arms race 2919: 2854: 2808: 2793: 2785:Oscillatoriopsis longa 2772: 2496: 2202:is a type of biogenic 2130: 2102:Recent application of 1978: 1884: 1775: 1532: 1322:Magnetotactic bacteria 1147:oolitic aragonite sand 1005:scaly-foot snail shell 796:formation of the Earth 536:Molecular paleontology 85:deposits. While every 43: 34:Cochleatina canilovica 5974:10.2475/ajs.272.8.752 5864:Nature Communications 5595:Shubin, Neil (2009). 4821:10.4202/app.2008.0060 4374:10.1073/pnas.49.3.298 4347:Evitt, W. R. (1963). 3558:Gunflint microfossils 3502: 3483:who lived during the 3478: 3468: 3410:Further information: 3368:Challenger expedition 3333:Terrigenous sediments 3315:Further information: 3300: 3279: 3249: 3184: 3106: 2913: 2843: 2804: 2778: 2765: 2696:white cliffs of Dover 2642:many under 1 mm 2482: 2188:Further information: 2124: 1968: 1879:chitinozoan from the 1874: 1755: 1737:Further information: 1664:microfossils include 1599:microfossils include 1524: 276:Timeline of evolution 24: 5919:Precambrian Research 5051:Precambrian Research 4769:Precambrian Research 4733:Precambrian Research 4637:Precambrian Research 4547:Buick, R. . (2010). 3456:, calpionellids and 3325:Marine isotope stage 3261:Freshwater sediments 3099:Dinoflagellate cysts 3058:small shelly fossils 2806:Ostracod microfossil 2435:(bilateral symmetry) 2125:Three main types of 1828:asexual reproduction 1717:dinoflagellate cysts 1526:Microfossils from a 1511:stratigraphic layers 771:In 2017, fossilized 293:Organs and processes 203:List of fossil sites 6316:2018PLoSO..1398292W 6174:1998Sci...281.1168M 6053:2016Geo....44..911S 6001:2007Sci...316.1302P 5966:1972AmJS..272..752G 5931:2016PreR..285..202Y 5877:2020NatCo..11..205S 5802:Hints, Olle (2016) 5763:(1739): 2849–2854. 5715:10.1144/jgs2019-065 5707:2019JGSoc.176.1232W 5634:2006ChGeo.233..196T 5540:2018Palgy..61..855C 5489:2018JMicP..37..395F 5294:2020NatSR..1015577G 5219:1981GeCoA..45.1715D 5184:1994Geo....22..207B 5099:2006AsBio...6..838O 5027:1989GeCoA..53.3103T 4984:1976Natur.262..134P 4937:2016Geosc...6...57C 4896:2011Palgy..54..721M 4849:2010JPal...84..402S 4781:2005PreR..138..208M 4745:2005PreR..140...36K 4690:2002PNAS...99.9117K 4649:2020PreR..342j5650Y 4565:2010Natur.463..885B 4518:1995RPaPa..86..287C 4455:1995RPaPa..86..287C 4365:1963PNAS...49..298E 4307:10.1144/jgs2016-142 4298:2017JGSoc.174..793C 4249:2020Geo....48.1200L 4202:1998JGSoc.155..447G 4140:2000Palgy..43..359M 4055:2016PLoSO..1147984W 3932:1985RSPTB.309..167G 3721:10.1038/nature21377 3712:2017Natur.543...60D 3621:2020Palgy..63..733S 3348:Biogenous sediments 2869:mineralized tissues 2108:confocal microscopy 2012:— for example the ' 2004:of acritarchs into 1800:record in the late 1049:Vertebrate skeleton 839:Mineralized tissues 627:Paleontology Portal 281:Transitional fossil 251:Geologic time scale 144:Part of a series on 5833:The New York Times 5569:Sinauer Associates 5549:10.1111/pala.12374 5282:Scientific Reports 5140:Deep-Sea Sediments 4610:10.1007/bf03004567 4408:Biological Reviews 3630:10.1111/pala.12484 3578:Scale microfossils 3530:paleoenvironmental 3507: 3497: 3473: 3383:Diatomaceous earth 3307: 3295: 3258: 3193: 3121: 3089:Cambrian explosion 2920: 2855: 2849:to the end of the 2809: 2794: 2773: 2731:Illustration of a 2497: 2488:Cornus controversa 2400:(click to magnify) 2382:Diatomaceous earth 2131: 2112:Raman spectroscopy 2037:Cambrian explosion 1979: 1885: 1776: 1533: 1213:diatomaceous earth 1179:Great Calcite Belt 1096:Scale microfossils 1089:otolithic membrane 1000:small shelly fauna 973:echinoderm stereom 849:Biocrystallization 736:colonial organisms 188:Fossil preparation 44: 6472:978-1-4214-3674-6 6419:978-1-4615-4167-7 6370:978-1-118-68545-7 6168:(5380): 1168–70. 5578:978-0-87893-097-5 5255:978-0-08-053441-1 5213:(10): 1715–1732. 5021:(11): 3103–3106. 4978:(5564): 134–136. 4684:(14): 9117–9120. 4604:: 173–194. 2003. 4559:(7283): 885–886. 4243:(12): 1200–1204. 4023:978-1-4020-6684-9 3926:(1138): 167–195. 3875:(10): 1556–1562. 3652:Drewes, Charlie. 3553:Chemostratigraphy 3522:micropaleontology 3516:Micropaleontology 3510:Micropaleontology 3427:silicoflagellates 3292: 3239:, or composed of 3231:. Spicule can be 3145:. There are also 2791: 2790:Scale bar: 100 μm 2702: 2701: 2586:name of skeleton 2524:calcium carbonate 2494: 2417:(radial symmetry) 2370: 2369: 2268:name of skeleton 2172:or graphite-like 2129:cell morphologies 2089:hydrofluoric acid 1773: 1623:(worm jaws), and 1609:silicoflagellates 1528:deep sea sediment 1507:faunal assemblage 1447: 1446: 1377:permineralization 1362:Mineral nutrients 1287:Mineral evolution 956:foraminifera test 815:Biomineralization 784:Nuvvuagittuq Belt 777:hydrothermal vent 709:protist organisms 690:biostratigraphers 665: 664: 591:Paleotempestology 576:Paleoneurobiology 531:Micropaleontology 95:protist skeletons 67:geological record 6519: 6498: 6492: 6484: 6446: 6445: 6439: 6431: 6403: 6397: 6396: 6390: 6382: 6363:. New York, NY. 6354: 6348: 6347: 6337: 6327: 6295: 6289: 6273: 6264: 6247: 6241: 6240: 6200: 6194: 6193: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6140: 6130: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6071: 6065: 6064: 6061:10.1130/G38157.1 6035: 6029: 6028: 5984: 5978: 5977: 5949: 5943: 5942: 5913: 5907: 5906: 5896: 5854: 5845: 5844: 5842: 5840: 5823: 5817: 5811: 5800: 5791: 5790: 5780: 5748: 5742: 5741:, 20 March 2012. 5733: 5727: 5726: 5701:(6): 1232–1246. 5689: 5683: 5682:, 7 August 2019. 5674: 5668: 5667: 5665: 5663: 5652: 5646: 5645: 5628:(3–4): 196–216. 5622:Chemical Geology 5617: 5611: 5610: 5592: 5583: 5582: 5567:(2nd ed.). 5560: 5554: 5553: 5551: 5519: 5513: 5512: 5510: 5500: 5468: 5462: 5461: 5451: 5441: 5417: 5411: 5410: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5371: 5347: 5341: 5330: 5324: 5323: 5313: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5242:"Marine Diatoms" 5237: 5231: 5230: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5135: 5129: 5128: 5118: 5116:2060/20060028086 5082: 5076: 5075: 5058:(2–4): 271–293. 5045: 5039: 5038: 5010: 5004: 5003: 4992:10.1038/262134a0 4967: 4961: 4955: 4950: 4948: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4857:10.1666/09-134.1 4832: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4799: 4793: 4792: 4775:(3–4): 208–224. 4763: 4757: 4756: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4711: 4701: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4660: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4593: 4587: 4586: 4576: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4512:(3–4): 287–314. 4501: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4484: 4483:(Free full text) 4473: 4467: 4466: 4449:(3–4): 287–314. 4438: 4432: 4431: 4403: 4397: 4396: 4386: 4376: 4344: 4338: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4319: 4309: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4260: 4258:10.1130/G47865.1 4228: 4222: 4221: 4185: 4179: 4178: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4151: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4076: 4066: 4034: 4028: 4027: 4001: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3969: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3943: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3892: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3810:. Archived from 3799: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3746:(1 March 2017). 3740: 3734: 3733: 3723: 3697: 3688: 3682: 3672: 3666: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3649: 3643: 3642: 3632: 3600: 3526:biostratigraphic 3479:Stone dagger of 3441: 3422: 3412:sedimentary rock 3376:pelagic sediment 3364:radiolarian ooze 3321:Paleoclimatology 3317:Paleoceanography 3311:Marine sediments 3287: 3272:Marine sediments 3095:and complexity. 3053:interpretation. 2789: 2746: 2728: 2710: 2687: 2672: 2649: 2633: 2561: 2560: 2556:pelagic red clay 2492: 2465: 2454:Silicoflagellate 2449: 2427: 2409: 2390:sedimentary rock 2378: 2363: 2347: 2330: 2315: 2244: 2243: 2235:coccolithophores 2231:calcareous oozes 2229:, as opposed to 2204:pelagic sediment 2190:Shelled protists 2166:organic solvents 2045: 1994: 1986:confused origins 1923:biostratigraphic 1909:Common from the 1856:Bacterial spores 1769: 1457:geologic periods 1439: 1432: 1425: 1412: 1407: 1406: 1327:Magnetoreception 1307:Ballast minerals 902:Cephalopod shell 897:Brachiopod shell 844:Remineralisation 825: 806: 805: 742:(especially the 729:Palaeontologists 705:marine sediments 678:coccolithophores 657: 650: 643: 606:Sclerochronology 334:Mosaic evolution 271:Paleoclimatology 241:Extinction event 160: 141: 140: 121:, together with 6527: 6526: 6522: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6517: 6516: 6502: 6501: 6486: 6485: 6473: 6455: 6450: 6449: 6433: 6432: 6420: 6404: 6400: 6384: 6383: 6371: 6355: 6351: 6310:(6): e0198292. 6296: 6292: 6274: 6267: 6248: 6244: 6201: 6197: 6158: 6154: 6107: 6103: 6088:10.2216/11-89.1 6072: 6068: 6036: 6032: 5985: 5981: 5950: 5946: 5914: 5910: 5855: 5848: 5838: 5836: 5824: 5820: 5801: 5794: 5749: 5745: 5734: 5730: 5690: 5686: 5675: 5671: 5661: 5659: 5653: 5649: 5618: 5614: 5607: 5593: 5586: 5579: 5561: 5557: 5520: 5516: 5469: 5465: 5432:(6): e1001085. 5418: 5414: 5389: 5385: 5348: 5344: 5331: 5327: 5274: 5270: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5238: 5234: 5203: 5199: 5168: 5164: 5158: 5136: 5132: 5083: 5079: 5046: 5042: 5011: 5007: 4968: 4964: 4917: 4913: 4876: 4872: 4833: 4829: 4800: 4796: 4764: 4760: 4729: 4725: 4670: 4666: 4629: 4625: 4595: 4594: 4590: 4574:10.1038/463885a 4545: 4541: 4502: 4498: 4488: 4486: 4482: 4474: 4470: 4439: 4435: 4404: 4400: 4345: 4341: 4329: 4325: 4278: 4274: 4229: 4225: 4186: 4182: 4175: 4161: 4157: 4120: 4116: 4106: 4104: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4049:(1): e0147984. 4035: 4031: 4024: 4006:Paleopalynology 4002: 3995: 3967: 3961: 3957: 3910: 3906: 3859: 3855: 3845: 3843: 3831: 3827: 3817: 3815: 3814:on 2 March 2017 3800: 3796: 3786: 3784: 3772: 3768: 3758: 3756: 3741: 3737: 3706:(7643): 60–64. 3695: 3689: 3685: 3673: 3669: 3659: 3657: 3650: 3646: 3601: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3548:Biostratigraphy 3538: 3518: 3512: 3505: 3481:Ötzi the Iceman 3471: 3461: 3442: 3433: 3423: 3414: 3408: 3352:marine protists 3345: 3327: 3313: 3305: 3293: 3286: 3284: 3274: 3269: 3263: 3199: 3179: 3177:Sponge spicules 3158:dinoflagellates 3131: 3119: 3113: 3101: 3077:specimens, and 2958: 2918: 2916: 2908: 2878:hydroxylapatite 2861: 2853: 2838: 2807: 2799: 2792: 2788: 2771: 2758: 2747: 2738: 2729: 2720: 2719: 2711: 2664:coccolithophore 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2600: 2580: 2575: 2569: 2540:Calcareous ooze 2526:in the form of 2516: 2495: 2493:scale bar 20 μm 2485: 2477: 2476: 2475: 2474: 2473: 2472: 2466: 2458: 2457: 2456: 2450: 2437: 2436: 2434: 2428: 2419: 2418: 2416: 2410: 2401: 2379: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2282: 2262: 2257: 2251: 2226: 2206:located on the 2197: 2192: 2186: 2142: 2136: 2063:dinoflagellates 2040: 2022:mass extinction 1989: 1977: 1971: 1963: 1919:marine sediment 1869: 1864: 1816: 1810: 1782: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1750: 1745: 1735: 1730: 1639: 1625:sponge spicules 1531: 1519: 1500:biostratigraphy 1443: 1402: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1281: 1273: 1272: 1271: 1227: 1219: 1218: 1217: 1203:biogenic silica 1197: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1170: 1158: 1137: 1117: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1073: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1043: 1028: 1027: 1026: 993:gastropod shell 961:testate amoebae 951:diatom frustule 876: 865: 864: 863: 833: 804: 721:dinoflagellates 670:"macro" fossils 661: 629: 621: 620: 516:Biostratigraphy 511: 503: 502: 488: 480: 479: 450: 442: 441: 357: 349: 348: 339:Nervous systems 294: 286: 285: 261:History of life 256:Geologic record 231: 230:Natural history 223: 222: 198:List of fossils 168: 139: 131:vascular plants 99:microbial cysts 42: 31: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6525: 6515: 6514: 6500: 6499: 6471: 6454: 6451: 6448: 6447: 6418: 6398: 6369: 6349: 6290: 6265: 6242: 6195: 6152: 6115:Microorganisms 6101: 6082:(6): 612–619. 6066: 6030: 5995:(5829): 1302. 5979: 5960:(8): 752–761. 5944: 5908: 5846: 5818: 5792: 5743: 5728: 5684: 5669: 5647: 5612: 5605: 5584: 5577: 5555: 5534:(6): 855–880. 5514: 5483:(1): 395–401. 5463: 5412: 5402:(2): 120–133, 5395:Algal Research 5383: 5362:(4): 684–689. 5342: 5325: 5268: 5254: 5232: 5197: 5162: 5156: 5130: 5093:(6): 838–850. 5077: 5040: 5005: 4962: 4911: 4890:(4): 721–733. 4870: 4843:(3): 402–416. 4827: 4814:(3): 541–551. 4794: 4758: 4739:(1–2): 36–54. 4723: 4664: 4623: 4588: 4539: 4496: 4468: 4433: 4414:(4): 475–537. 4398: 4359:(3): 298–302. 4339: 4336:dictionary.com 4330:definition of 4323: 4292:(5): 793–802. 4272: 4223: 4196:(3): 447–452. 4180: 4173: 4155: 4134:(2): 359–373. 4114: 4088: 4029: 4022: 3993: 3955: 3904: 3853: 3825: 3794: 3766: 3753:New York Times 3735: 3683: 3667: 3644: 3615:(5): 733–752. 3594: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3514:Main article: 3511: 3508: 3503: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3443: 3436: 3434: 3424: 3417: 3407: 3404: 3403: 3402: 3401: 3400: 3390: 3388:Siliceous ooze 3385: 3344: 3341: 3309:Main article: 3301: 3280: 3273: 3270: 3267:Paleolimnology 3262: 3259: 3197:Sponge spicule 3195:Main article: 3178: 3175: 3171:Early Cambrian 3135:resting stages 3125:Microbial cyst 3107: 3100: 3097: 3026:classification 3019:microbial mats 2964:were an early 2957: 2954: 2914: 2907: 2904: 2844: 2837: 2834: 2805: 2798: 2795: 2781:Cyanobacterial 2779: 2766: 2760: 2759: 2748: 2741: 2739: 2730: 2723: 2721: 2713: 2712: 2705: 2700: 2699: 2688: 2681: 2678: 2673: 2666: 2660: 2659: 2650: 2643: 2640: 2634: 2627: 2622: 2598: 2593: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2584: 2582: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2564: 2552:siliceous ooze 2515: 2512: 2483: 2468: 2467: 2460: 2459: 2452: 2451: 2444: 2443: 2442: 2441: 2440: 2439: 2438: 2432:Pennate diatom 2430: 2429: 2422: 2420: 2414:Centric diatom 2412: 2411: 2404: 2402: 2380: 2373: 2368: 2367: 2364: 2357: 2354: 2348: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2331: 2324: 2321: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2280: 2275: 2274: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2259: 2253: 2252: 2249:Siliceous ooze 2247: 2224: 2200:Siliceous ooze 2196: 2193: 2185: 2182: 2135: 2132: 2002:classification 1969: 1962: 1959: 1930:classification 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1809: 1806: 1765:trilete spores 1756: 1749: 1746: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1728:Organic-walled 1726: 1725: 1724: 1685: 1658: 1657:(seed shrimp). 1637: 1628: 1591:distinctions. 1525: 1518: 1515: 1496:foraminiferans 1480:dinoflagellate 1445: 1444: 1442: 1441: 1434: 1427: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1413: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1391: 1386: 1385: 1384: 1379: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1347: 1342: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1300:immobilization 1297: 1295:mineralization 1289: 1283: 1282: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1270: 1269: 1264: 1263: 1262: 1252: 1251: 1250: 1245: 1235: 1229: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1208:siliceous ooze 1205: 1199: 1198: 1195:Silicification 1193: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1184: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1159: 1157: 1156: 1155: 1154: 1149: 1138: 1136: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1119: 1118: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1081: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1045: 1044: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1025: 1024: 1019: 1017:Sponge spicule 1014: 1013: 1012: 1010:estuary shells 1007: 1002: 997: 996: 995: 990: 985: 975: 965: 964: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 933: 932: 931: 921: 920: 919: 914: 909: 899: 894: 893: 892: 887: 878: 877: 871: 870: 867: 866: 862: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 835: 834: 831: 830: 827: 826: 818: 817: 811: 810: 803: 800: 773:microorganisms 713:tiny skeletons 663: 662: 660: 659: 652: 645: 637: 634: 633: 623: 622: 619: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 581:Paleopathology 578: 573: 568: 566:Paleolimnology 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 541:Palaeoxylology 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 512: 509: 508: 505: 504: 501: 500: 495: 489: 486: 485: 482: 481: 478: 477: 472: 467: 462: 460:Common descent 457: 451: 448: 447: 444: 443: 440: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 358: 355: 354: 351: 350: 347: 346: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 295: 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 278: 273: 268: 266:Origin of life 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 232: 229: 228: 225: 224: 221: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 169: 166: 165: 162: 161: 153: 152: 146: 145: 138: 135: 39:Late Ediacaran 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6524: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6496: 6490: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6468: 6465:. Baltimore. 6464: 6463: 6457: 6456: 6453:Other sources 6443: 6437: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6415: 6411: 6410: 6402: 6394: 6388: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6366: 6362: 6361: 6353: 6345: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6294: 6288: 6287:9780080534961 6284: 6280: 6279: 6272: 6270: 6262: 6261:9781108074759 6258: 6254: 6253: 6246: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6199: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6156: 6148: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6105: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6070: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6034: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5983: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5948: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5912: 5904: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5865: 5860: 5853: 5851: 5835: 5834: 5829: 5822: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5799: 5797: 5788: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5747: 5740: 5737: 5732: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5688: 5681: 5678: 5673: 5658: 5651: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5616: 5608: 5606:9780307277459 5602: 5598: 5591: 5589: 5580: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5565:Invertebrates 5559: 5550: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5528:Palaeontology 5525: 5518: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5467: 5459: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5416: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5396: 5387: 5379: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5346: 5339: 5335: 5329: 5321: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5272: 5257: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5236: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5201: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5166: 5159: 5157:9780444530004 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5134: 5126: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5081: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5052: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5009: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4966: 4959: 4954: 4947: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4915: 4906: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4884:Palaeontology 4881: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4831: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4668: 4659: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4627: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4584: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4500: 4481: 4480: 4472: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4402: 4394: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4343: 4337: 4333: 4327: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4276: 4268: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4227: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4184: 4176: 4174:0-444-00267-7 4170: 4166: 4159: 4150: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4128:Palaeontology 4125: 4118: 4102: 4098: 4092: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4033: 4025: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4000: 3998: 3988: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3974: 3966: 3959: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3920: 3915: 3908: 3900: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3869: 3864: 3857: 3842: 3841: 3836: 3829: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3783: 3782: 3777: 3770: 3755: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3739: 3731: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3687: 3681: 3677: 3671: 3655: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3609:Palaeontology 3606: 3599: 3595: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3573:Protist shell 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3540: 3533: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3517: 3501: 3494: 3493:calpionellids 3490: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3467: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3435: 3432: 3428: 3421: 3416: 3415: 3413: 3399: 3396: 3395: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3380: 3379: 3377: 3373: 3372:biogenic ooze 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3340: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3312: 3304: 3299: 3291: 3283: 3278: 3268: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3183: 3174: 3172: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3154: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3130: 3126: 3117: 3112: 3111: 3105: 3096: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3081: 3080:Sinotubulites 3076: 3072: 3071: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3015:stromatolites 3012: 3007: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2992:Preston Cloud 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2967: 2963: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2936:of the order 2935: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2912: 2903: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2892:index fossils 2889: 2885: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2842: 2833: 2831: 2830: 2829:Gigantocypris 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2803: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2769: 2764: 2756: 2755:foraminiferal 2752: 2745: 2740: 2736: 2735: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2709: 2704: 2703: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2686: 2682: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2661: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2644: 2641: 2638: 2635: 2632: 2628: 2626: 2625:foraminiferan 2623: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2594: 2589:typical size 2585: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2572: 2567: 2562: 2559: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2490: 2489: 2481: 2471: 2464: 2455: 2448: 2433: 2426: 2421: 2415: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2377: 2372: 2371: 2365: 2362: 2358: 2355: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2329: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2276: 2271:typical size 2267: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2191: 2181: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2141: 2134:Archean cells 2128: 2123: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2100: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2079: 2075: 2070: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 2000:). While the 1999: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1975: 1967: 1958: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1926: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1882: 1881:Burgsvik beds 1878: 1877:Late Silurian 1873: 1862:Fungal spores 1859: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1822:is a unit of 1821: 1815: 1805: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1789:sporopollenin 1786: 1781: 1766: 1762: 1759: 1758:Late Silurian 1754: 1744: 1740: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1711:(worm jaws), 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1672:(worm jaws), 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1633: 1629: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1529: 1523: 1514: 1513:is possible. 1512: 1508: 1503: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1450:Index fossils 1440: 1435: 1433: 1428: 1426: 1421: 1420: 1418: 1417: 1411: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1398: 1390: 1387: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1372:Fossilization 1370: 1368: 1367:Microbial mat 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1312:Magnetofossil 1310: 1308: 1305: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1284: 1277: 1276: 1268: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1253: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1223: 1222: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1200: 1196: 1191: 1190: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1153: 1152:aragonite sea 1150: 1148: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1116: 1115:Calcification 1111: 1110: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1069: 1068: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1046: 1041: 1037: 1036:Endoskeletons 1032: 1031: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 994: 991: 989: 986: 984: 981: 980: 979: 978:mollusc shell 976: 974: 971: 970: 969: 966: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 949: 947: 944: 942: 939: 938: 937: 936:Protist shell 934: 930: 927: 926: 925: 922: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 907:cirrate shell 905: 904: 903: 900: 898: 895: 891: 888: 886: 883: 882: 880: 879: 874: 869: 868: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 836: 829: 828: 824: 820: 819: 816: 813: 812: 808: 807: 802:Index fossils 799: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 778: 774: 769: 767: 766: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 744:Cheilostomata 741: 737: 732: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 658: 653: 651: 646: 644: 639: 638: 636: 635: 632: 628: 625: 624: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 586:Paleopedology 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 571:Paleomycology 569: 567: 564: 562: 561:Paleogenetics 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 513: 507: 506: 499: 496: 494: 491: 490: 484: 483: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 452: 446: 445: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 359: 353: 352: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 296: 290: 289: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 246:Geochronology 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 233: 227: 226: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 173:Fossilization 171: 170: 164: 163: 159: 155: 154: 151: 148: 147: 143: 142: 134: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 63: 61: 57: 53: 49: 40: 36: 35: 29: 26:An enigmatic 23: 19: 6512:Microfossils 6461: 6412:. New York. 6408: 6401: 6360:Microfossils 6359: 6352: 6307: 6303: 6293: 6277: 6251: 6245: 6215:(1): 67–81. 6212: 6208: 6198: 6165: 6161: 6155: 6121:(1): 11–32. 6118: 6114: 6104: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6044: 6040: 6033: 5992: 5988: 5982: 5957: 5953: 5947: 5922: 5918: 5911: 5871:(205): 205. 5868: 5862: 5837:. Retrieved 5831: 5821: 5760: 5756: 5746: 5739:Sci-News.com 5738: 5731: 5698: 5694: 5687: 5679: 5672: 5660:. Retrieved 5650: 5625: 5621: 5615: 5596: 5564: 5558: 5531: 5527: 5517: 5508:10141/622407 5480: 5476: 5466: 5429: 5426:PLOS Biology 5425: 5415: 5399: 5393: 5386: 5359: 5355: 5345: 5328: 5288:(1): 15577. 5285: 5281: 5271: 5259:. Retrieved 5245: 5235: 5210: 5206: 5200: 5175: 5171: 5165: 5139: 5133: 5090: 5087:Astrobiology 5086: 5080: 5055: 5049: 5043: 5018: 5014: 5008: 4975: 4971: 4965: 4928: 4924: 4914: 4887: 4883: 4873: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4811: 4807: 4797: 4772: 4768: 4761: 4736: 4732: 4726: 4681: 4677: 4667: 4640: 4636: 4626: 4601: 4597: 4591: 4556: 4552: 4542: 4509: 4505: 4499: 4487:. Retrieved 4478: 4471: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4411: 4407: 4401: 4356: 4352: 4342: 4326: 4289: 4285: 4275: 4240: 4236: 4226: 4193: 4189: 4183: 4164: 4158: 4131: 4127: 4117: 4105:. Retrieved 4091: 4046: 4042: 4032: 4005: 3980:(1): 61–78. 3977: 3971: 3958: 3923: 3917: 3907: 3872: 3866: 3856: 3844:. Retrieved 3838: 3828: 3816:. Retrieved 3812:the original 3797: 3785:. Retrieved 3779: 3769: 3757:. Retrieved 3751: 3744:Zimmer, Carl 3738: 3703: 3699: 3686: 3679: 3670: 3658:. Retrieved 3647: 3612: 3608: 3598: 3543:Biosignature 3519: 3371: 3363: 3355: 3346: 3331: 3328: 3281: 3228: 3225:microscleres 3224: 3218: 3200: 3190:glass sponge 3155: 3132: 3114:as drawn by 3108: 3078: 3074: 3068: 3055: 3023: 3010: 3008: 3003: 2999: 2987: 2959: 2926: 2923:Scolecodonts 2921: 2915:Scolecodonts 2906:Scolecodonts 2898:. Conodont 2886: 2882: 2864: 2862: 2827: 2820:bivalve-like 2816:seed shrimps 2815: 2810: 2784: 2732: 2692:carbon cycle 2519: 2517: 2504:plant stones 2503: 2498: 2486: 2239:silica cycle 2219:radiolarians 2198: 2143: 2101: 2082: 2071: 2048: 2034: 1985: 1984:, Greek for 1980: 1955: 1927: 1908: 1886: 1817: 1808:Plant spores 1783: 1748:Pollen grain 1739:Palynomorphs 1733:Palynomorphs 1709:scolecodonts 1705:chitinozoans 1682:ichthyoliths 1670:scolecodonts 1647:foraminifera 1621:scolecodonts 1605:radiolarians 1571:, as in the 1557:foraminifera 1534: 1504: 1472:chitinozoans 1464:microfossils 1461: 1454: 1448: 1382:petrifaction 1349: 1337: 1332:Microfossils 1331: 1079:Limpet teeth 1059:Ossification 1054:Bone mineral 988:chiton shell 873:Exoskeletons 854:Biointerface 780:precipitates 770: 763: 756:Foraminifera 733: 725:radiolarians 717:foraminifera 694: 686:paleoclimate 674:foraminifera 666: 596:Paleozoology 556:Paleoecology 546:Paleobiology 299:Avian flight 236:Biogeography 193:Index fossil 182: 178:Trace fossil 150:Paleontology 119:chitinozoans 64: 47: 45: 32: 18: 6047:(11): 911. 5925:: 202–215. 5657:"Conodonts" 5261:13 November 4925:Geosciences 3563:Macrofossil 3448:and algae, 3360:John Murray 3255:demosponges 3229:megascleres 3221:microscopic 3062:mineralized 2946:chitinozoan 2863:Conodonts ( 2734:Globigerina 2502:(Greek for 2470:Radiolarian 2384:is a soft, 2339:radiolarian 2211:ocean floor 2184:Mineralised 2178:micrometres 2156:in mineral 2146:rock record 2097:Proterozoic 2078:prokaryotes 2055:chlorophyta 2006:form genera 1972:c. 570–609 1836:life cycles 1814:Cryptospore 1780:Pollen zone 1579:studied in 1565:vertebrates 1517:Composition 1462:Species of 1317:Magnetosome 1260:phosphorite 1226:Other forms 1174:calcite sea 941:coccosphere 885:exoskeleton 551:Paleobotany 372:Cephalopods 367:Butterflies 183:Microfossil 107:Pyrrhophyta 103:Chrysophyta 83:sedimentary 71:Precambrian 69:, from the 60:macrofossil 48:microfossil 37:, from the 6481:1148175375 6281:Elsevier. 6076:Phycologia 5839:10 January 5356:Syst. Biol 5338:0759103852 5178:(3): 207. 4643:: 105650. 4489:1 December 4107:5 February 3590:References 3485:Copper Age 3450:ostracodes 3265:See also: 3233:calcareous 3143:dinosporin 3123:See also: 3091:of animal 3051:bilaterian 3043:Nephrozoan 3034:cnidarians 3030:polychaete 2984:calcareous 2962:cloudinids 2956:Cloudinids 2931:polychaete 2865:cone tooth 2857:See also: 2716:discoaster 2676:coccoliths 2566:Calcareous 2520:calcareous 2514:Calcareous 2500:Phytoliths 2138:See also: 2116:microalgae 2074:eukaryotes 1982:Acritarchs 1961:Acritarchs 1911:Ordovician 1888:Chitinozoa 1867:Chitinozoa 1812:See also: 1793:palynology 1778:See also: 1761:sporangium 1713:acritarchs 1693:palynology 1662:Phosphatic 1643:coccoliths 1632:Calcareous 1617:phytoliths 1589:ecological 1581:palynology 1561:phosphatic 1553:coccoliths 1549:calcareous 1545:radiolaria 1468:acritarchs 912:cuttlebone 881:Arthropod 765:Nummulites 601:Palynology 470:Cladistics 309:Multicells 115:acritarchs 56:microscopy 6489:cite book 6436:cite book 6428:840285428 6387:cite book 6379:904814387 6229:0022-0981 5723:202181855 5662:26 August 5655:MIRACLE. 4931:(4): 57. 4865:130041483 4618:127238427 4534:0034-6667 4428:221527533 4332:acritarch 4267:0091-7613 4218:129236534 3846:20 August 3639:1475-4983 3454:pteropods 3431:ebridians 3406:Lithified 3343:Biogenous 3237:siliceous 3219:Smaller, 3210:predators 3187:siliceous 3139:dinocysts 3116:Ehrenberg 3093:diversity 3065:skeletons 3004:Conotubus 2973:Ediacaran 2950:acritarch 2927:worm jaws 2888:Conodonts 2874:agnathans 2836:Conodonts 2812:Ostracods 2797:Ostracods 2653:Calcified 2639:or shell 2612:limestone 2608:aragonite 2581:involved 2544:sea floor 2536:limestone 2532:aragonite 2518:The term 2394:frustules 2386:siliceous 2353:or shell 2263:involved 2195:Siliceous 2154:insoluble 2093:Paleozoic 2059:Paleozoic 2051:metazoans 2016:' in the 2014:explosion 1925:markers. 1898:-shaped, 1832:dispersal 1666:conodonts 1655:ostracods 1613:ebridians 1597:Siliceous 1585:taxonomic 1567:, or (d) 1537:siliceous 1484:ostracods 1476:conodonts 1338:engrailed 1255:Phosphate 1248:oil shale 1142:Aragonite 946:coccolith 611:Taphonomy 521:Ichnology 465:Phylogeny 449:Evolution 437:Tetrapods 382:Dinosaurs 377:Cetaceans 129:from the 111:Sarcodina 101:from the 6506:Category 6344:29924811 6304:PLOS ONE 6237:85614908 6147:27694774 6096:86845462 6025:27418253 6017:17540895 5903:31924764 5787:22418253 5680:Phys.org 5458:21713028 5378:17661235 5320:32968165 5125:17155884 5072:11540926 5000:42212699 4718:12089337 4583:20164911 4393:16591055 4101:Archived 4083:26808271 4043:PLOS ONE 3899:30127539 3840:Phys.org 3781:BBC News 3730:28252057 3536:See also 3398:Alginite 3290:see here 3214:skeleton 3202:Spicules 3110:Dinocyst 3075:Cloudina 3070:Cloudina 3011:Cloudina 3000:Cloudina 2988:Cloudina 2980:Cambrian 2966:metazoan 2942:Cambrian 2938:Eunicida 2934:annelids 2851:Triassic 2847:Cambrian 2768:Mesozoic 2749:Shells ( 2319:frustule 2170:graphite 2020:and the 2018:Cambrian 1976: 1915:Devonian 1852:protozoa 1838:of many 1802:Devonian 1763:bearing 1723:remains. 1551:, as in 1539:, as in 1466:such as 1410:Category 1291:In soil 1243:alginite 1233:Bone bed 968:Seashell 875:(shells) 748:colonies 738:such as 631:Category 427:Sea cows 422:Reptiles 412:Molluscs 319:Flagella 137:Overview 75:Holocene 6335:6010222 6312:Bibcode 6190:9712575 6170:Bibcode 6162:Science 6138:5029505 6049:Bibcode 6041:Geology 5997:Bibcode 5989:Science 5962:Bibcode 5927:Bibcode 5894:6954273 5873:Bibcode 5778:3367778 5703:Bibcode 5630:Bibcode 5536:Bibcode 5485:Bibcode 5449:3119654 5311:7512002 5290:Bibcode 5215:Bibcode 5180:Bibcode 5172:Geology 5095:Bibcode 5023:Bibcode 4980:Bibcode 4933:Bibcode 4892:Bibcode 4845:Bibcode 4777:Bibcode 4741:Bibcode 4686:Bibcode 4645:Bibcode 4561:Bibcode 4514:Bibcode 4451:Bibcode 4361:Bibcode 4294:Bibcode 4245:Bibcode 4237:Geology 4198:Bibcode 4136:Bibcode 4074:4725745 4051:Bibcode 3950:2396358 3928:Bibcode 3890:6152910 3818:1 March 3808:Reuters 3787:2 March 3759:2 March 3708:Bibcode 3660:4 March 3617:Bibcode 3460: 3458:bryozoa 3393:Kerogen 3241:spongin 3206:sponges 3166:zygotic 3162:dormant 3118:in 1837 2996:calcite 2990:honors 2787: 2604:calcite 2579:protist 2574:mineral 2528:calcite 2398:diatoms 2261:protist 2256:mineral 2215:diatoms 2150:kerogen 2127:Archean 2085:Archean 2030:Permian 2028:of the 2024:at the 1998:kerogen 1934:protist 1902:walled 1900:organic 1743:Kerogen 1689:organic 1619:, some 1601:diatoms 1569:organic 1541:diatoms 1482:cysts, 1280:Related 1238:Kerogen 1163:Calcite 1084:Otolith 917:gladius 890:cuticle 859:Biofilm 832:General 782:in the 740:Bryozoa 432:Spiders 407:Mammals 402:Insects 167:Fossils 87:kingdom 73:to the 41: 6479: 6469: 6426: 6416: 6377: 6367: 6342: 6332: 6285: 6259: 6235: 6227: 6188: 6145: 6135: 6094: 6023: 6015: 5901: 5891: 5785: 5775: 5721: 5603: 5575: 5456: 5446: 5376: 5336: 5318: 5308: 5252: 5154: 5123: 5070: 4998: 4972:Nature 4863: 4716: 4709:123103 4706: 4616: 4581: 4553:Nature 4532: 4426: 4391: 4384:299818 4381: 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