411:, the first larval stage. Mature glochidia are released by the female and then attach to the gills, fins or skin of a host fish. Typically, the freshwater mussel larvae (glochidia) have hooks, which enable the individual to attach itself to fish. Some freshwater mussels release their glochidia in mucilaginous packets called conglutinates. The conglutinate has a sticky filament that allows it to adhere to the substrate so it is not washed away. There is also an even more specialized way of dispersal known as a super-conglutinate. The super-conglutinate resembles an aquatic fly larva or a fish egg, complete with a dark area that looks like an eyespot, and it is appetizing to fish. When a fish consumes it, it breaks up, releasing the glochidia. Mussels that produce conglutinates and super-conglutinates are often gill parasites, the glochidia attaching to the fish gills to continue their development into juveniles. A cyst is quickly formed around the glochidia, and they stay on the fish for several weeks or months before they fall off as juvenile freshwater mussels which then bury themselves in the sediment. This unique life cycle allows Unionida freshwater mussels to move upstream with the fish host species.
491:
one's feet in the mud feeling around for freshwater mussels. Because this was relatively easy to do, and an easy way to make money from freshwater selling pearls, this period has been euphemistically called the "pearl rush", and some historians have compared it to the gold rush in
California. A formal freshwater mussel fishing industry was established in the mid-1850s to take advantage of this natural resource. The "pearl rush" to find freshwater pearls became so intense in some rivers that millions of freshwater mussels were killed in a few years. In some rivers and streams entire freshwater mussel beds were completely eliminated. Although the negative impact of the "pearl rush" on freshwater mussel populations was significant, in the cold light of history it was relatively minor compared to the over fishing that took place just a few years later with the "pearl" button industry.
520:(or nacre) from exported freshwater mussels are used to make a bead nucleus which is placed in a living animal to form a pearl. In the 1990s, the United States exported $ 50 million worth of freshwater mussel shells to Japan. Exports of freshwater mussel shells declined so that by 2002 the annual revenue of freshwater mussel exportation to Japan had dropped to $ 35 million. By 1993 in the United States 31 different states were still reporting production of freshwater pearls and export of freshwater mussel shells, including: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, and Wisconsin. To this date the bulk of the freshwater mussel shell and freshwater pearl production comes from Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Tennessee.
572:
States. In 1899, clammers harvested over sixteen million pounds of freshwater mussel shells in
Wisconsin alone, and the harvest of freshwater mussels in the late 1890s numbered in the tens of millions of pounds per year. Freshwater mussel beds which had previously been so dense as to virtually "carpet" miles of river bottom were almost completely harvested, leaving just a few living freshwater mussels per mile. In 1908, in what was deemed a drastic response to the rapidly declining freshwater mussel population, the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries established a mussel propagation program at the Fairport Biological Station. The purpose of this program was to regulate the overharvesting of freshwater mussels. Freshwater mussels are slow growing
544:
Iowa, which he determined were perfect for making "pearl buttons". By 1891, Boepple had set up a shop and was in business as a craftsman making buttons. John
Boepple's buttons became popular locally and to ward off competition he was very protective of the secrets of his trade. Since freshwater mussels were so common and the profit potential in making "pearl" buttons was so high, some of Boepple's staff who knew his techniques were "recruited" by other businessmen to start competing businesses. Within a few years there were button factories along the length of the Mississippi River.
376:
384:
560:
to catch or trap the freshwater mussels. The process was simple: several of these "brail hooks" were attached to a long wooden bar with lengths of rope and the entire assembly was lowered into the river and dragged behind a boat along the river bottom. When the tips of these hooks came in contact with an "open" freshwater mussel, the mussel clamped its valves shut around the hooks and could be lifted from the bottom. Within a short period of time millions of freshwater mussels were collected in this manner.
137:
289:
527:, who is widely proclaimed as "the father of the U.S. cultured freshwater pearl industry." Over the course of nearly 30 years, John Latendresse devoted his money, time and effort to research and develop the cultured freshwater pearl industry in the United States. There are currently six freshwater cultured pearl farms in Tennessee and one in California to support the increasing popularity and demand of freshwater pearl jewelry with consumers in the United States.
479:
564:
503:
part for their wide range of lustrous colors, including: blue, bronze, brown, copper, cream, green, lavender, pink, purple, red, salmon, silvery white, white, and yellow. The different colors of freshwater pearls are primarily a function of which species of freshwater mussel they were formed in, although various factors including position of the pearl nucleus in the shell, water quality, and species type all affect the color of the freshwater pearl.
465:
297:
113:
548:
536:
507:
shaped. Round pearls are sought after as more desirable for use in jewelry. The shape of the "seed" or nucleus of the freshwater pearl, and the position of the "seed" in the mussel determines the ultimate shape the cultured pearl will take, hence with careful advanced planning cultured pearls can be made round. Cultured pearls have a similar color to natural pearls as the
559:
The need to "catch" freshwater mussels for the "pearl" button industry spurred the invention of tools to make the job easier than "pollywogging" with bare feet. In 1897 inventive mussel fishermen bent steel bars into wide open hooks which they called "brail hooks" or "crow foots" and used them to try
502:
are commercially harvested for pearls. The common names of the most prolific pearl-bearing species include: the butterfly, ebony, elephant ear, heelsplitter, mapleleaf, three-ridge pigtoe, pimple back, pistol grip, and washboard. While white is the most common color, freshwater pearls are valued in
543:
The North
American button industry began with a German craftsman named John Boepple, who had made buttons from seashells, horns and antlers in his native country. John Boepple immigrated to the United States in 1887 and found that there were vast beds of thick freshwater mussel shells in Muscatine,
345:
Families, genera, and species in the order
Unionida are found on six continents, where they are restricted exclusively to freshwater rivers, streams, creeks and some lakes. There are approximately 900 species worldwide. Around 300 species of these freshwater mussels are endemic to North America.
506:
With the decline in the numbers of native freshwater mussels in North
America people began to culture freshwater pearls; this became a big industry in Japan. Natural freshwater pearls are rarely perfectly round, more often than not freshwater pearls are naturally shaped as baroque, slug, or wing
490:
The "pearl rush" in North
America occurred in the mid to late 1800s as people could easily find freshwater mussels in rivers and streams by "pollywogging" for mussels, some of which had freshwater pearls which they could sell for a significant price. The art of "pollywogging" involves shuffling
407:, are known to be hermaphroditic). The sperm is ejected from the mantle cavity through the male's excurrent aperture and taken into the female's mantle cavity through the incurrent aperture. Fertilised eggs move from the gonads to the gills (marsupia) where they further ripen and metamorph into
571:
By 1899, there were sixty button factories in the river states of
Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Wisconsin, employing 1,917 people. Millions of "pearl" buttons were made annually. This new button industry quickly placed a huge ecological demand on the freshwater mussels of the Midwestern United
366:
and filtering food from the water column. Freshwater mussels are some of the longest-living invertebrates in existence. These clams have, like all bivalve mollusks, a shell consisting of two parts that are hinged together, which can be closed to protect the animal's soft body within. Like all
576:
organisms, and their reproduction is complex. The button industry in North
America was in trouble because years of overharvesting the freshwater mussels had caused a shortage of freshwater mussels and pushed many of the species close to extinction. The invention of plastic and its use in
400:
larvae. This larval form used to be described as "parasitic worms" on the fish host, however, the larvae are not "worms" and do not harm fish under normal circumstances. Most of these freshwater mussel species have separate sexes (although some species, such as
515:
of the freshwater mussel, and thus the color of the pearl may be species specific. Exportation of freshwater mussels for the use in the
Japanese cultured pearl industry has supported the North American freshwater mussel fisheries since the late 1950s. The
1327:
In Conservation and Management of Freshwater Mussels. K. S. Cummings, A. C. Buchanan, and L. M. Koch (eds.). Proceedings of a UMRCC symposium, 12–14 October 1992, St. Louis , MO, Upper Mississippi River Conservation Committee, Rock Island, IL, pp.
455:
which was used in the button manufacturing industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The effects of heavy fishing for freshwater mussels in North America in for use in manufacturing buttons put many of these species close to extinction.
1121:
1439:"Protopleurobema: a new genus of freshwater bivalve from the Lower Cretaceous of the Cameros basin (NW Spain)/Protopleurobema: un nuevo genero de bivalvo de agua dulce del Cretacico Inferior de la Cuenca de Cameros (NO de Espana)"
1405:
da Silva, Victor R.; Varejão, Filipe G.; Matos, Suzana A.; Rodrigues, Mariza G.; Fürsich, Franz T.; Skawina, Aleksandra; Schneider, Simon; Warren, Lucas V.; Assine, Mario L.; Simões, Marcello G. (2020).
439:
manufacturing. Of the North American Unionida about 70% are either extinct (21 species), endangered (77 species), threatened (43 species) or are listed as species of special concern (72 species).
1542:"Cratonaia novaolindensis gen. et sp. nov. (Unionida, Silesunionoidea) from the Aptian of Brazil (Araripe Basin), and its implications for the early evolution of freshwater mussels"
1540:
da Silva, Victor R.; Varejão, Filipe G.; Matos, Suzana A.; Fürsich, Franz T.; Skawina, Aleksandra; Schneider, Simon; Warren, Lucas V.; Assine, Mario L.; Simões, Marcello G. (2020).
1438:
1351:
358:
Unionida burrow into the substrate in clean, fast flowing freshwater rivers, streams and creeks, with their posterior margins exposed. They pump water through the incurrent
577:
manufacturing buttons during World War II replaced shell "pearl" buttons as the most popular product, and foreshadowed the end of the pearl button manufacturing business.
367:
mollusks, the freshwater mussels have a muscular "foot", which enables the mussel to move slowly and bury itself within the bottom substrate of its freshwater habitat.
470:
1462:"Monginaia, a new genus of endemic bivalve from the lower Barremian of Teruel, eastern Spain, and the distribution of unionid bivalves in Spanish Cretaceous"
350:) tolerates brackish water. This widespread trait and its global distribution suggests the group has inhabited freshwater throughout its geologic history.
868:
752:
762:
617:
1122:"A new genus and new species of freshwater mussel from the mid Late Triassic rift lakes of eastern North Carolina (Bivalvia: Unionida: cf. Unionidae)"
897:
804:
780:
742:
709:
627:
939:
921:
771:
733:
719:
1792:
879:
839:
948:
930:
859:
1284:
1272:
1831:
638:
602:
815:
317:
periods have been suggested to be unionids, other authors have suggested that they are likely to be unrelated, due to lacking the internal
907:
1348:
1918:
1027:
Compendium of Bivalves. A Full-color Guide to 3,300 of the World's Marine Bivalves. A Status on Bivalvia after 250 Years of Research
1766:
1408:"New freshwater mussels (Bivalvia, Unionida) with potential trigonioidid and hyriid affinities from the Early Cretaceous of Brazil"
300:
Several species of freshwater pearl mussels collected in a river during a survey of the Marais des Cygnes National Wildlife Refuge.
321:
layer thought to have been present in the last common ancestor of all unionids and present in their closest marine relatives, the
1805:
1511:"Umbonal musculature and relationships of the Late Triassic filibranch unionoid bivalves: FILIBRANCH UNIONOIDS FROM THE TRIASSIC"
593:
indicate families and superfamilies that are extinct. Unionida are important creatures and are endangered by climate change.
1034:
1810:
1510:
1593:
1152:
1880:
1745:
977:
523:
In 1963 the first experimental United States freshwater mussel cultured pearl farm was established in Tennessee by
1836:
1377:
1758:
1381:
1818:
830:
795:
1052:"The Earliest Post-Paleozoic Freshwater Bivalves Preserved in Coprolites from the Karoo Basin, South Africa"
337:
of North America, though possibly older examples are known from the Middle Triassic of Tanzania and Zambia.
1693:
1688:
1665:
1244:
281:
The shells of these mussels are variable in shape, but usually equivalve and elongate. They have solid,
428:
17:
1885:
1846:
136:
973:
1913:
1407:
250:
1872:
1605:
1325:
Effects of commercial harvest on unionid habitat use in the Green and Barren rivers, Kentucky.
1050:
Yates, Adam M.; Neumann, Frank H.; Hancox, P. John (2 February 2012). Farke, Andrew A. (ed.).
1867:
855:(Presumably fewer than 10 species) (syn:Margaritaninae, Cumberlandiinae, Promargaritiferidae)
698:
686:
661:
375:
1859:
1797:
1714:
1652:
1063:
494:
Freshwater pearls from North America come from freshwater mussels primarily in the family
8:
1305:
Fresh-water mussels and mussel industries of the U.S. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries
573:
420:
403:
389:
203:
1067:
1643:
1094:
1051:
359:
131:
1908:
1854:
1701:
1561:
1526:
1491:
1270:
Williams, J.D., M.L. Warren, Jr., K.S. Cummings, J.L. Harris, and R.J. Neves (1993).
1260:
1148:
1099:
1081:
1030:
448:
436:
424:
334:
236:
188:
383:
1706:
1553:
1522:
1481:
1473:
1419:
1089:
1071:
849:
524:
512:
346:
Unlike other bivalve orders, Unionida has no marine species, although one species (
330:
270:
258:
122:
1657:
1557:
1477:
1423:
1594:
Harvesting the River, History of the Pearl Button Business in Meredosia, Illinois
1355:
1076:
517:
232:
1823:
1670:
1541:
1461:
1460:
Delvene, Graciela; Munt, Martin C.; Royo-Torres, Rafael; Cobos, Alberto (2022).
1753:
1740:
1581:
240:
1902:
1628:
1565:
1495:
1145:
North American Freshwater Mussels: Natural History, Ecology, and Conservation
1085:
670:
552:
329:
period, with the oldest commonly cited examples being from the Late Triassic
310:
288:
285:
valves with a pearly interior, radial sculpture, and an entire pallial line.
70:
1259:
Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species Listing, at:
1103:
229:
585:
The superfamilies and families in the order Unionida, as listed by Bieler
249:. The order includes most of the larger freshwater mussels, including the
1779:
1637:
1273:
Conservation status of freshwater mussels of the United States and Canada
45:
1680:
1486:
478:
419:
Many of these freshwater mussel species face conservation issues due to
1236:
890:
791:
657:
647:
563:
322:
90:
55:
464:
1784:
1727:
1241:
Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals
1198:
Morphology of the conglutinate of the Kidneyshell Freshwater Mussel,
1169:
Ecology of the Freshwater Pearl Mussel. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers
886:
826:
682:
499:
495:
408:
397:
296:
262:
254:
148:
95:
1599:
1217:
1197:
589:(2010), with later additions to the taxonomy also shown. The use of
414:
269:
shells, high in organic matter, that may crack upon drying out, and
112:
1771:
1732:
1622:
694:
326:
318:
178:
168:
85:
80:
65:
60:
50:
1586:
273:
too short to permit the animal to live deeply buried in sediment.
314:
246:
243:
100:
75:
539:
Brail hooks dragged on bed of a lake or river to harvest mussels
486:, freshwater mussel, showing the rows of cultured pearls inside.
363:
158:
547:
535:
1719:
1404:
508:
452:
432:
282:
266:
1539:
1459:
468:
Shell of one species of freshwater pearl mussel, possible
1285:
doi:10.1577/1548-8446(1993)018<0006:CSOFMO>2.0.CO;2
996:. pp. 113–133, in: Bouchet P. & Rocroi J.-P. (2010),
261:. All have in common a larval stage that is temporarily
474:(commonly known as the white heelsplitter), with pearls.
396:
Unionida have a unique and complex life cycle involving
653:(About 4 species) (syn: Mulleriidae, Pseudomulleriidae)
1171:. Ecology Series No. 2. English Nature, Peterborough.
325:. The oldest unambiguous unionids are known from the
1049:
666:(About 30 species) (syn: Mutelidae, Pleiodontidae)
447:These bivalve mollusks were heavily exploited for
309:Although some fossil freshwater bivalves from the
1437:Delvene, Graciela; Araujo, Rafael (1 July 2009).
1029:. Hackenheim: ConchBooks. pp. 901 pp. + CD.
415:Conservation issues and endangered species status
1900:
1349:See: MUSSELS: Washboards, Buttons and Pearls, at
1222:(Conrad, 1834) (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Unionoidea).
530:
992:Bieler R., Carter J.G. & Coan E.V. (2010).
1120:Bogan, Arthur E.; Weaver, Patricia J. (2012).
1436:
1167:Skinner, A., Young, M. and Hastie, L. (2003)
1024:
889:; an intermediate group between Unionida and
988:
986:
863:Delvene, Munt, Royo-Torres & Cobos, 2022
459:
292:Freshwater mussel showing glossary of terms.
1508:
1323:Cochran, T. G. II, and J. B. Layzer. 1993.
1119:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1313:
442:
111:
1515:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
1509:Skawina, Aleksandra; Dzik, Jerzy (2011).
1485:
1093:
1075:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
983:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1216:Hartfield, P. and E. Hartfield. (1996).
1179:
1177:
562:
546:
534:
477:
463:
382:
374:
295:
287:
1587:Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1331:
1310:
304:
14:
1901:
1190:
1161:
1003:
1604:
1603:
1400:
1398:
1375:
1290:
1218:Observations on the conglutinates of
1174:
1847:81cb31df-0563-421c-8f0e-d2b332cce3b3
1759:dda98eb0-3231-47d2-8563-0cf3e008ed3d
1360:
1142:
1115:
1113:
967:
253:. The most common families are the
1136:
613:(possibly a hyriid or a trigonioid)
435:of their shells, which was used in
24:
1395:
994:Classification of Bivalve families
623:(placement in Unionida uncertain)
25:
1930:
1575:
1307:. 36(1917–18): 13–89 + 46 plates.
1110:
758:(syn:Sinonaiinae, Nippononaiidae)
567:"Pearl" buttons made from shells.
498:. About 20 different species of
1919:Extant Permian first appearances
1527:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00728.x
978:World Register of Marine Species
135:
43:
1533:
1502:
1453:
1430:
1382:United States Geological Survey
1264:
1250:
1230:
1210:
998:Nomenclator of Bivalve Families
370:
340:
1376:Olson, Donald (17 July 2002).
1147:. Cambridge University Press.
1043:
353:
13:
1:
1558:10.1016/j.cretres.2019.104275
1478:10.1016/j.cretres.2022.105268
1424:10.1016/j.geobios.2020.06.001
1187:. Dorling Kindersley, London.
961:
555:used in button manufacturing.
531:Button manufacturing industry
379:Unionida parasitic life cycle
276:
1077:10.1371/journal.pone.0030228
872:Simone & Mezzalira, 1997
7:
1225:American Midland Naturalist
1000:. Malacologia 52(2): 1–184.
676:(Between 40 and 50 species)
580:
10:
1935:
1443:Journal of Iberian Geology
1200:Ptychobranchus fasciolaris
976:. Retrieved through:
809:Delvene & Araujo, 2009
1612:
1143:Haag, Wendell R. (2012).
980: on 3 February 2009.
460:Freshwater pearl industry
429:freshwater pearl industry
423:and in some cases due to
216:
211:
132:Scientific classification
130:
119:
110:
34:
952:Skawina & Dzik, 2011
943:Skawina & Dzik, 2011
901:Skawina & Dzik, 2011
883:Skawina & Dzik, 2011
835:(Fewer than 700 species)
820:Bogan & Weaver, 2012
387:Glochidia of the mussel
251:freshwater pearl mussels
1196:Watters, G. T. (1999).
443:Commercial significance
1025:Huber, Markus (2010).
568:
556:
540:
487:
475:
393:
380:
301:
293:
1868:Paleobiology Database
1220:Ptychobranchus greeni
845:(placement uncertain)
822:(possibly an unionid)
748:(placement uncertain)
566:
550:
538:
481:
467:
386:
378:
299:
291:
120:A live individual of
1754:Fauna Europaea (new)
1205:Invertebrate Biology
511:is laid down by the
471:Lasmigona complanata
305:Evolutionary history
1546:Cretaceous Research
1466:Cretaceous Research
1354:8 June 2010 at the
1068:2012PLoSO...730228Y
843:Yu & Dong, 1993
703:(Nearly 90 species)
421:habitat degradation
404:Elliptio complanata
390:Lampsilis higginsii
1582:The Mussel Project
1303:Coker, R.E. 1919.
1183:Burnie, D. (2001)
569:
557:
541:
488:
476:
394:
381:
302:
294:
237:freshwater mussels
126:, the duck mussel
1896:
1895:
1855:Open Tree of Life
1606:Taxon identifiers
1036:978-3-939767-28-2
953:
944:
935:
926:
917:
902:
884:
873:
869:Sancticarolitidae
864:
854:
844:
834:
821:
810:
799:
785:
776:
767:
757:
753:Nakamuranaiadidae
747:
738:
729:
714:
702:
690:
675:
665:
652:
643:
632:
622:
612:
484:Hyriopsis cumingi
449:freshwater pearls
425:over-exploitation
348:Glebula rotundata
335:Newark Supergroup
223:
222:
207:
189:Palaeoheterodonta
27:Order of bivalves
16:(Redirected from
1926:
1889:
1888:
1876:
1875:
1863:
1862:
1850:
1849:
1840:
1839:
1827:
1826:
1824:NHMSYS0001702253
1814:
1813:
1801:
1800:
1788:
1787:
1775:
1774:
1762:
1761:
1749:
1748:
1736:
1735:
1723:
1722:
1710:
1709:
1697:
1696:
1684:
1683:
1674:
1673:
1661:
1660:
1648:
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1646:
1633:
1632:
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1601:
1600:
1570:
1569:
1537:
1531:
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1506:
1500:
1499:
1489:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1402:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1373:
1358:
1346:
1329:
1321:
1308:
1301:
1288:
1268:
1262:
1254:
1248:
1234:
1228:
1214:
1208:
1194:
1188:
1181:
1172:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1117:
1108:
1107:
1097:
1079:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1022:
1001:
990:
981:
971:
951:
942:
933:
924:
911:
900:
882:
871:
862:
852:
850:Margaritiferidae
842:
829:
819:
808:
794:
784:Kolesnikov, 1977
783:
774:
765:
763:Plicatounionidae
755:
745:
736:
723:
712:
697:
685:
673:
660:
650:
641:
630:
620:
618:Archanodontoidea
606:
525:John Latendresse
451:, and for their
331:Chinle Formation
259:Margaritiferidae
202:
140:
139:
123:Anodonta anatina
115:
105:
42:
41:Triassic–Present
38:Temporal range:
32:
31:
21:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1884:
1879:
1871:
1866:
1858:
1853:
1845:
1843:
1835:
1830:
1822:
1817:
1809:
1804:
1796:
1791:
1783:
1778:
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925:Amalitzky, 1898
898:Silesunionoidea
853:Henderson, 1929
805:Protopleurobema
781:Sainschandiidae
775:Kobayashi, 1968
743:Jilinoconchidae
710:Trigonioidoidea
628:Archanodontidae
583:
533:
518:mother of pearl
482:A newly opened
462:
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1911:
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1591:Howard Edlen,
1589:
1584:
1577:
1576:External links
1574:
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1521:(3): 863–883.
1501:
1452:
1445:(in Spanish).
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920:Family ?†
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720:Monginellopsis
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651:Deshayes, 1832
642:Deshayes, 1832
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1385:. Retrieved
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949:Unionellidae
934:Modell, 1942
931:Trigonodidae
913:
906:
887:paraphyletic
860:Monginaiidae
814:
803:
790:Superfamily
725:
718:
681:Superfamily
637:Superfamily
631:Modell, 1957
621:Modell, 1957
608:
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402:
395:
388:
371:Reproduction
362:, obtaining
357:
347:
344:
341:Distribution
308:
280:
230:monophyletic
225:
224:
217:
198:
121:
29:
1780:iNaturalist
1638:Wikispecies
1283:(9): 6–22.
1237:Piper, Ross
639:Etherioidea
603:Araripenaia
354:Life habits
1903:Categories
1552:: 104275.
1472:: 105268.
962:References
891:Trigoniida
878:Suborder †
831:Rafinesque
816:Triaslacus
796:Rafinesque
792:Unionoidea
766:Chen, 1988
674:Gray, 1840
658:Iridinidae
648:Etheriidae
323:Trigoniida
277:Morphology
18:Unionoidea
1658:Unionoida
1614:Unionoida
1566:0195-6671
1496:0195-6671
1418:: 41–54.
1278:Fisheries
1086:1932-6203
908:Cratonaia
827:Unionidae
756:Guo, 1981
737:Cox, 1952
713:Cox, 1952
683:Hyrioidea
551:Unionida
500:Unionidae
496:Unionidae
409:glochidia
398:parasitic
265:on fish,
263:parasitic
255:Unionidae
218:See text
212:Families
204:Stoliczka
155:Kingdom:
149:Eukaryota
1909:Unionida
1678:BioLib:
1671:Unionida
1644:Unionida
1623:Wikidata
1387:21 April
1378:"Pearls"
1352:Archived
1239:(2007),
1104:22319562
1056:PLOS ONE
974:Unionida
947:Family †
938:Family †
929:Family †
867:Family †
858:Family †
838:Family †
779:Family †
770:Family †
761:Family †
751:Family †
746:Ma, 1989
741:Family †
732:Family †
699:Swainson
695:Hyriidae
687:Swainson
662:Swainson
626:Family †
595:Unionida
581:Taxonomy
427:for the
360:aperture
327:Triassic
319:nacreous
283:nacreous
267:nacreous
257:and the
247:molluscs
226:Unionida
199:Unionida
179:Bivalvia
169:Mollusca
165:Phylum:
159:Animalia
145:Domain:
35:Unionida
1629:Q150578
1412:Geobios
1095:3271088
1064:Bibcode
916:., 2019
905:Genus †
848:Family
825:Family
813:Genus †
802:Genus †
728:., 2020
693:Family
669:Family
656:Family
646:Family
600:Genus †
574:sessile
315:Permian
271:siphons
244:bivalve
241:aquatic
195:Order:
175:Class:
1886:160326
1873:161327
1860:424578
1844:NZOR:
1733:1UNIOO
1694:948778
1564:
1494:
1328:61–65.
1185:Animal
1151:
1102:
1092:
1084:
1033:
912:Silva
833:, 1820
798:, 1820
724:Silva
701:, 1840
689:, 1840
664:, 1840
611:, 2020
609:et al.
607:Silva
513:mantle
437:button
364:oxygen
206:, 1871
1881:WoRMS
1837:47521
1811:79912
1798:11600
1793:IRMNG
1785:51902
1746:11483
1707:7NGC9
914:et al
726:et al
587:et al
553:shell
509:nacre
453:nacre
433:nacre
233:order
228:is a
1832:NCBI
1806:ITIS
1767:GBIF
1728:EPPO
1720:2272
1689:BOLD
1681:2985
1562:ISSN
1492:ISSN
1389:2009
1149:ISBN
1100:PMID
1082:ISSN
1031:ISBN
333:and
313:and
46:PreꞒ
1819:NBN
1772:990
1715:EoL
1702:CoL
1666:AFD
1653:ADW
1554:doi
1550:107
1523:doi
1519:163
1482:hdl
1474:doi
1470:138
1420:doi
1257:See
1130:126
1090:PMC
1072:doi
235:of
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1447:35
1441:.
1416:61
1414:.
1410:.
1397:^
1380:.
1362:^
1333:^
1312:^
1292:^
1281:18
1276:.
1243:,
1176:^
1128:.
1124:.
1112:^
1098:.
1088:.
1080:.
1070:.
1058:.
1054:.
1005:^
985:^
893:)
239:,
96:Pg
1568:.
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1484::
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1422::
1391:.
1287:.
1247:.
1202:.
1157:.
1106:.
1074::
1066::
1060:7
1039:.
885:(
591:†
101:N
91:K
86:J
81:T
76:P
71:C
66:D
61:S
56:O
51:Ꞓ
20:)
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