364:
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1535:, and even shark bites. Based on surveying breaks in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, it was found that between 1959 and 1996, fewer than 9% were due to natural events. In response to this threat to the communications network, the practice of cable burial has developed. The average incidence of cable faults was 3.7 per 1,000 km (620 mi) per year from 1959 to 1979. That rate was reduced to 0.44 faults per 1,000 km per year after 1985, due to widespread burial of cable starting in 1980. Still, cable breaks are by no means a thing of the past, with more than 50 repairs a year in the Atlantic alone, and significant breaks in
120:
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1320:(WDM), which allows for multiple optical carrier channels to be transmitted through a single fiber, each carrying its own information. WDM is limited by the optical bandwidth of the amplifiers used to transmit data through the cable and by the spacing between the frequencies of the optical carriers; however this minimum spacing is also limited, with the minimum spacing often being 50 GHz (0.4 nm). The use of WDM can reduce the maximum length of the cable although this can be overcome by designing equipment with this in mind.
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obvious uses for the cables in maintaining administrative communications with governors throughout its empire, as well as in engaging other nations diplomatically and communicating with its military units in wartime. The geographic location of
British territory was also an advantage as it included both Ireland on the east side of the Atlantic Ocean and Newfoundland in North America on the west side, making for the shortest route across the ocean, which reduced costs significantly.
1163:
1356:) used for handling the signals in the cable via software control. The ROADM is used to improve the reliability of the cable by allowing it to operate even if it has faults. This equipment is located inside a cable landing station (CLS). C-OTDR (Coherent Optical Time Domain Reflectometry) is used in submarine cables to detect the location of cable faults. The wet plant of a submarine cable comprises the cable itself, branching units, repeaters and possibly OADMs (
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1491:, but this is only a local network. To be a viable alternative, a fiber-optic cable would have to be able to withstand temperatures of −80 °C (−112 °F) as well as massive strain from ice flowing up to 10 metres (33 ft) per year. Thus, plugging into the larger Internet backbone with the high bandwidth afforded by fiber-optic cable is still an as-yet infeasible economic and technical challenge in the Antarctic.
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surface. In especially deep water, the cable may not be strong enough to lift as a single unit, so a special grapple that cuts the cable soon after it has been hooked is used and only one length of cable is brought to the surface at a time, whereupon a new section is spliced in. The repaired cable is longer than the original, so the excess is deliberately laid in a "U" shape on the
1189:(EDFA). Each repeater contains separate equipment for each fiber. These comprise signal reforming, error measurement and controls. A solid-state laser dispatches the signal into the next length of fiber. The solid-state laser excites a short length of doped fiber that itself acts as a laser amplifier. As the light passes through the fiber, it is amplified. This system also permits
1238:. One reason for this development was that the capacity of cable systems had become so large that it was not possible to completely back up a cable system with satellite capacity, so it became necessary to provide sufficient terrestrial backup capability. Not all telecommunications organizations wish to take advantage of this capability, so modern cable systems may have dual
1420:. Two privately financed, non-consortium cables were constructed in the late 1990s, which preceded a massive, speculative rush to construct privately financed cables that peaked in more than $ 22 billion worth of investment between 1999 and 2001. This was followed by the bankruptcy and reorganization of cable operators such as
655:. A spin-off from Eastern Telegraph Company was a second sister company, the Eastern Extension, China and Australasia Telegraph Company, commonly known simply as "the Extension." In 1872, Australia was linked by cable to Bombay via Singapore and China and in 1876, the cable linked the British Empire from London to New Zealand.
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specialized fiber-optic cable laying vessels. These included laboratories in the ships for splicing cable and testing its electrical properties. Such field monitoring is important because the glass of fiber-optic cable is less malleable than the copper cable that had been formerly used. The ships are equipped with
503:, the cable being completed successfully in September of that year. Problems soon developed with eleven breaks occurring by 1860 due to storms, tidal and sand movements, and wear on rocks. A report to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1860 set out the problems to assist in future cable-laying operations.
545:, who persuaded British industrialists to fund and lay one in 1858. However, the technology of the day was not capable of supporting the project; it was plagued with problems from the outset, and was in operation for only a month. Subsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 with the world's largest steamship, the
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which limits the amplification to +18 dBm per fiber. In WDM configurations the limitation due to crossphase modulation becomes predominant instead. Optical pre-amplifiers are often used to negate the thermal noise of the receiver. Pumping the pre-amplifier with a 980 nm laser leads to a noise of
1323:
Optical post amplifiers, used to increase the strength of the signal generated by the optical transmitter often use a diode-pumped erbium-doped fiber laser. The diode is often a high power 980 or 1480 nm laser diode. This setup allows for an amplification of up to +24dBm in an affordable manner.
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Switching and all-by-sea routing commonly increases the distance and thus the round trip latency by more than 50%. For example, the round trip delay (RTD) or latency of the fastest transatlantic connections is under 60 ms, close to the theoretical optimum for an all-sea route. While in theory, a
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that can be used in live environments very quickly. Presently, SSTDR can collect a complete data set in 20 ms. Spread spectrum signals are sent down the wire and then the reflected signal is observed. It is then correlated with the copy of the sent signal and algorithms are applied to the shape
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Repeaters are powered by a constant direct current passed down the conductor near the centre of the cable, so all repeaters in a cable are in series. Power feed equipment is installed at the terminal stations. Typically both ends share the current generation with one end providing a positive voltage
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and private data traffic. Modern cables are typically about 25 mm (1 in) in diameter and weigh around 1.4 tonnes per kilometre (2.5 short tons per mile; 2.2 long tons per mile) for the deep-sea sections which comprise the majority of the run, although larger and heavier cables are used for
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Entanglement of marine animals in cables is one of the main causes of cable damage. Whales and sperm whales are the main animals that entangle themselves in cables and damage them. The encounter between these animals and cables can cause injury and sometimes death. Studies carried out between 1877
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around 2007. Each fiber can carry 30 wavelengths at a time. SDM or spatial division multiplexing submarine cables have at least 12 fiber pairs which is an increase from the maximum of 8 pairs found in conventional submarine cables, and submarine cables with up to 24 fiber pairs have been deployed.
686:(COMPAC), with 80 telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic from Sydney to Vancouver, and in 1967, the South East Asia Commonwealth (SEACOM) system, with 160 telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic. This system used microwave radio from Sydney to Cairns (Queensland), cable running from
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A few facts put this dominance of the industry in perspective. In 1896, there were 30 cable-laying ships in the world, 24 of which were owned by
British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent. During
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Another way to increase the reach of a cable is by using unpowered repeaters called remote optical pre-amplifiers (ROPAs); these still make a cable count as unrepeatered since the repeaters do not require electrical power but they do require a pump laser light to be transmitted alongside the data
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point exists roughly halfway along the cable under normal operation. The amplifiers or repeaters derive their power from the potential difference across them. The voltage passed down the cable is often anywhere from 3000 to 15,000VDC at a current of up to 1,100mA, with the current increasing with
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Areas with a high density of submarine cables have the advantage of being safer from fishing. At the expense of benthic and sedimentary zones, marine fauna is better protected in these maritime regions, thanks to limitations and bans. Studies have shown a positive effect on the fauna surrounding
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The type of optical fiber used in unrepeated and very long cables is often PCSF (pure silica core) due to its low loss of 0.172 dB per kilometer when carrying a 1550 nm wavelength laser light. The large chromatic dispersion of PCSF means that its use requires transmission and receiving
614:
The submarine cables were an economic benefit to trading companies, because owners of ships could communicate with captains when they reached their destination and give directions as to where to go next to pick up cargo based on reported pricing and supply information. The
British government had
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are used depending on the situation. If the sea bed in question is sandy, a grapple with rigid prongs is used to plough under the surface and catch the cable. If the cable is on a rocky sea surface, the grapple is more flexible, with hooks along its length so that it can adjust to the changing
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can be used to extend the reach or the capacity of an unrepeatered cable, by launching 2 frequencies into a single fiber; one carrying data signals at 1550 nm, and the other pumping them at 1450 nm. Launching a pump frequency (pump laser light) at a power of just one watt leads to an
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Underwater noise and waves can modify the behavior of certain underwater species, such as migratory behavior, disrupting communication or reproduction. Available information is that underwater noise generated by submarine cable engineering operations has limited acoustic footprint and limited
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According to several studies, the biota of the benthic zone is only slightly affected by the presence of cables. However, the presence of cables can trigger behavioral disturbances in living organisms. The main observation is that the presence of cables provides a hard substrate for anemones
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Underwater cables, which cannot be kept under constant surveillance, have tempted intelligence-gathering organizations since the late 19th century. Frequently at the beginning of wars, nations have cut the cables of the other sides to redirect the information flow into cables that were being
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whereby fast switching equipment is used to transfer services between network paths with little to no effect on higher-level protocols if a path becomes inoperable. As more paths become available to use between two points, it is less likely that one or two simultaneous failures will prevent
761:, which surrounded a multi-stranded copper wire at the core. The portions closest to each shore landing had additional protective armour wires. Gutta-percha, a natural polymer similar to rubber, had nearly ideal properties for insulating submarine cables, with the exception of a rather high
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Currently 99% of the data traffic that is crossing oceans is carried by undersea cables. The reliability of submarine cables is high, especially when (as noted above) multiple paths are available in the event of a cable break. Also, the total carrying capacity of submarine cables is in the
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The rising demand for these fiber-optic cables outpaced the capacity of providers such as AT&T. Having to shift traffic to satellites resulted in lower-quality signals. To address this issue, AT&T had to improve its cable-laying abilities. It invested $ 100 million in producing two
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The optic fiber used in undersea cables is chosen for its exceptional clarity, permitting runs of more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) between repeaters to minimize the number of amplifiers and the distortion they cause. Unrepeated cables are cheaper than repeated cables and their maximum
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British officials believed that depending on telegraph lines that passed through non-British territory posed a security risk, as lines could be cut and messages could be interrupted during wartime. They sought the creation of a worldwide network within the empire, which became known as the
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The installation and maintenance of cables requires the use of machinery and equipment that can trigger sound waves or electromagnetic waves that can disturb animals that use waves to find their bearings in space or to communicate. Underwater sound waves depend on the equipment used, the
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amplifiers ever designed. Later ones were transistorized. Many of these cables are still usable, but have been abandoned because their capacity is too small to be commercially viable. Some have been used as scientific instruments to measure earthquake waves and other geomagnetic events.
1178:, which went into operation in 1988. A fiber-optic cable comprises multiple pairs of fibers. Each pair has one fiber in each direction. TAT-8 had two operational pairs and one backup pair. Except for very short lines, fiber-optic submarine cables include repeaters at regular intervals.
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core, at first to furnish other makers of finished cable, that began to compete with the gutta-percha cores. The company later expanded into complete cable manufacture and cable laying, including the building of the first cable ship specifically designed to lay transatlantic cables.
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in some countries (where back-up capability is required) and only single landing points in other countries where back-up capability is either not required, the capacity to the country is small enough to be backed up by other means, or having backup is regarded as too expensive.
1746:, fishing activity can damage the cables. Fishermen using fishing techniques that involve scraping the seabed, or dragging equipment such as trawls or cages, can damage the cables, resulting in the loss of liquids and the chemical and toxic materials that make up the cables.
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led to business for the cable companies from news agencies, trading and shipping companies, and the
British government. Many of Britain's colonies had significant populations of European settlers, making news about them of interest to the general public in the home country.
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Preliminary analyses can assess the level of sediment toxicity and select a cable route that avoids the remobilization and dispersion of sediment pollutants. And new, more modern techniques will make it possible to use less polluting materials for cable construction.
810:. In the 1920s, the American military experimented with rubber-insulated cables as an alternative to gutta-percha, since American interests controlled significant supplies of rubber but did not have easy access to gutta-percha manufacturers. The 1926 development by
730:) to completely cross the Pacific from the US mainland to Japan. The US portion of NPC was manufactured in Portland, Oregon, from 1989 to 1991 at STC Submarine Systems, and later Alcatel Submarine Networks. The system was laid by Cable & Wireless Marine on the
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Thomson had produced a mathematical analysis of propagation of electrical signals into telegraph cables based on their capacitance and resistance, but since long submarine cables operated at slow rates, he did not include the effects of inductance. By the 1890s,
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Fishing, aging cables and marine species that collide with or become entangled in cables can damage cables and spread toxic and harmful substances into the sea. However, the impact of submarine cables is limited compared with other sources of ocean pollution.
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carried by the cable; the pump light and the data are often transmitted in physically separate fibers. The ROPA contains a doped fiber that uses the pump light (often a 1480 nm laser light) to amplify the data signals carried on the rest of the fibers.
1569:. It appeared that the cables had been dragged along by the ship's nets, and then cut once they were pulled up onto the deck to release the nets. The Soviet Union's stance on the investigation was that it was unjustified, but the United States cited the
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Using an erbium-ytterbium doped fiber instead allows for a gain of +33dBm, however again the amount of power that can be fed into the fiber is limited. In single carrier configurations the dominating limitation is self phase modulation induced by the
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showed that retardation could not be overcome by a higher voltage. His recommendation was a larger cable. Because of the excessive voltages recommended by
Whitehouse, Cyrus West Field's first transatlantic cable never worked reliably, and eventually
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was much expanded starting in the 1990s. For example, between 1998 and 2003, approximately 70% of undersea fiber-optic cable was laid in the
Pacific. This is in part a response to the emerging significance of Asian markets in the global economy.
1399:, for example, uses the submarine cable network for data transfer from conflict zones to command staff in the United States. Interruption of the cable network during intense operations could have direct consequences for the military on the ground.
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transmission distance is limited, although this has increased over the years; in 2014 unrepeated cables of up to 380 kilometres (240 mi) in length were in service; however these require unpowered repeaters to be positioned every 100 km.
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itself. In theory, using this partial land route could result in round trip times below 40 ms (which is the speed of light minimum time), and not counting switching. Along routes with less land in the way, round trip times can approach
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However, these disturbances are not very persistent over time, and can stabilize within a few days. Cable operators are trying to implement measures to route cables in such a way as to avoid areas with sensitive and vulnerable ecosystems.
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The presence of cables in the oceans can be a danger to marine life. With the proliferation of cable installations and the increasing demand for inter-connectivity that today's society demands, the environmental impact is increasing.
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is the ecological region at the bottom of the sea where benthos, clams and crabs live, and where the surface sediments, which are deposits of matter and particles in the water that provide a habitat for marine species, are located.
2643:. From this page: In 1966, after ten years of service, the 1,608 tubes in the repeaters had not suffered a single failure. In fact, after more than 100 million tube-hours over all, AT&T undersea repeaters were without failure.
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and 1955 reported 16 cable ruptures caused by whale entanglement, 13 of them by sperm whales. Between 1907 and 2006, 39 such events were recorded. Cable burial techniques are gradually being introduced to prevent such incidents.
580:. The British had both supply side and demand side advantages. In terms of supply, Britain had entrepreneurs willing to put forth enormous amounts of capital necessary to build, lay and maintain these cables. In terms of demand,
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647:. In 1870, Bombay was linked to London via submarine cable in a combined operation by four cable companies, at the behest of the British Government. In 1872, these four companies were combined to form the mammoth globe-spanning
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had developed a machine in 1837 for covering wires with silk or cotton thread that he developed into a wire wrapping capability for submarine cable with a factory in 1857 that became W.T. Henley's
Telegraph Works Co., Ltd. The
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Investments in cables present a commercial risk because cables cover 6,200 km of ocean floor, cross submarine mountain ranges and rifts. Because of this most companies only purchase capacity after the cable is finished.
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Almost all fiber-optic cables from TAT-8 in 1988 until approximately 1997 were constructed by consortia of operators. For example, TAT-8 counted 35 participants including most major international carriers at the time such as
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The open cable concept allows for the design of a submarine cable independently of the transponders that will be used to transmit data through the cable. SLTE (Submarine Line
Terminal Equipment) has transponders and a ROADM
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Seabed ecosystems can be disturbed by the installation and maintenance of cables. The effects of cable installation are generally limited to specific areas. The intensity of disturbance depends on the installation method.
679:. Japan was connected into the system in 1906. Service beyond Midway Atoll was abandoned in 1941 due to World War II, but the remainder stayed in operation until 1951 when the FCC gave permission to cease operations.
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As of 2012, operators had "successfully demonstrated long-term, error-free transmission at 100 Gbps across
Atlantic Ocean" routes of up to 6,000 km (3,700 mi), meaning a typical cable can move tens of
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as frequently reported) cut the five cables linking
Germany with France, Spain and the Azores, and through them, North America. Thereafter, the only way Germany could communicate was by wireless, and that meant that
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While laying a transatlantic telephone cable was seriously considered from the 1920s, the technology required for economically feasible telecommunications was not developed until the 1940s. A first attempt to lay a
1392:(ACMA) has created protection zones that restrict activities that could potentially damage cables linking Australia to the rest of the world. The ACMA also regulates all projects to install new submarine cables.
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that increase maneuverability. This capability is important because fiber-optic cable must be laid straight from the stern, which was another factor that copper-cable-laying ships did not have to contend with.
398:, without any other protection, and was not successful. However, the experiment served to secure renewal of the concession, and in September 1851, a protected core, or true, cable was laid by the reconstituted
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Carter, L. Brunett,D. Drew, S. Marie, G. Hagadorn, L. Barlett-McNeil, D. Irvine, N. (2009). ‘Submarines Cables ond the Oceans- Connecting the World. UNEP_WCMC Biodiversity Series No. 31. ICPC/UNEP/UNEP-WCMC.
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After decades of heavy investment in already developed markets such as the transatlantic and transpacific routes, efforts increased in the 21st century to expand the submarine cable network to serve the
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played a major role; this was a first. At the start of the campaign there was a telegraph link at Bucharest connected to London. In the winter of 1854 the French extended the telegraph link to the
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As a result of these cables' cost and usefulness, they are highly valued not only by the corporations building and operating them for profit, but also by national governments. For instance, the
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https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/AsiaPacific/SiteAssets/Pages/Events/2017/Submarine%20Cable/submarine-cables-for-Pacific-Islands-Countries/Ciena%20Subsea%20PITA%20Aug2017%20v2.pdf
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https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/AsiaPacific/SiteAssets/Pages/Events/2017/Submarine%20Cable/submarine-cables-for-Pacific-Islands-Countries/Ciena%20Subsea%20PITA%20Aug2017%20v2.pdf
1088:. A high-voltage direct current on the inner conductor powered repeaters (two-way amplifiers placed at intervals along the cable). The first-generation repeaters remain among the most reliable
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and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from
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There is also a risk of releasing pollutants buried in sediments. When sediments are re-suspended due to the installation of cables, toxic substances such as hydrocarbons may be released.
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1713:
Sediment can be damaged by cable installation by trenching with water jets or ploughing. This can lead to reworking of the sediments, altering the substrate of which they are composed.
1653:, when British and German forces systematically attempted to destroy the others' worldwide communications systems by cutting their cables with surface ships or submarines. During the
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attachment. These organisms are found in large number around cables that run through soft sediments, which are not normally suitable for these organisms. This is also the case for
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had observed that electric signals were slowed in passing through an insulated wire or core laid underground, and outlined the cause to be induction, using the analogy of a long
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Butler, R.; A. D. Chave; F. K. Duennebier; D. R. Yoerger; R. Petitt; D. Harris; F.B. Wooding; A. D. Bowen; J. Bailey; J. Jolly; E. Hobart; J. A. Hildebrand; A. H. Dodeman.
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Early long-distance submarine telegraph cables exhibited formidable electrical problems. Unlike modern cables, the technology of the 19th century did not allow for in-line
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593:, and conversely prepared strategies to quickly interrupt enemy communications. Britain's very first action after declaring war on Germany in World War I was to have the
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per second overseas. Speeds improved rapidly in the previous few years, with 40 Gbit/s having been offered on that route only three years earlier in August 2009.
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1554:. For example, in February 1959, a series of 12 breaks occurred in five American trans-Atlantic communications cables. In response, a United States naval vessel, the
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1565:. A review of the ship's log indicated it had been in the region of each of the cables when they broke. Broken sections of cable were also found on the deck of the
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https://web.archive.org/web/20220413060821/https://web.asn.com/media/data/files_user/72/SDM1/How_to_Open_Cable_The_Guidelines_and_the_Gotchas_-_04-07-2019_R1.pdf
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is the only continent not yet reached by a submarine telecommunications cable. Phone, video, and e-mail traffic must be relayed to the rest of the world via
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was introduced in the 1930s. Even then, the material was only available to the military and the first submarine cable using it was not laid until 1945 during
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equipment designed with this in mind; this property can also be used to reduce interference when transmitting multiple channels through a single fiber using
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at a point where the cable descended over a steep drop. The unfortunate whale got its tail entangled in loops of cable and drowned. The cable repair ship
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Rivera Hartling, Elizabeth; Pilipetskii, Alexei; Evans, Darwin; Mateo, Eduardo; Salsi, Massimiliano; Pecci, Pascal; Mehta, Priyanth (February 14, 2021).
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Rivera Hartling, Elizabeth; Pilipetskii, Alexei; Evans, Darwin; Mateo, Eduardo; Salsi, Massimiliano; Pecci, Pascal; Mehta, Priyanth (February 2021).
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for detecting the faint telegraph signals. Thomson became wealthy on the royalties of these, and several related inventions. Thomson was elevated to
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The Embassy of the United States of America. (1959, March 24). U.S. note to Soviet Union on breaks in trans-Atlantic cables. The New York Times, 10.
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The first trans-Pacific telephone cable was laid from Hawaii to Japan in 1964, with an extension from Guam to The Philippines. Also in 1964, the
1721:. Although little observed, the presence of cables can also change the water temperature and therefore disturb the surrounding natural habitat.
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decreasing voltage; the current at 10,000VDC is up to 1,650mA. Hence the total amount of power sent into the cable is often up to 16.5 kW.
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WDM or wavelength division multiplexing was first implemented in submarine fiber optic cables from the 1990s to the 2000s, followed by DWDM or
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at most 3.5 dB, with a noise of 5 dB usually obtained with a 1480 nm laser. The noise has to be filtered using optical filters.
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Throughout the 1860s and 1870s, British cable expanded eastward, into the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. An 1863 cable to Bombay (now
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The type of modulation employed in a submarine cable can have a major impact in its capacity. SDM is combined with DWDM to improve capacity.
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in the wire induces an opposite charge in the water as it travels along. In 1831, Faraday described this effect in what is now referred to as
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Winkler, Jonathan Reed. Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008)
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1230:(SBUs), more than one destination could be served by a single cable system. Modern cable systems now usually have their fibers arranged in a
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927:(or water) surrounding it. Faraday had noticed that when a wire is charged from a battery (for example when pressing a telegraph key), the
3862:"A review of potential impacts of submarine power cables on the marine environment: Knowledge gaps, recommendations and future directions"
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Account of how U.S. government discovered strategic significance of communications lines, including submarine cables, during World War I.
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https://topconference.com/wp-content/uploads/1Towards-Maximizing-Data-Throughput-on-Subsea-Fiber-Optic-Cables-Geoff-Bennett-Infinera.pdf
623:, Britain's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany's cables worldwide.
1762:, surrounded by several protective layers of plastic, wire or synthetic materials. Cables can also be composed of dielectric fluids or
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to cover the wire and prevent the electric current from leaking into the water was necessary for the success of a long submarine line.
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Advances in Information and Communication: Proceedings of the 2020 Future of Information and Communication Conference (FICC), Volume 1
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had dismissed the problems and insisted that a transatlantic cable was feasible. When he subsequently became chief electrician of the
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of 1884 to which Russia had signed (prior to the formation of the Soviet Union) as evidence of violation of international protocol.
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Transatlantic cables of the 19th century consisted of an outer layer of iron and later steel wire, wrapping India rubber, wrapping
1910:
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signals across stretches of ocean and sea. The first submarine communications cables were laid beginning in the 1850s and carried
355:, submerged 3 km (2 mi) of wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully.
3731:"Analyzing the Internet Collapse: Multiple fiber cuts to undersea cables show the fragility of the Internet at its choke points"
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Most cables in the 20th century crossed the Atlantic Ocean, to connect the United States and Europe. However, capacity in the
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335:, then an officer in the army of Prussia, laid the first successful underwater cable using gutta percha insulation, across the
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links that have limited availability and capacity. Bases on the continent itself are able to communicate with one another via
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1381:. However, a typical multi-terabit, transoceanic submarine cable system costs several hundred million dollars to construct.
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Taormina, Bastien; Bald, Juan; Want, Andrew; Thouzeau, Gérard; Lejart, Morgane; Desroy, Nicolas; Carlier, Antoine (2018).
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Ash, Stewart, "The development of submarine cables", ch. 1 in, Burnett, Douglas R.; Beckman, Robert; Davenport, Tara M.,
1636:. The crews of these vessels developed many new techniques and devices to repair and improve cable laying, such as the "
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https://comfutures2020.ieee-comfutures.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/101/2020/02/ComFutures2020-Ses1-SubseaCom-Kovsh.pdf
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1464:, which is 75% owned by East African and South African investors. The project was delayed by a month due to increased
1193:, which dramatically increases the capacity of the fiber. EDFA amplifiers were first used in submarine cables in 1995.
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gave pests a route to eat their way in. Damaged armouring, which was not uncommon, also provided an entrance. Cases of
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The first trans-Pacific cables providing telegraph service were completed in 1902 and 1903, linking the US mainland to
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2905:"Light Reading Europe – Optical Networking – Hibernia Offers Cross-Atlantic 40G – Telecom News Wire"
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Eastern Telegraph Company network in 1901. Dotted lines across the Pacific indicate planned cables laid in 1902–03.
134:
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1267:(GCP) between London and New York City is only 5,600 km (3,500 mi), this requires several land masses (
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4352:
4148: – includes a register of submarine cables worldwide (though not always updated as often as one might hope)
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in 1903. Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji were also linked in 1902 with the trans-Pacific segment of the
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Many early cables suffered from attack by sea life. The insulation could be eaten, for instance, by species of
241:
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1612:, was home to a half dozen such vessels for most of the 20th century including long-lived vessels such as the
290:
Another insulating gum which could be melted by heat and readily applied to wire made its appearance in 1842.
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2477:"History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications—British Submarine Cable Manufacturing Companies"
1605:
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1116:, adapted submarine communications cable technology to create the world's first submarine oil pipeline in
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4616:
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Headrick, D.R., & Griset, P. (2001). "Submarine Telegraph Cables: Business and Politics, 1838–1939".
1055:" telephone cable—one with loading coils added at regular intervals—failed in the early 1930s due to the
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399:
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2242:
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A cable repair ship will be sent to the location to drop a marker buoy near the break. Several types of
1411:
A map of active and anticipated submarine communications cables servicing the African continent in 2020.
919:(1853) on cores immersed in water, and particularly on the lengthy cable between England and The Hague.
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was only able to winch up the cable with difficulty, weighed down as it was with the dead whale's body.
5528:
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5389:
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3208:
https://www.fujitsu.com/global/documents/about/resources/publications/fstj/archives/vol35-1/paper05.pdf
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https://www.fujitsu.com/global/documents/about/resources/publications/fstj/archives/vol42-4/paper07.pdf
1630:
1015:
959:
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traffic, establishing the first instant telecommunications links between continents, such as the first
1943:
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The propensity for fishing trawler nets to cause cable faults may well have been exploited during the
966:. Whitehouse believed that, with enough voltage, any cable could be driven. Thomson believed that his
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proclaimed his faith in it as early as 1840, and in 1842, he submerged a wire, insulated with tarred
192:
4157:
Kingfisher Information Service – Cable Awareness; UK Fisherman's Submarine Cable Awareness site
1127:
Active fiber-optic cables may be useful in detecting seismic events which alter cable polarization.
576:
From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the most important market, the
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2243:"The Telegraph – Calcutta (Kolkata) | Frontpage | Third cable cut, but India's safe"
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Lindstrom, A. (1999, January 1). Taming the terrors of the deep. America's Network, 103(1), 5–16.
2828:
1077:, in Canada. It was inaugurated on September 25, 1956, initially carrying 36 telephone channels.
995:
648:
264:, and telegraphed through it. The following autumn, Wheatstone performed a similar experiment in
3799:
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Very Compact and High Voltage Power Feeding Equipment (PFE) for Advanced Submarine Cable Network
119:
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1018:, which included the effects of inductance and which were essential to extending the theory of
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A number of ports near important cable routes became homes to specialized cable repair ships.
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considers its submarine cable systems to be "vital to the national economy". Accordingly, the
994:
of the cable, which permitted design of the equipment for accurate telegraphy. The effects of
782:, furnished cores to Henley's as well as eventually making and laying finished cable. In 1870
5322:
5126:
5091:
5011:
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4913:
4801:
4722:
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Tranvouez, Nicolas; Brandon, Eric; Fullenbaum, Marc; Bousselet, Philippe; Brylski, Isabelle.
2454:
1829:
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characteristics of the seabed area where the cables are located, and the relief of the area.
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Originally, submarine cables were simple point-to-point connections. With the development of
948:
935:. As the two charges attract each other, the exciting charge is retarded. The core acts as a
881:
770:
4655:
3697:
Shapiro, S.; Murray, J.G.; Gleason, R.F.; Barnes, S.R.; Eales, B.A.; Woodward, P.R. (1987).
3295:
2476:
2283:"Pacific Cable (SF, Hawaii, Guam, Phil) opens, President TR sends message July 4 in History"
1766:
fluids, which act as electrical insulators. These substances can be harmful to marine life.
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A further redundant-path development over and above the self-healing rings approach is the
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to increase their redundancy, with the submarine sections following different paths on the
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332:
4057:"The cloud under the sea: The invisible seafaring industry that keeps the internet afloat"
3426:
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8:
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2988:"STF Mag Feature: Next Generation Transponder Technology to Align with Subsea SDM Cables"
2904:
1809:
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Shore stations can locate a break in a cable by electrical measurements, such as through
1437:
1417:
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Submarine cables are important to the modern military as well as private enterprise. The
1332:
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552:, used a more advanced technology and produced the first successful transatlantic cable.
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have been recorded. In one case in 1873, a whale damaged the Persian Gulf Cable between
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2880:"Submarine Cable Networks – Hibernia Atlantic Trials the First 100G Transatlantic"
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https://sumitomoelectric.com/sites/default/files/2023-04/download_documents/E96-07.pdf
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4302:
3802:, pg 621: various drawing and cutaways of cable repair ship equipment and operations
2165:
2034:
319:, and he believed that it would be useful in the fabrication of surgical apparatus.
206:
traffic. These early cables used copper wires in their cores, but modern cables use
5518:
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3449:"'Visionary' fund for early stage European infrastructure backed by nations and EU"
3330:
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2701:
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2527:
2161:
2022:
1519:
1453:
1440:' Global Network (TGN) is the only wholly owned fiber network circling the planet.
1102:
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818:
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542:
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403:
3476:
3335:
3310:
2680:"Optical polarization–based seismic and water wave sensing on transoceanic cables"
2455:"History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications—CS Hooper/Silvertown"
975:
to the ocean when Whitehouse increased the voltage beyond the cable design limit.
556:
later went on to lay the first cable reaching to India from Aden, Yemen, in 1870.
5146:
5001:
4769:
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4732:
4417:
4407:
4291:
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4188:
3773:
3590:
3025:"Google, SubCom, to deploy space-division multiplexing on Dunant submarine cable"
3012:
https://2023.apricot.net/assets/files/APPS314/sdm-a-new-subsea-par_1677480490.pdf
2933:
2328:
2268:
1893:
1665:(NSA) succeeded in placing wire taps on Soviet underwater communication lines in
1508:
1421:
1247:
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were developed. The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was
1117:
939:
distributed along the length of the cable which, coupled with the resistance and
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908:
807:
594:
384:
375:
In August 1850, having earlier obtained a concession from the French government,
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261:
104:
3696:
3499:"The global internet is powered by vast undersea cables. But they're vulnerable"
2781:
Kaneko, Tomoyuki; Chiba, Yoshinori; Kunimi, Kaneaki; Nakamura, Tomotaka (2010).
631:
5344:
5216:
5191:
5151:
5121:
4996:
4831:
4784:
4759:
4717:
4571:
4556:
4525:
4347:
4298:
Animations from Alcatel showing how submarine cables are installed and repaired
4195:
Medford, L. V.; Meloni, A.; Lanzerotti, L. J.; Gregori, G. P. (April 2, 1981).
3885:
1589:
1309:
1209:
1198:
1110:
967:
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477:
446:
340:
273:
257:
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978:
Thomson designed a complex electric-field generator that minimized current by
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5266:
5256:
5171:
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5046:
5031:
4853:
4712:
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4504:
4353:
Positions and Route information of Submarine Cables in the Seas Around the UK
4228:
4076:
Communications Under the Seas:The Evolving Cable Network and Its Implications
3942:
3893:
3861:
3757:
3679:
3572:
3366:"How the Internet works: Submarine fiber, brains in jars, and coaxial cables"
3109:
3084:
3068:
3043:
2066:
The company is referred to as the English Channel Submarine Telegraph Company
2026:
1759:
1523:
An animation showing a method used to repair submarine communications cables.
1444:
1292:
1280:
1171:
1081:
972:
916:
811:
791:
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207:
141:
113:
85:
3844:
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/31.aspx
2705:
1456:. For instance, in July 2009, an underwater fiber-optic cable line plugged
541:
The first attempt at laying a transatlantic telegraph cable was promoted by
523:
coast. In April 1855 the British laid an underwater cable from Varna to the
5371:
5211:
5156:
5086:
5051:
4986:
4885:
4875:
4727:
4412:
4196:
3959:
Submarine Power Cables: Design, Installation, Repair, Environmental Aspects
2713:
1984:
1911:"[Heroes of the Telegraph – Chapter III. – Samuel Morse]"
1706:
1702:
1288:
1219:
1162:
1121:
1106:
1038:
Submarine communication cables crossing the Scottish shore at Scad Head on
892:
combined to distort the telegraph pulses in the line, reducing the cable's
803:
799:
758:
719:
676:
644:
590:
480:
which later became the first vessel with permanent cable-laying equipment.
469:
395:
315:. Twenty years earlier, Montgomerie had seen whips made of gutta-percha in
291:
249:
211:
47:
4276:
4251:
1069:
system. Between 1955 and 1956, cable was laid between Gallanach Bay, near
923:
showed that the effect was caused by capacitance between the wire and the
527:
so that news of the Crimean War could reach London in a handful of hours.
5571:
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1804:
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into the broader Internet. The company that provided this new cable was
1457:
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1089:
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Early cable designs failed to analyse these effects correctly. Famously,
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465:
438:
422:
265:
124:
3924:
2531:
2518:
Blake, J. T.; Boggs, C. R. (1926). "The Absorption of Water by Rubber".
814:
of deproteinized rubber improved the impermeability of cables to water.
5576:
5283:
4981:
4890:
4846:
4816:
4794:
4422:
1799:
1613:
1480:
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889:
779:
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732:
516:
442:
176:
161:
4039:
A Retrospective Technology Assessment: The Transatlantic Cable of 1866
3400:"SEACOM - South Africa - East Africa - South Asia - Fiber Optic Cable"
2612:
2587:
2173:
798:
Gutta-percha and rubber were not replaced as a cable insulation until
413:
In 1853, more successful cables were laid, linking Great Britain with
5561:
5026:
4841:
4608:
4535:
4443:
4388:
4220:
3705:
2965:
https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/tut/T-TUT-HOME-2022-1-PDF-E.pdf
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316:
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66:
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Map and Satellite views of US landing sites for transatlantic cables
4320:
3826:
Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I
3082:
3041:
2630:. International Submarine Cable Protection Committee. Archived from
2209:
Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I
1153:
853:. The whale was apparently attempting to use the cable to clean off
371:
of the British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Co. Limited (c. 1862).
5556:
5546:
5463:
5288:
5111:
4402:
4348:
Map and Satellite views of US landing sites for transpacific cables
2082:
Royal Institution of Great Britain: Proceedings: Vol. II, 1854–1858
1718:
1654:
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897:
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854:
727:
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305:
215:
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3298:. Australian Communications and Media Authority. February 5, 2010.
1336:
increase in reach of 45 km or a 6-fold increase in capacity.
5551:
5536:
4754:
3909:"Beyond seablindness: a new agenda for maritime security studies"
3619:
2854:"New Fiber-Optic Cable Will Expand Calls Abroad, and Defy Sharks"
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877:
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608:
430:
418:
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388:
344:
308:
281:
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2433:
5581:
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4863:
4197:"Geomagnetic induction on a transatlantic communications cable"
4036:
2817:
2418:. London: C. Lockwood and son. pp. 125, 157–160, 337–339.
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1300:
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in Belgium, by the Submarine Telegraph Company. Meanwhile, the
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328:
153:
94:
4194:
4019:
Submarine Telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working
2415:
Submarine telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working
749:
Landing of an Italy-USA cable (4,704 nautical miles long), on
222:
187:, Australia, in 1871 in anticipation of the completion of the
5566:
5503:
4811:
3764:
Spread Spectrum Sensors for Location of Arcs on Live Wires."
1629:. The latter two were contracted to recover victims from the
1488:
1175:
1062:
838:
711:
336:
324:
56:
4357:
3815:. New York, N.Y.: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.. p. 113
3246:"Undersea Cables Transport 99 Percent of International Data"
2387:"Machine used for covering wires with silk and cotton, 1837"
2107:
Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
1875:"How Submarine Cables are Made, Laid, Operated and Repaired"
437:
completed the first successful Irish link on May 23 between
248:
began to be thought of as a possible triumph of the future.
40:
of the shore-end of a modern submarine communications cable.
5508:
4161:
4156:
1601:
can be used to repair cables that lie in shallower waters.
1571:
Convention for the Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables
1070:
830:
699:
668:
253:
180:
3762:
Spread Spectrum Sensors for Location of Arcs on Live Wires
2588:"The Bicentennial of Francis Ronalds's Electric Telegraph"
4551:
3311:"Undersea cables and the future of submarine competition"
2780:
2364:. Engineering and Technology History WIKI. Archived from
4179:
History of the Atlantic Cable & Submarine Telegraphy
4145:
3907:
Bueger, Christian; Edmunds, Timothy (November 1, 2017).
3859:
3350:
Dunn, John (March 1987), "Talking the Light Fantastic",
1780:
1373:
per second, while satellites typically offer only 1,000
990:
for his contributions in this area, chiefly an accurate
4166:
4073:
3085:"Design, Acceptance and Capacity of Subsea Open Cables"
3044:"Design, Acceptance and Capacity of Subsea Open Cables"
2150:"Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870–1914"
1942:. Inventors.about.com. October 30, 2009. Archived from
884:
of their tremendous length but the cables' distributed
568:
Operators in the submarine telegraph cable room at the
4152:
Timeline of Submarine Communications Cables, 1850–2010
2764:"The Incredible International Submarine Cable Systems"
2013:
Guarnieri, M. (2014). "The Conquest of the Atlantic".
776:
India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Company
658:
2563:
Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph
1820:
List of international submarine communications cables
4326:
Map gallery of submarine cable maps by TeleGeography
4091:
2188:
In Spies We Trust: The Story of Western Intelligence
1135:
452:. The same ship was used for the link from Dover to
27:
Transoceanic communication line placed on the seabed
4100:
778:, established by the Silver family and giving that
559:
4181: – Wire Rope and the Submarine Cable Industry
4119:
4103:The Undersea Network (Sign, Storage, Transmission)
2358:"Milestones:TPC-1 Transpacific Cable System, 1964"
2119:
1649:monitored. The most ambitious efforts occurred in
1287:) to be traversed, as well as the extremely tidal
627:Cable to India, Singapore, East Asia and Australia
2821:Unrepeatered Systems: State of the Art Capability
2517:
2211:, pages 5–6, 289, Harvard University Press, 2008
1363:
1181:Modern optical fiber repeaters use a solid-state
244:in 1839, the idea of a submarine line across the
171:Submarine cables first connected all the world's
5702:
4310:– Ocean News & Technology magazine Dec. 2014
4162:Orange's Fishermen's/Submarine Cable Information
2498:Submarine Cables: The Handbook of Law and Policy
2143:
2141:
1815:List of domestic submarine communications cables
530:
3760:, Safavi, Mehdi, and Lo, Chet. "Feasibility of
3641:
3496:
3427:"Cable makes big promises for African Internet"
3424:
3268:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1585:and timing of the signals to locate the break.
1561:, detained and investigated the Soviet trawler
1002:on submarine cables also motivated many of the
4249:
4015:
3680:"Sharks Want to Bite Google's Undersea Cables"
2735:Faulkner, D. W.; Harmer, Alan (May 10, 1999).
2734:
2147:
1213:Diagram of an optical submarine cable repeater
962:, he became involved in a public dispute with
726:was the first regenerative system (i.e., with
458:Electric & International Telegraph Company
435:British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company
4624:
4373:
3906:
3271:"Google's Submarine Cable Plans Get Official"
2549:Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers
2138:
1742:Although submarine cables are located on the
1390:Australian Communications and Media Authority
572:'s Central Telegraph Office in London c. 1898
472:, the Netherlands. These cables were laid by
4146:The International Cable Protection Committee
4087:. United States Underseas Cable Corporation.
3728:
2001:
1014:had produced the modern general form of the
168:which became operational on 16 August 1858.
5639:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
4045:
3523:"Harnessing submarine cables to save lives"
2122:The Secret World: A History of Intelligence
1940:"Timeline – Biography of Samuel Morse"
1857:, pp. 136–140, John Wiley & Sons, 2003
1855:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications
1692:
1354:Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer
381:English Channel Submarine Telegraph Company
223:Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables
5675:
4631:
4617:
4380:
4366:
4082:
3349:
1402:
1166:World map showing submarine cables in 2015
1029:
943:of the cable, limits the speed at which a
506:
394:. It was simply a copper wire coated with
358:
227:
4275:
3962:. Springer Science & Business Media.
3934:1983/a9bb7d69-6274-4515-8db4-886079ca3668
3932:
3334:
3108:
3067:
2611:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2190:, page 43, Oxford University Press, 2013
2124:. Penguin Books Limited. p. ccxiii.
2012:
1669:. In modern times, the widespread use of
1643:
1578:spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry
287:, as far back as the early 19th century.
198:Subsequent generations of cables carried
4074:Bernard Finn; Daqing Yang, eds. (2009).
4037:Vary T. Coates and Bernard Finn (1979).
3866:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
2851:
2245:. Telegraphindia.com. February 3, 2008.
1518:
1406:
1208:
1161:
1033:
1026:required for high-speed data and voice.
744:
630:
563:
362:
123:Submarine cables are laid using special
118:
31:
2882:. Submarinenetworks.com. Archived from
2585:
2560:
2304:"History of Canada-Australia Relations"
2266:"Landing the New Zealand cable", pg 3,
1974:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1758:Submarine cables are made of copper or
1701:Cables are often laid in the so-called
1676:
1345:dense wavelength division mulltiplexing
1086:frequency-multiplexed voiceband signals
1080:In the 1960s, transoceanic cables were
487:was used to lay a telegraph cable from
14:
5703:
4638:
4054:
3955:
3855:
3853:
3851:
3647:
3547:Conti, Juan Pablo (December 5, 2009),
3363:
2813:
2811:
2761:
2520:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry
2474:
2452:
2411:
2400:
2329:"The Commercial Pacific Cable Company"
2306:. Government of Canada. Archived from
2076:Brett, John Watkins (March 18, 1857).
1737:
1673:minimizes the threat of wire tapping.
1075:Clarenville, Newfoundland and Labrador
982:the cable, and a sensitive light-beam
718:, then overland by microwave radio to
410:, which was towed across the Channel.
4612:
4361:
3546:
3308:
3296:"Submarine telecommunications cables"
3269:Gardiner, Bryan (February 25, 2008).
3176:. Academic Press. November 26, 2015.
3158:"The Open Road to Submarine Capacity"
3022:
2845:
2075:
2069:
1978:
1781:Sound waves and electromagnetic waves
1499:Several projects are underway in the
1303:and through fairly built up areas to
880:were used to attempt to overcome the
864:
643:), India, provided a crucial link to
195:and thence to the rest of Australia.
156:between land-based stations to carry
5685:
4321:Submarine Cable Map by TeleGeography
3677:
3173:Undersea Fiber Communication Systems
2738:Core Networks and Network Management
2678:Zhan, Zhongwen (February 26, 2021).
2677:
2500:, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2014
2015:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
1957:
1197:and the other a negative voltage. A
1065:(Transatlantic No. 1) was the first
3848:
2852:Bradsher, Keith (August 15, 1990).
2808:
659:Submarine cables across the Pacific
219:shallow-water sections near shore.
24:
4167:Oregon Fisherman's Cable Committee
4009:
3956:Worzyk, Thomas (August 11, 2009).
3441:
2762:Morris, Michael (April 19, 2009).
2565:. London: Imperial College Press.
2551:, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 311–313, 1873
2545:"On Accidents to Submarine Cables"
2475:Glover, Bill (December 22, 2019).
1979:Haigh, Kenneth Richardson (1968).
1835:Transatlantic communications cable
1109:, London, in conjunction with the
300:tree, was introduced to Europe by
189:Australian Overland Telegraph Line
25:
5737:
4303:Work begins to repair severed net
4139:
3729:John Borland (February 5, 2008).
3497:James Griffiths (July 26, 2019).
3425:McCarthy, Diane (July 27, 2009).
3315:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
3023:Hardy, Stephen (April 10, 2019).
2453:Glover, Bill (February 7, 2019).
2285:. Brainyhistory.com. July 4, 1903
1156:of sea cables (regularly updated)
1136:Optical telecommunications cables
1130:
915:. The same effect was noticed by
900:for telegraph operation to 10–12
684:Commonwealth Pacific Cable System
5684:
5674:
5665:
5664:
5653:
5274:Free-space optical communication
4593:
4583:
4328:, showing evolution since 2000.
4308:Flexibility in Undersea Networks
3982:
3794:, no.4, pp.618–622, April 1930,
3648:Tanner, John C. (June 1, 2001).
3591:"Characteristics of the project"
3437:from the original on 2009-11-25.
3284:from the original on 2012-04-28.
2667:from the original on 2008-02-26.
2655:"The Hawaii-2 Observatory (H2O)"
1981:Cable Ships and Submarine Cables
1318:wavelength division multiplexing
1191:wavelength-division multiplexing
1148:
560:British dominance of early cable
460:completed two cables across the
5716:Submarine communications cables
4085:Cableships and Submarine Cables
4055:Dzieza, Josh (April 16, 2024).
3976:
3949:
3900:
3835:
3818:
3805:
3778:
3750:
3741:
3722:
3690:
3671:
3630:from the original on 2024-03-07
3612:
3601:from the original on 2023-12-08
3583:
3540:
3515:
3490:
3465:
3418:
3392:
3383:
3357:
3343:
3302:
3288:
3262:
3238:
3224:. Springer. February 24, 2020.
3212:
3201:
3190:
3164:
3150:
3139:
3128:
3117:
3089:Journal of Lightwave Technology
3076:
3048:Journal of Lightwave Technology
3035:
3016:
3005:
2994:
2980:
2969:
2958:
2947:
2922:
2911:from the original on 2012-07-29
2897:
2872:
2774:
2755:
2728:
2671:
2646:
2620:
2586:Ronalds, B.F. (February 2016).
2579:
2554:
2538:
2511:
2490:
2468:
2446:
2379:
2350:
2339:from the original on 2016-09-27
2321:
2296:
2275:
2260:
2249:from the original on 2010-09-03
2235:
2222:
2201:
2180:
2148:Kennedy, P. M. (October 1971).
2113:
2099:
1887:"The internet's undersea world"
1728:
1514:
740:
383:laid the first line across the
3475:. May 15, 2013. Archived from
3309:Clark, Bryan (June 15, 2016).
2628:"Learn About Submarine Cables"
2060:
2041:
1932:
1903:
1880:
1868:
1847:
1377:per second and display higher
1364:Importance of submarine cables
582:Britain's vast colonial empire
150:submarine communications cable
13:
1:
5726:History of telecommunications
4387:
4092:Norman L. Middlemiss (2000).
3785:"When the ocean floor quakes"
3699:"Threats to Submarine Cables"
3336:10.1080/00963402.2016.1195636
2166:10.1093/ehr/lxxxvi.cccxli.728
2154:The English Historical Review
1840:
1475:
1358:Optical add-drop multiplexers
1096:
1067:transatlantic telephone cable
841:biting cables and attacks by
537:Transatlantic telegraph cable
531:Transatlantic telegraph cable
166:transatlantic telegraph cable
18:Undersea communications cable
5721:Telecommunications equipment
5660:Telecommunication portal
5441:Telecommunications equipment
4590:Telecommunication portal
4101:Nicole Starosielski (2015).
3650:"2,000 Meters Under the Sea"
3553:Engineering & Technology
3364:Dormon, Bob (May 26, 2016).
2084:(transcript). Archived from
2078:"On the Submarine Telegraph"
1753:
1685:Submarine cables can impact
1436:, and Asia Global Crossing.
1187:erbium-doped fiber amplifier
1114:National Physical Laboratory
790:to manufacture his patented
294:, the adhesive juice of the
214:, which includes telephone,
7:
5177:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
4172:
4120:John Steele Gordon (2000).
4022:. Crosby Lockward and Son.
2932:. Gcmap.com. Archived from
2230:The Business History Review
2120:Christopher Andrew (2018).
1793:
1312:minimums in the long term.
1279:and the isthmus connecting
780:name to a section of London
400:Submarine Telegraph Company
10:
5742:
4881:Telecommunications history
3886:10.1016/j.rser.2018.07.026
3772:December 31, 2010, at the
3686:– via www.wired.com.
3656:. bnet.com. Archived from
2790:. SubOptic. Archived from
2389:. The Science Museum Group
1750:cable installation zones.
960:Atlantic Telegraph Company
933:Faraday's law of induction
765:constant which made cable
724:North Pacific Cable system
534:
313:British East India Company
185:Darwin, Northern Territory
127:ships, such as the modern
5648:
5590:
5527:
5489:Public Switched Telephone
5449:
5413:
5370:
5311:
5301:telecommunication circuit
5262:Fiber-optic communication
5245:
5007:Francis Blake (telephone)
4954:
4802:Optical telecommunication
4646:
4580:
4544:
4513:
4465:Communications satellites
4452:
4431:
4395:
4187: – Wired article by
4185:Mother Earth Mother Board
4105:. Duke University Press.
3549:"Frozen out of broadband"
3473:"Background | Marguerite"
1896: – annotated image,
1582:time-domain reflectometry
1494:
1228:submarine branching units
1147:
1142:
753:, New York, January 1925.
649:Eastern Telegraph Company
193:Adelaide, South Australia
5400:Orbital angular-momentum
4837:Satellite communications
4676:Communications satellite
4122:A thread under the Ocean
3830:Harvard University Press
3453:European Investment Bank
3110:10.1109/JLT.2020.3045389
3069:10.1109/JLT.2020.3045389
2412:Bright, Charles (1898).
2027:10.1109/MIE.2014.2299492
1693:Alteration of the seabed
1663:National Security Agency
1531:, anchors, earthquakes,
1527:Cables can be broken by
896:, severely limiting the
788:Hooper's Telegraph Works
5279:Molecular communication
5102:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
4931:Undersea telegraph line
4666:Cable protection system
4460:Cable protection system
4314:
4250:Hunt, Bruce J. (2004).
4016:Charles Bright (1898).
3824:Jonathan Reed Winkler,
2706:10.1126/science.abe6648
2207:Jonathan Reed Winkler,
2186:Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones,
1403:Investment and finances
1291:and a land route along
1030:Transatlantic telephony
1016:telegrapher's equations
1004:early polar expeditions
996:atmospheric electricity
507:Crimean War (1853–1856)
483:In 1858, the steamship
359:First commercial cables
228:First successful trials
152:is a cable laid on the
5421:Communication protocol
5207:Charles Sumner Tainter
5022:Walter Houser Brattain
4967:Edwin Howard Armstrong
4775:Information revolution
4191:about submarine cables
4096:. Shield Publications.
4041:. San Francisco Press.
3811:Clarke, A. C. (1959).
2561:Ronalds, B.F. (2016).
2050:The Practical Magazine
1825:Loaded submarine cable
1644:Intelligence gathering
1524:
1412:
1214:
1167:
1047:
754:
751:Rockaway Beach, Queens
636:
573:
387:, using the converted
372:
349:Charles Vincent Walker
311:in the service of the
191:in 1872 connecting to
145:
116:
5395:Polarization-division
5127:Narinder Singh Kapany
5092:Erna Schneider Hoover
5012:Jagadish Chandra Bose
4992:Alexander Graham Bell
4723:online video platform
4600:Telephones portal
3913:International Affairs
3620:"Project description"
2990:. September 27, 2022.
2930:"Great Circle Mapper"
2048:"C William Siemens".
1830:Submarine power cable
1689:in a number of ways.
1671:end-to-end encryption
1522:
1503:including 12,650 km "
1410:
1386:Australian government
1212:
1165:
1037:
882:electrical resistance
771:William Thomas Henley
748:
634:
567:
366:
353:South Eastern Railway
351:, electrician to the
240:had introduced their
122:
35:
5711:Coastal construction
5237:Vladimir K. Zworykin
5197:Almon Brown Strowger
5167:Charles Grafton Page
4822:Prepaid mobile phone
4750:Electrical telegraph
4562:Telephone newspapers
4046:Bern Dibner (1959).
3813:Voice Across the Sea
3766:IEEE Sensors Journal
3565:10.1049/et.2009.2106
2907:. Lightreading.com.
2479:. The Atlantic Cable
2457:. The Atlantic Cable
1853:Anton A. Huurdeman,
1677:Environmental impact
1418:AT&T Corporation
1277:Prince Edward Island
1251:end-to-end service.
947:travels through the
876:in the cable. Large
835:steel wire armouring
578:North Atlantic Ocean
210:technology to carry
5187:Johann Philipp Reis
4946:Wireless revolution
4908:The Telephone Cases
4765:Hydraulic telegraph
4485:Mobile phone signal
4277:10.1051/epn:2004602
4268:2004ENews..35..186H
4213:1981Natur.290..392M
4083:K.R. Haigh (1968).
3878:2018RSERv..96..380T
3327:2016BuAtS..72d.234C
3160:. January 26, 2021.
3101:2021JLwT...39..742R
3060:2021JLwT...39..742R
2698:2021Sci...371..931Z
2604:2016PhT....69b..26R
2532:10.1021/ie50195a002
1810:Cable landing point
1738:The risk of fishing
1705:of the seabed. The
1667:Operation Ivy Bells
1631:sinking of the RMS
1580:(SSTDR), a type of
1438:Tata Communications
1333:Raman amplification
1295:' north shore from
984:mirror galvanometer
302:William Montgomerie
285:electrical engineer
204:data communications
5385:Frequency-division
5362:Telephone exchange
5232:Charles Wheatstone
5162:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
5137:Innocenzo Manzetti
5072:Reginald Fessenden
4807:Optical telegraphy
4640:Telecommunications
4475:Free-space optical
4290:2008-05-10 at the
4124:. World of Books.
4048:The Atlantic Cable
3768:. December, 2005.
3678:McMillan, Robert.
3529:. October 18, 2017
2859:The New York Times
2335:. Atlantic Cable.
2333:atlantic-cable.com
2272:, 19 February 1876
1892:2010-12-23 at the
1659:United States Navy
1533:turbidity currents
1525:
1413:
1265:great circle route
1215:
1172:fiber-optic cables
1168:
1048:
1020:transmission lines
992:mathematical model
907:As early as 1816,
865:Bandwidth problems
755:
637:
574:
402:from a government
377:John Watkins Brett
373:
276:had been tried by
260:, in the water of
238:Charles Wheatstone
146:
117:
5698:
5697:
5436:Store and forward
5431:Data transmission
5345:Network switching
5296:Transmission line
5142:Guglielmo Marconi
5107:Internet pioneers
4972:Mohamed M. Atalla
4941:Whistled language
4606:
4605:
4439:Answering machine
4207:(5805): 392–393.
4050:. Burndy Library.
3969:978-3-642-01270-9
3925:10.1093/ia/iix174
3788:Popular Mechanics
3735:Technology Review
3654:America's Network
3231:978-3-030-39445-5
3183:978-0-12-804395-0
2748:978-90-5199-497-1
2692:(6532): 931–936.
2613:10.1063/PT.3.3079
2572:978-1-78326-917-4
2232:, 75(3), 543–578.
1626:CS Mackay-Bennett
1507:" and 14,500 km
1468:along the coast.
1232:self-healing ring
1183:optical amplifier
1160:
1159:
1084:that transmitted
1000:geomagnetic field
956:E.O.W. Whitehouse
833:laid between the
792:vulcanized rubber
611:could listen in.
525:Crimean peninsula
515:various forms of
278:Moritz von Jacobi
242:working telegraph
183:was connected to
158:telecommunication
97:or aluminium tube
16:(Redirected from
5733:
5688:
5687:
5678:
5677:
5668:
5667:
5658:
5657:
5656:
5529:Notable networks
5519:Wireless network
5459:Cellular network
5451:Types of network
5426:Computer network
5313:Network topology
5227:Thomas A. Watson
5082:Oliver Heaviside
5067:Philo Farnsworth
5042:Daniel Davis Jr.
5017:Charles Bourseul
4977:John Logie Baird
4686:Data compression
4681:Computer network
4633:
4626:
4619:
4610:
4609:
4598:
4597:
4596:
4588:
4587:
4586:
4552:Fax transmission
4500:Submarine cables
4382:
4375:
4368:
4359:
4358:
4330:2008 map in the
4281:
4279:
4256:Europhysics News
4246:
4244:
4243:
4221:10.1038/290392a0
4135:
4116:
4097:
4088:
4079:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4051:
4042:
4033:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3999:
3994:. United Nations
3989:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3953:
3947:
3946:
3936:
3919:(6): 1293–1311.
3904:
3898:
3897:
3857:
3846:
3839:
3833:
3828:(Cambridge, MA:
3822:
3816:
3809:
3803:
3782:
3776:
3754:
3748:
3745:
3739:
3738:
3726:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3716:
3710:
3704:. Archived from
3703:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3645:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3575:, archived from
3544:
3538:
3537:
3535:
3534:
3519:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3484:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3459:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3422:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3411:
3402:. Archived from
3396:
3390:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3377:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3306:
3300:
3299:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3275:
3266:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3216:
3210:
3205:
3199:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3168:
3162:
3161:
3154:
3148:
3143:
3137:
3132:
3126:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3080:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3020:
3014:
3009:
3003:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2984:
2978:
2973:
2967:
2962:
2956:
2951:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2866:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2839:
2833:
2827:. Archived from
2826:
2815:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2796:
2789:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2659:
2650:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2639:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2558:
2552:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2515:
2509:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2484:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2462:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2409:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2279:
2273:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2239:
2233:
2226:
2220:
2205:
2199:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2160:(341): 728–752.
2145:
2136:
2135:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2056:(10): 219. 1875.
2045:
2039:
2038:
2010:
1999:
1998:
1976:
1955:
1954:
1952:
1951:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1926:
1917:. Archived from
1907:
1901:
1884:
1878:
1872:
1866:
1851:
1617:Cyrus West Field
1529:fishing trawlers
1454:developing world
1152:
1151:
1140:
1139:
1103:Siemens Brothers
1057:Great Depression
1012:Oliver Heaviside
902:words per minute
696:Papua New Guinea
543:Cyrus West Field
138:
111:
102:
92:
83:
73:
64:
54:
45:
21:
5741:
5740:
5736:
5735:
5734:
5732:
5731:
5730:
5701:
5700:
5699:
5694:
5654:
5652:
5644:
5586:
5523:
5445:
5409:
5366:
5315:
5307:
5248:
5241:
5147:Robert Metcalfe
5002:Tim Berners-Lee
4950:
4770:Information Age
4642:
4637:
4607:
4602:
4594:
4592:
4584:
4582:
4576:
4557:Telephone calls
4540:
4509:
4448:
4427:
4418:Satellite phone
4408:Cable telephony
4391:
4386:
4337:2014 map on CNN
4317:
4292:Wayback Machine
4241:
4239:
4189:Neal Stephenson
4175:
4142:
4132:
4113:
4065:
4063:
4030:
4012:
4010:Further reading
4007:
4006:
3997:
3995:
3987:
3983:Hale, Richard.
3981:
3977:
3970:
3954:
3950:
3905:
3901:
3858:
3849:
3840:
3836:
3823:
3819:
3810:
3806:
3783:
3779:
3774:Wayback Machine
3755:
3751:
3746:
3742:
3727:
3723:
3714:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3695:
3691:
3676:
3672:
3663:
3661:
3646:
3642:
3633:
3631:
3624:Far North Fiber
3618:
3617:
3613:
3604:
3602:
3589:
3588:
3584:
3545:
3541:
3532:
3530:
3521:
3520:
3516:
3507:
3505:
3495:
3491:
3482:
3480:
3471:
3470:
3466:
3457:
3455:
3447:
3446:
3442:
3423:
3419:
3409:
3407:
3398:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3375:
3373:
3362:
3358:
3348:
3344:
3307:
3303:
3294:
3293:
3289:
3273:
3267:
3263:
3254:
3252:
3244:
3243:
3239:
3232:
3218:
3217:
3213:
3206:
3202:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3170:
3169:
3165:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3144:
3140:
3133:
3129:
3122:
3118:
3081:
3077:
3040:
3036:
3021:
3017:
3010:
3006:
2999:
2995:
2986:
2985:
2981:
2974:
2970:
2963:
2959:
2952:
2948:
2939:
2937:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2914:
2912:
2903:
2902:
2898:
2889:
2887:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2864:
2862:
2850:
2846:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2824:
2816:
2809:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2787:
2779:
2775:
2760:
2756:
2749:
2733:
2729:
2676:
2672:
2664:
2657:
2651:
2647:
2637:
2635:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2584:
2580:
2573:
2559:
2555:
2543:
2539:
2516:
2512:
2495:
2491:
2482:
2480:
2473:
2469:
2460:
2458:
2451:
2447:
2438:
2436:
2426:
2410:
2401:
2392:
2390:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2371:
2369:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2342:
2340:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2313:
2311:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2288:
2286:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2265:
2261:
2252:
2250:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2227:
2223:
2206:
2202:
2185:
2181:
2146:
2139:
2132:
2118:
2114:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2091:
2089:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2021:(1): 53–56/67.
2011:
2002:
1995:
1977:
1958:
1949:
1947:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1924:
1922:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1894:Wayback Machine
1885:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1796:
1783:
1756:
1740:
1731:
1695:
1679:
1646:
1517:
1509:Far North Fiber
1497:
1478:
1422:Global Crossing
1405:
1366:
1149:
1138:
1133:
1118:Operation Pluto
1099:
1073:, Scotland and
1032:
973:short circuited
964:William Thomson
929:electric charge
921:Michael Faraday
909:Francis Ronalds
867:
823:(shipworm) and
808:English Channel
743:
722:. In 1991, the
661:
629:
562:
539:
533:
509:
425:, and crossing
385:English Channel
369:telegraph stamp
361:
333:William Siemens
321:Michael Faraday
297:Palaquium gutta
262:New York Harbor
230:
225:
132:
109:
107:
105:Petroleum jelly
100:
98:
90:
88:
81:
79:
71:
69:
62:
60:
52:
50:
43:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5739:
5729:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5696:
5695:
5693:
5692:
5682:
5672:
5662:
5649:
5646:
5645:
5643:
5642:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5614:
5613:
5608:
5600:
5594:
5592:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5533:
5531:
5525:
5524:
5522:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5455:
5453:
5447:
5446:
5444:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5417:
5415:
5411:
5410:
5408:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5380:Space-division
5376:
5374:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5364:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5352:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5330:
5325:
5319:
5317:
5309:
5308:
5306:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5270:
5269:
5259:
5253:
5251:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5217:Camille Tissot
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5192:Claude Shannon
5189:
5184:
5182:Tivadar Puskás
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5152:Antonio Meucci
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5122:Charles K. Kao
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5097:Harold Hopkins
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4997:Emile Berliner
4994:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4958:
4956:
4952:
4951:
4949:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4936:Videotelephony
4933:
4928:
4927:
4926:
4921:
4911:
4904:
4899:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4872:
4871:
4866:
4861:
4851:
4850:
4849:
4839:
4834:
4832:Radiotelephone
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4798:
4797:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4736:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4718:Internet video
4710:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4652:
4650:
4644:
4643:
4636:
4635:
4628:
4621:
4613:
4604:
4603:
4581:
4578:
4577:
4575:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4548:
4546:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4526:Misdialed call
4523:
4517:
4515:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4392:
4385:
4384:
4377:
4370:
4362:
4356:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4323:
4316:
4313:
4312:
4311:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4282:
4247:
4192:
4182:
4174:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4141:
4140:External links
4138:
4137:
4136:
4131:978-0743231275
4130:
4117:
4112:978-0822357551
4111:
4098:
4089:
4080:
4071:
4052:
4043:
4034:
4028:
4011:
4008:
4005:
4004:
3975:
3968:
3948:
3899:
3847:
3834:
3817:
3804:
3777:
3758:Furse, Cynthia
3749:
3740:
3721:
3689:
3670:
3640:
3611:
3582:
3539:
3514:
3489:
3464:
3440:
3417:
3391:
3382:
3356:
3342:
3321:(4): 234–237.
3301:
3287:
3261:
3237:
3230:
3211:
3200:
3189:
3182:
3163:
3149:
3138:
3127:
3116:
3095:(3): 742–756.
3075:
3054:(3): 742–756.
3034:
3015:
3004:
2993:
2979:
2968:
2957:
2946:
2921:
2896:
2871:
2844:
2807:
2773:
2754:
2747:
2727:
2670:
2645:
2619:
2578:
2571:
2553:
2537:
2526:(3): 224–232.
2510:
2489:
2467:
2445:
2424:
2399:
2378:
2349:
2320:
2295:
2274:
2259:
2234:
2221:
2200:
2179:
2137:
2130:
2112:
2098:
2068:
2059:
2040:
2000:
1993:
1956:
1931:
1902:
1879:
1877:, TechTeleData
1867:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1795:
1792:
1782:
1779:
1760:optical fibers
1755:
1752:
1739:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1694:
1691:
1678:
1675:
1645:
1642:
1516:
1513:
1496:
1493:
1477:
1474:
1404:
1401:
1365:
1362:
1310:speed of light
1240:landing points
1170:In the 1980s,
1158:
1157:
1145:
1144:
1143:External image
1137:
1134:
1132:
1131:Modern history
1129:
1111:United Kingdom
1098:
1095:
1082:coaxial cables
1031:
1028:
1022:to the higher
968:law of squares
951:of the cable.
866:
863:
784:William Hooper
742:
739:
660:
657:
628:
625:
561:
558:
535:Main article:
532:
529:
508:
505:
478:paddle steamer
360:
357:
246:Atlantic Ocean
229:
226:
224:
221:
202:traffic, then
140:, operated by
130:René Descartes
114:Optical fibers
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5738:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5708:
5706:
5691:
5683:
5681:
5673:
5671:
5663:
5661:
5651:
5650:
5647:
5640:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5603:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5595:
5593:
5589:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5534:
5532:
5530:
5526:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5454:
5452:
5448:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5418:
5416:
5412:
5406:
5405:Code-division
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5390:Time-division
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5377:
5375:
5373:
5369:
5363:
5360:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5347:
5346:
5343:
5339:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:and switching
5314:
5310:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5297:
5294:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5268:
5267:optical fiber
5265:
5264:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5257:Coaxial cable
5255:
5254:
5252:
5250:
5244:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5172:Radia Perlman
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5062:Lee de Forest
5060:
5058:
5057:Thomas Edison
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5047:Donald Davies
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5032:Claude Chappe
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4959:
4957:
4953:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4909:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4876:Smoke signals
4874:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4856:
4855:
4854:Semiconductor
4852:
4848:
4845:
4844:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4796:
4793:
4792:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4713:Digital media
4711:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4688:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4651:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4634:
4629:
4627:
4622:
4620:
4615:
4614:
4611:
4601:
4591:
4579:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4549:
4547:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4531:Nuisance call
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4518:
4516:
4512:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4470:Fibre-optical
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4451:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4383:
4378:
4376:
4371:
4369:
4364:
4363:
4360:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4338:
4334:
4333:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4289:
4286:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4193:
4190:
4186:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4133:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4108:
4104:
4099:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4081:
4077:
4072:
4062:
4058:
4053:
4049:
4044:
4040:
4035:
4031:
4029:9780665008672
4025:
4021:
4020:
4014:
4013:
3993:
3986:
3979:
3971:
3965:
3961:
3960:
3952:
3944:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3903:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3856:
3854:
3852:
3845:
3838:
3831:
3827:
3821:
3814:
3808:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3786:
3781:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3756:Smith, Paul,
3753:
3744:
3736:
3732:
3725:
3711:on 2004-10-15
3707:
3700:
3693:
3685:
3681:
3674:
3660:on 2012-07-08
3659:
3655:
3651:
3644:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3600:
3596:
3595:Polar Express
3592:
3586:
3579:on 2012-03-16
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3559:(21): 34–36,
3558:
3554:
3550:
3543:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3504:
3500:
3493:
3479:on 2020-08-13
3478:
3474:
3468:
3454:
3450:
3444:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3415:SEACOM (2010)
3406:on 2010-02-08
3405:
3401:
3395:
3386:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3353:
3346:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3305:
3297:
3291:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3265:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3233:
3227:
3223:
3222:
3215:
3209:
3204:
3198:
3193:
3185:
3179:
3175:
3174:
3167:
3159:
3153:
3147:
3142:
3136:
3131:
3125:
3120:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3079:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
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3038:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3013:
3008:
3002:
2997:
2989:
2983:
2977:
2972:
2966:
2961:
2955:
2950:
2936:on 2012-07-25
2935:
2931:
2925:
2910:
2906:
2900:
2886:on 2012-06-22
2885:
2881:
2875:
2861:
2860:
2855:
2848:
2834:on 2020-08-08
2830:
2823:
2822:
2814:
2812:
2797:on 2020-08-08
2793:
2786:
2785:
2777:
2769:
2768:Network World
2765:
2758:
2750:
2744:
2741:. IOS Press.
2740:
2739:
2731:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2674:
2663:
2656:
2649:
2634:on 2007-12-13
2633:
2629:
2623:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2592:Physics Today
2589:
2582:
2574:
2568:
2564:
2557:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2507:
2506:9789004260320
2503:
2499:
2493:
2478:
2471:
2456:
2449:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2425:9781108069489
2421:
2417:
2416:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2388:
2382:
2368:on 2016-09-27
2367:
2363:
2359:
2353:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2310:on 2014-07-20
2309:
2305:
2299:
2284:
2278:
2271:
2270:
2263:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2231:
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2204:
2197:
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2189:
2183:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2144:
2142:
2133:
2131:9780241305225
2127:
2123:
2116:
2109:. p. 26.
2108:
2102:
2088:on 2013-05-17
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2044:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1996:
1994:9780229973637
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1946:on 2012-07-09
1945:
1941:
1935:
1921:on 2008-12-01
1920:
1916:
1912:
1906:
1899:
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1891:
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1553:
1548:
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1534:
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1512:
1510:
1506:
1505:Polar Express
1502:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1473:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1445:Pacific Ocean
1441:
1439:
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1427:
1423:
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1311:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1293:Massachusetts
1290:
1286:
1282:
1281:New Brunswick
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1260:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1221:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1199:virtual earth
1194:
1192:
1188:
1185:, usually an
1184:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1164:
1155:
1146:
1141:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1115:
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1036:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
976:
974:
969:
965:
961:
957:
952:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
917:Latimer Clark
914:
910:
905:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
872:
862:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
827:
822:
821:
815:
813:
812:John T. Blake
809:
805:
801:
796:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
772:
768:
764:
760:
752:
747:
738:
736:
735:Cable Venture
734:
729:
725:
721:
717:
714:, Malaysia),
713:
709:
708:Kota Kinabalu
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
656:
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646:
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612:
610:
605:
604:
599:
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586:
583:
579:
571:
566:
557:
555:
554:Great Eastern
551:
550:
549:Great Eastern
544:
538:
528:
526:
522:
518:
514:
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502:
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267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
234:William Cooke
220:
217:
213:
209:
208:optical fiber
205:
201:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
143:
142:Orange Marine
139:
136:
131:
126:
121:
115:
106:
96:
87:
86:Polycarbonate
78:water barrier
77:
68:
58:
49:
39:
38:cross section
34:
30:
19:
5372:Multiplexing
5247:Transmission
5212:Nikola Tesla
5202:Henry Sutton
5157:Samuel Morse
5087:Robert Hooke
5052:Amos Dolbear
4987:John Bardeen
4906:
4886:Telautograph
4790:Mobile phone
4745:Edholm's law
4728:social media
4661:Broadcasting
4567:Théâtrophone
4545:Applications
4499:
4453:Connectivity
4413:Mobile phone
4331:
4259:
4255:
4252:"Lord Cable"
4240:. Retrieved
4204:
4200:
4121:
4102:
4093:
4084:
4078:. MIT Press.
4075:
4064:. Retrieved
4060:
4047:
4038:
4018:
3996:. Retrieved
3991:
3978:
3958:
3951:
3916:
3912:
3902:
3869:
3865:
3837:
3825:
3820:
3812:
3807:
3791:
3787:
3780:
3765:
3752:
3743:
3734:
3724:
3713:. Retrieved
3706:the original
3692:
3683:
3673:
3662:. Retrieved
3658:the original
3653:
3643:
3632:. Retrieved
3623:
3614:
3603:. Retrieved
3594:
3585:
3577:the original
3556:
3552:
3542:
3531:. Retrieved
3526:
3517:
3506:. Retrieved
3502:
3492:
3481:. Retrieved
3477:the original
3467:
3456:. Retrieved
3452:
3443:
3430:
3420:
3408:. Retrieved
3404:the original
3394:
3385:
3374:. Retrieved
3372:. Condé Nast
3370:Ars Technica
3369:
3359:
3352:The Rotarian
3351:
3345:
3318:
3314:
3304:
3290:
3277:
3264:
3253:. Retrieved
3249:
3240:
3220:
3214:
3203:
3192:
3172:
3166:
3152:
3141:
3130:
3119:
3092:
3088:
3078:
3051:
3047:
3037:
3028:
3018:
3007:
2996:
2982:
2971:
2960:
2949:
2938:. Retrieved
2934:the original
2924:
2913:. Retrieved
2899:
2888:. Retrieved
2884:the original
2874:
2863:. Retrieved
2857:
2847:
2836:. Retrieved
2829:the original
2820:
2799:. Retrieved
2792:the original
2783:
2776:
2767:
2757:
2737:
2730:
2689:
2683:
2673:
2648:
2636:. Retrieved
2632:the original
2622:
2598:(2): 26–31.
2595:
2591:
2581:
2562:
2556:
2548:
2540:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2497:
2492:
2481:. Retrieved
2470:
2459:. Retrieved
2448:
2437:. Retrieved
2414:
2391:. Retrieved
2381:
2370:. Retrieved
2366:the original
2361:
2352:
2341:. Retrieved
2332:
2323:
2312:. Retrieved
2308:the original
2298:
2287:. Retrieved
2277:
2269:The Colonist
2267:
2262:
2251:. Retrieved
2237:
2229:
2224:
2208:
2203:
2187:
2182:
2157:
2153:
2121:
2115:
2106:
2101:
2090:. Retrieved
2086:the original
2081:
2071:
2062:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2018:
2014:
1985:Adlard Coles
1980:
1948:. Retrieved
1944:the original
1934:
1923:. Retrieved
1919:the original
1914:
1905:
1898:The Guardian
1897:
1882:
1870:
1854:
1849:
1788:
1784:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1757:
1748:
1741:
1732:
1729:Entanglement
1723:
1715:
1712:
1707:benthic zone
1703:benthic zone
1700:
1696:
1684:
1680:
1647:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1603:
1587:
1575:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1549:
1526:
1515:Cable repair
1498:
1479:
1470:
1450:
1442:
1414:
1394:
1383:
1367:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1322:
1314:
1289:Bay of Fundy
1273:Newfoundland
1261:
1253:
1248:mesh network
1245:
1225:
1216:
1204:
1195:
1180:
1169:
1126:
1122:World War II
1107:New Charlton
1100:
1079:
1061:
1049:
1008:
977:
953:
906:
868:
858:
824:
819:
816:
804:World War II
800:polyethylene
797:
786:established
759:gutta-percha
756:
741:Construction
731:
720:Kuala Lumpur
710:(capital of
681:
677:All Red Line
667:in 1902 and
662:
645:Saudi Arabia
638:
617:
613:
601:
600:(not the CS
596:
591:All Red Line
587:
575:
553:
548:
540:
510:
499:and then to
484:
482:
473:
470:Scheveningen
450:William Hutt
449:
412:
407:
396:gutta-percha
391:
374:
295:
292:Gutta-percha
289:
274:India rubber
258:India rubber
250:Samuel Morse
231:
212:digital data
197:
170:
149:
147:
128:
48:Polyethylene
29:
5572:NPL network
5284:Radio waves
5222:Alfred Vail
5132:Hedy Lamarr
5117:Dawon Kahng
5077:Elisha Gray
5037:Yogen Dalal
4962:Nasir Ahmed
4896:Teleprinter
4760:Heliographs
4572:Video calls
4521:Missed call
4432:Accessories
3872:: 380–391.
1805:Cable layer
1764:hydrocarbon
1687:marine life
1651:World War I
1610:Nova Scotia
1599:submersible
1567:Novorosiysk
1563:Novorosiysk
1558:Roy O. Hale
1543:, 2009 and
1458:East Africa
1426:360networks
1397:US military
1326:Kerr effect
1285:Nova Scotia
1236:ocean floor
1090:vacuum tube
1024:frequencies
988:Lord Kelvin
886:capacitance
859:Amber Witch
806:across the
767:capacitance
673:Philippines
653:John Pender
651:, owned by
621:World War I
595:cable ship
513:Crimean War
466:Orford Ness
439:Portpatrick
423:Netherlands
347:. In 1849,
266:Swansea Bay
133: [
125:cable layer
67:steel wires
65:– Stranded
5705:Categories
5618:Antarctica
5577:Toasternet
5499:Television
4982:Paul Baran
4914:Television
4898:(teletype)
4891:Telegraphy
4869:transistor
4847:Phryctoria
4817:Photophone
4795:Smartphone
4785:Mass media
4423:Photophone
4262:(6): 186.
4242:2022-07-21
4094:Cableships
4066:2024-04-16
3998:2024-08-22
3992:www.un.org
3715:2010-04-25
3664:2009-08-09
3634:2024-03-21
3605:2024-03-21
3533:2021-04-16
3508:2021-04-16
3483:2021-04-16
3458:2021-04-16
3410:2010-04-25
3376:2020-11-28
3255:2016-11-16
2940:2012-08-15
2915:2012-08-15
2890:2012-08-15
2865:2020-01-14
2838:2020-08-08
2801:2020-08-08
2638:2007-12-30
2483:2020-01-27
2461:2020-01-27
2439:2020-01-27
2393:2020-01-24
2372:2016-09-24
2343:2016-09-24
2314:2014-07-28
2289:2010-04-25
2253:2010-04-25
2217:0674033906
2196:0199580979
2092:2013-05-17
1983:. London:
1950:2010-04-25
1925:2008-02-05
1863:0471205052
1841:References
1800:Bathometer
1790:duration.
1481:Antarctica
1476:Antarctica
1297:Gloucester
1097:Other uses
980:resonating
941:inductance
913:Leyden jar
890:inductance
874:amplifiers
763:dielectric
517:telegraphy
445:using the
443:Donaghadee
421:, and the
331:. In 1847
177:Antarctica
173:continents
162:telegraphy
5602:Americas
5591:Locations
5562:Internet2
5323:Bandwidth
5027:Vint Cerf
4924:streaming
4902:Telephone
4842:Semaphore
4733:streaming
4536:Phone tag
4444:Caller ID
4389:Telephony
4229:1476-4687
4061:The Verge
3943:0020-5850
3894:1364-0321
3800:0032-4558
3573:1750-9645
3029:Lightwave
2722:232050549
1754:Pollution
1485:satellite
1305:Manhattan
1220:thrusters
1101:In 1942,
1053:pupinized
949:conductor
937:capacitor
898:data rate
894:bandwidth
855:barnacles
826:Xylophaga
728:repeaters
716:Singapore
704:Hong Kong
521:Black Sea
462:North Sea
427:The Belts
317:Singapore
270:insulator
268:. A good
200:telephone
76:Aluminium
5670:Category
5557:Internet
5547:CYCLADES
5464:Ethernet
5414:Concepts
5338:terminal
5289:wireless
5112:Bob Kahn
4955:Pioneers
4780:Internet
4671:Cable TV
4403:Landline
4332:Guardian
4288:Archived
4173:Articles
3770:Archived
3628:Archived
3599:Archived
3435:Archived
3282:Archived
3250:Newsweek
2909:Archived
2714:33632843
2662:Archived
2434:08003683
2362:ethw.org
2337:Archived
2247:Archived
2035:41662509
1890:Archived
1794:See also
1719:flatfish
1655:Cold War
1590:grapples
1552:Cold War
1434:Worldcom
1375:megabits
1371:terabits
1257:terabits
998:and the
878:voltages
871:repeater
603:Telconia
501:Weymouth
497:Alderney
495:, on to
493:Guernsey
339:between
306:Scottish
282:Prussian
216:Internet
175:(except
5690:Commons
5680:Outline
5633:Oceania
5552:FidoNet
5537:ARPANET
5350:circuit
4919:digital
4648:History
4264:Bibcode
4237:4330089
4209:Bibcode
3874:Bibcode
3832:, 2008)
3323:Bibcode
3097:Bibcode
3056:Bibcode
2694:Bibcode
2685:Science
2600:Bibcode
1915:Globusz
1633:Titanic
1606:Halifax
1379:latency
1269:Ireland
1120:during
847:Karachi
843:sawfish
671:to the
609:Room 40
511:In the
474:Monarch
464:, from
447:collier
431:Denmark
419:Belgium
415:Ireland
392:Goliath
389:tugboat
345:Cologne
309:surgeon
179:) when
5628:Europe
5598:Africa
5582:Usenet
5542:BITNET
5479:Mobile
5355:packet
4864:MOSFET
4859:device
4656:Beacon
4235:
4227:
4201:Nature
4128:
4109:
4026:
3966:
3941:
3892:
3798:
3792:vol.53
3571:
3527:UNESCO
3228:
3180:
2745:
2720:
2712:
2569:
2504:
2432:
2422:
2215:
2194:
2174:563928
2172:
2128:
2033:
1991:
1861:
1744:seabed
1657:, the
1638:plough
1595:seabed
1501:Arctic
1495:Arctic
1466:piracy
1462:SEACOM
1301:Boston
1044:Orkney
945:signal
851:Gwadar
839:sharks
820:Teredo
769:high.
692:Madang
688:Cairns
665:Hawaii
641:Mumbai
489:Jersey
454:Ostend
433:. The
408:Blazer
329:Calais
280:, the
232:After
154:seabed
110:
101:
95:Copper
91:
82:
72:
63:
53:
44:
5611:South
5606:North
5567:JANET
5504:Telex
5494:Radio
5333:Nodes
5328:Links
5249:media
4827:Radio
4812:Pager
4740:Drums
4706:video
4701:image
4691:audio
4514:Calls
4396:Types
4233:S2CID
3988:(PDF)
3709:(PDF)
3702:(PDF)
3684:Wired
3278:Wired
3274:(PDF)
2832:(PDF)
2825:(PDF)
2795:(PDF)
2788:(PDF)
2718:S2CID
2665:(PDF)
2658:(PDF)
2170:JSTOR
2031:S2CID
1621:Minia
1619:, CS
1489:radio
1176:TAT-8
1063:TAT-1
925:earth
712:Sabah
597:Alert
341:Deutz
337:Rhine
325:Dover
137:]
57:Mylar
5623:Asia
5509:UUCP
5469:ISDN
4505:VoIP
4495:PSTN
4490:POTS
4480:ISDN
4315:Maps
4225:ISSN
4126:ISBN
4107:ISBN
4024:ISBN
3985:"Dr"
3964:ISBN
3939:ISSN
3890:ISSN
3796:ISSN
3569:ISSN
3226:ISBN
3178:ISBN
2743:ISBN
2710:PMID
2567:ISBN
2502:ISBN
2430:LCCN
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