558:(MRI) to monitor the internal status of the xylem during transpiration, in a non invasive manner. This method of imaging allows for scientists to visualize the movement of water throughout the entirety of the plant. It also is capable of viewing what phase the water is in while in the xylem, which makes it possible to visualize cavitation events. Scientists were able to see that over the course of 20 hours of sunlight more than 10 xylem vessels began filling with gas particles becoming cavitated. MRI technology also made it possible to view the process by which these xylem structures are repaired in the plant. After three hours in darkness it was seen that the vascular tissue was resupplied with liquid water. This was possible because in darkness the stomates of the plant are closed and transpiration no longer occurs. When transpiration is halted the cavitation bubbles are destroyed by the pressure generated by the roots. These observations suggest that MRIs are capable of monitoring the functional status of xylem and allows scientists to view cavitation events for the first time.
551:
to transport water throughout its vascular system. There is no apparent pattern of where cavitation occurs throughout the plant's xylem. If not effectively taken care of, cavitation can cause a plant to reach its permanent wilting point, and die. Therefore, the plant must have a method by which to remove this cavitation blockage, or it must create a new connection of vascular tissue throughout the plant. The plant does this by closing its stomates overnight, which halts the flow of transpiration. This then allows for the roots to generate over 0.05 mPa of pressure, and that is capable of destroying the blockage and refilling the xylem with water, reconnecting the vascular system. If a plant is unable to generate enough pressure to eradicate the blockage it must prevent the blockage from spreading with the use of pit pears and then create new xylem that can re-connect the vascular system of the plant.
441:
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82:
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292:, wind, and incident sunlight. Along with above-ground factors, soil temperature and moisture can influence stomatal opening, and thus transpiration rate. The amount of water lost by a plant also depends on its size and the amount of water absorbed at the roots. Factors that effect root absorption of water include: moisture content of the soil, excessive soil fertility or salt content, poorly developed root systems, and those impacted by pathogenic bacteria and fungi such as
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occurs. Cavitation is when the plant cannot supply its xylem with adequate water so instead of being filled with water the xylem begins to be filled with water vapor. These particles of water vapor come together and form blockages within the xylem of the plant. This prevents the plant from being able
545:
To maintain the pressure gradient necessary for a plant to remain healthy they must continuously uptake water with their roots. They need to be able to meet the demands of water lost due to transpiration. If a plant is incapable of bringing in enough water to remain in equilibrium with transpiration
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During a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight. An acre of corn gives off about 3,000–4,000 gallons (11,400–15,100 liters) of water each day, and a large oak tree can transpire 40,000 gallons (151,000 liters) per year. The transpiration ratio
210:
in the cell walls and decreases their radius, thus exerting tension in the cells' water. Because of the cohesive properties of water, the tension travels through the leaf cells to the leaf and stem xylem, where a momentary negative pressure is created as water is pulled up the xylem from the roots.
196:
Two major factors influence the rate of water flow from the soil to the roots: the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the magnitude of the pressure gradient through the soil. Both of these factors influence the rate of bulk flow of water moving from the roots to the stomatal pores in the leaves
403:
In still air, water lost due to transpiration can accumulate in the form of vapor close to the leaf surface. This will reduce the rate of water loss, as the water potential gradient from inside to outside of the leaf is then slightly less. The wind blows away much of this water vapor near the leaf
231:
We can see the history of the word transpiration when we break it down into trans, a Latin preposition that means "across," and spiration, which comes from the Latin verb spīrāre, meaning "to breathe." The motion suffix adds the meaning "the act of," so we can see transpiration is, literally, "the
205:
differences. If the water potential in the ambient air is lower than that in the leaf airspace of the stomatal pore, water vapor will travel down the gradient and move from the leaf airspace to the atmosphere. This movement lowers the water potential in the leaf airspace and causes evaporation of
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is the cooling provided as plants transpire water. Excess heat generated from solar radiation is damaging to plant cells and thermal injury occurs during drought or when there is rapid transpiration which produces wilting. Green vegetation contributes to moderating climate by being cooler than
344:
A waxy cuticle is relatively impermeable to water and water vapor and reduces evaporation from the plant surface except via the stomata. A reflective cuticle will reduce solar heating and temperature rise of the leaf, helping to reduce the rate of evaporation. Tiny hair-like structures called
1354:
Ellison, David; Morris, Cindy E.; Locatelli, Bruno; Sheil, Douglas; Cohen, Jane; Murdiyarso, Daniel; Gutierrez, Victoria; Noordwijk, Meine van; Creed, Irena F.; Pokorny, Jan; Gaveau, David; Spracklen, Dominick V.; Tobella, Aida Bargués; Ilstedt, Ulrik; Teuling, Adriaan J. (2017-03-01).
192:
explains how leaves pull water through the xylem. Water molecules stick together or exhibit cohesion. As a water molecule evaporates from the leaf's surface, it pulls on the adjacent water molecule, creating a continuous water flow through the plant.
283:
Plants regulate the rate of transpiration by controlling the size of the stomatal apertures. The rate of transpiration is also influenced by the evaporative demand of the atmosphere surrounding the leaf such as boundary layer conductance,
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on the surface of leaves also can inhibit water loss by creating a high humidity environment at the surface of leaves. These are some examples of the adaptations of plants for the conservation of water that may be found on many
507:. Recent evidence from a global study of water stable isotopes shows that transpired water is isotopically different from groundwater and streams. This suggests that soil water is not as well mixed as widely assumed.
251:. The effect can be seen in the drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a thin tube, in porous materials such as paper and plaster, in some non-porous materials such as sand and liquefied
404:
surface, making the potential gradient steeper and speeding up the diffusion of water molecules into the surrounding air. Even in wind, though, there may be some accumulation of water vapor in a thin
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362:
The rate of transpiration is controlled by the stomatal aperture, and these small pores open especially for photosynthesis. While there are exceptions to this (such as night or
897:
Mellander, Per-Erik; Bishop, Kevin; Lundmark, Tomas (2004-06-28). "The influence of soil temperature on transpiration: a plot scale manipulation in a young Scots pine stand".
160:
Water is necessary for plants, but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The remaining 97–99.5% is lost by transpiration and
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will reduce the surface of their leaves during water deficiencies (left). If temperatures are cool enough and water levels are adequate the leaves expand again (right).
956:
Jasechko, Scott; Sharp, Zachary D.; Gibson, John J.; Birks, S. Jean; Yi, Yi; Fawcett, Peter J. (3 April 2013). "Terrestrial water fluxes dominated by transpiration".
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More leaves (or spines, or other photosynthesizing organs) means a bigger surface area and more stomata for gaseous exchange. This will result in greater water loss.
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of slower moving air next to the leaf surface. The stronger the wind, the thinner this layer will tend to be, and the steeper the water potential gradient.
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adjacent bare earth or constructed areas. As plant leaves transpire they use energy to evaporate water aggregating up to a huge volume globally every day.
428:
2640:
1007:
Evaristo, Jaivime; Jasechko, Scott; McDonnell, Jeffrey J. (2015-09-03). "Global separation of plant transpiration from groundwater and streamflow".
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An individual tree can transpire hundreds of liters of water per day. For every 100 liters of water transpired, the tree then cools by 70 kWh.
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stems, rather than leaves, so the surface area of the shoot is very low. Many desert plants have a special type of photosynthesis, termed
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Water moves from the xylem into the mesophyll cells, evaporates from their surfaces and leaves the plant by diffusion through the stomata
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by evaporation, plants close small pores called stomata to decrease water loss, which slows down nutrient uptake and decreases CO
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between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of
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or CAM photosynthesis, in which the stomata are closed during the day and open at night when transpiration will be lower.
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caused by restricted water supply from the soil may result in stomatal closure and reduce the rates of transpiration.
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In taller plants and trees, the force of gravity pulling the water inside can only be overcome by the decrease in
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128:. It is a passive process that requires no energy expense by the plant. Transpiration also cools plants, changes
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is the ratio of the mass of water transpired to the mass of dry matter produced; the transpiration ratio of
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and their stomatal accessory cells (together known as stomatal complex) that open and close the pore. The
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and thermometric sap flow sensors. Isotope measurements indicate transpiration is the larger component of
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Drier surroundings give a steeper water potential gradient, and so increase the rate of transpiration.
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2514:
613:
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133:
1203:"Stomatal Closure, Basal Leaf Embolism, and Shedding Protect the Hydraulic Integrity of Grape Stems"
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flowing in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like
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A leaf with a bigger surface area will transpire faster than a leaf with a smaller surface area.
19:
This article is about plant transpiration. For transpiration in human and animal physiology, see
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liquid water from the mesophyll cell walls. This evaporation increases the tension on the water
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1432:
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Transpiration cools plants, as the evaporating water carries away heat energy due to its large
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81:
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1) An increased rate of evaporation due to a temperature rise will hasten the loss of water.
220:
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The forces of cohesion and adhesion cause the water molecules to form a column in the xylem.
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via the xylem. Mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the leaves is driven in part by
177:
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8:
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areas reveal a higher temperature than adjacent intact forest. Forests and other natural
141:
1255:"In Vivo Observation of Cavitation and Embolism Repair Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging"
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ACT of breathing across," which clearly identifies vapor emission from plant leaves.
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effects can be attributed to the replacement of vegetation by constructed surfaces.
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Bowen, Gabriel (2015-09-03). "Hydrology: The diversified economics of soil water".
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Transpiration rates of plants can be measured by a number of techniques, including
240:
198:
129:
2216:
1154:"Reversible Leaf Xylem Collapse: A Potential "Circuit Breaker" against Cavitation"
707:
University Botany- Iii : (Plant
Taxonomy, Plant Embryology, Plant Physiology)
55:
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2011:
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826:. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 200–202.
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164:. Water with any dissolved mineral nutrients is absorbed into the roots by
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1974:
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484:, crop plants transpire 200 to 1000 kg of water for every kg of dry
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30:
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851:. Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 101.
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1128:
Science and the Garden: The
Scientific Basis of Horticultural Practice
1125:
Ingram, David S.; Vince-Prue, Daphne; Gregory, Peter J. (2008-04-15).
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140:. When water uptake by the roots is less than the water lost to the
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20:
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Runkle, Erik (September 2023). "The
Importance of Transpiration".
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The effect of wind velocity on the transpiration rate of plants.
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between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid.
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Water is passively transported into the roots and then into the
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Physiological
Processes in Plants Under Low Temperature Stress
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The effect of temperature on the transpiration rate of plants.
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absorption from the atmosphere limiting metabolic processes,
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The effect of humidity on the transpiration rate of plants.
366:), in general, a light supply will encourage open stomata.
117:
874:
Biological
Sciences: The Cell, Genetics, & Development
2228:
1790:
1437:
1357:"Trees, forests and water: Cool insights for a hot world"
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876:. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Pearson. pp. 765–766.
955:
872:
Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth (2014).
513:
plants have specially adapted structures, such as thick
325:
More stomata will provide more pores for transpiration.
1124:
896:
616:
using our knowledge of the efficacy of how plants cool.
1306:. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 63.
871:
936:(3rd ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.,
931:
382:humidity outside the leaf will increase the water
521:to reduce transpiration and conserve water. Many
2688:
1327:Forbes, James C.; Watson, Drennan (1992-08-20).
184:(singular "stoma"). The stomata are bordered by
1453:
561:
16:Process of water moving through a plant parts
2559:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1326:
811:(3rd ed.). Freeman, Scott. p. 215.
779:
215:in the upper parts of the plants due to the
155:
932:Martin, J.; Leonard, W.; Stamp, D. (1976),
685:Water Evaluation And Planning system (WEAP)
1460:
1446:
374:Temperature affects the rate in two ways:
180:to the foliage and out small pores called
1372:
1278:
1226:
1177:
517:, reduced leaf areas, sunken stomata and
2503:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
1433:USGS The Water Cycle: Evapotranspiration
1402:Encyclopedia of Ecology (Second Edition)
1252:
1200:
462:
80:
62:
54:
29:
1395:
806:
748:
746:
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1404:, Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 292–303,
1248:
1246:
821:
730:
646:flux (aka eddy correlation, eddy flux)
630:– a substance to prevent transpiration
1441:
1151:
1065:
752:
703:
1301:
846:
743:
581:Transpirational cooling (biological)
480:tends to fall between 200 and 1000 (
1243:
1152:Zhang, Yong-Jiang (December 2016).
934:Principles of Field Crop Production
235:
13:
14:
2713:
2508:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
1426:
219:of water out of stomata into the
2671:
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1304:Plant Physiology and Development
849:Plant Physiology and Development
579:This section is an excerpt from
451:
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1374:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.01.002
1320:
1295:
1194:
1145:
1118:
1059:
1000:
949:
925:
780:Bhattacharya, A. (2022-02-25).
665:Soil plant atmosphere continuum
606:support climate stabilisation.
59:Transpiration of water in xylem
1333:. Cambridge University Press.
1253:Holbrook, Michele (May 2001).
890:
865:
840:
815:
800:
773:
724:
697:
1:
899:Forest Ecology and Management
691:
540:
278:
2549:History of plant systematics
2136:Thorns, spines, and prickles
911:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.02.051
733:GPN Green House Product News
554:Scientists have begun using
535:crassulacean acid metabolism
226:
168:, which travels through the
76:scanning electron microscope
7:
1396:Pokorny, Jan (2019-01-01),
1361:Global Environmental Change
1201:Hochberg, Uri (June 2017).
753:Sinha, Rajiv Kumar (2004).
620:
573:latent heat of vaporization
116:from aerial parts, such as
34:Overview of transpiration:
10:
2718:
2365:Alternation of generations
1467:
807:Cummins, Benjamin (2007).
578:
566:
562:Effects on the environment
556:magnetic resonance imaging
201:, but primarily driven by
18:
2666:
2614:
2578:
2515:Cultivated plant taxonomy
2478:Biological classification
2468:
2341:
2257:
2153:
2103:
1828:
1758:
1701:
1663:
1637:
1573:
1493:
1475:
1131:. John Wiley & Sons.
822:Graham, Linda E. (2006).
710:. New Age International.
172:by way of water molecule
156:Water and nutrient uptake
74:leaf shown via colorized
2375:Evolutionary development
1400:, in Fath, Brian (ed.),
309:Effect on transpiration
2026:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
756:Modern Plant Physiology
650:Hydrology (agriculture)
614:mitigate climate change
588:Transpirational cooling
271:within the liquid) and
259:. It occurs because of
190:cohesion-tension theory
2641:by author abbreviation
2565:Plant taxonomy systems
2483:Botanical nomenclature
1302:Tiaz, Lincoln (2015).
847:Taiz, Lincoln (2015).
575:of 2260 kJ per liter.
501:photosynthesis systems
472:
132:of cells, and enables
98:
78:
60:
52:
2648:Botanical expeditions
1398:"Evapotranspiration☆"
1330:Plants in Agriculture
704:Reddy, S. M. (2007).
610:Earth’s energy budget
466:
261:intermolecular forces
89:in this image of the
84:
66:
58:
33:
2380:Evolutionary history
2370:Double fertilization
2222:Cellular respiration
675:Transpiration stream
670:Stomatal conductance
612:reveals pathways to
267:(which is caused by
243:is the process of a
213:hydrostatic pressure
1599:Non-vascular plants
1271:10.1104/pp.126.1.27
1219:10.1104/pp.16.01816
1170:10.1104/pp.16.01191
1080:2015Natur.525...43B
1029:10.1038/nature14983
1021:2015Natur.525...91E
978:10.1038/nature11983
970:2013Natur.496..347J
786:. Springer Nature.
108:movement through a
2104:Surface structures
1899:Flower development
809:Biological Science
634:Canopy conductance
546:an event known as
505:evapotranspiration
473:
384:potential gradient
364:CAM photosynthesis
104:is the process of
99:
95:evapotranspiration
79:
61:
53:
2684:
2683:
2323:Herbaceous plants
2149:
2148:
1411:978-0-444-64130-4
1340:978-0-521-42791-3
1138:978-0-470-99533-4
943:978-0-02-376720-3
883:978-0-321-74367-1
858:978-1-60535-255-8
793:978-981-16-9037-2
766:978-0-8493-1714-9
717:978-81-224-1547-6
596:Urban heat island
423:
422:
392:Relative humidity
322:Number of stomata
138:mineral nutrients
91:Amazon Rainforest
2709:
2702:Plant physiology
2674:
2673:
2653:Individual trees
2328:Secondary growth
2299:Succulent plants
2287:Prostrate shrubs
2170:Apical dominance
2155:Plant physiology
2116:Epicuticular wax
1661:
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1654:
1645:Plant morphology
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1259:Plant Physiology
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1207:Plant Physiology
1198:
1192:
1191:
1181:
1164:(4): 2261–2274.
1158:Plant Physiology
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964:(7445): 347–50.
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655:Latent heat flux
455:
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431:
330:Size of the leaf
314:Number of leaves
303:
302:
241:Capillary action
236:Capillary action
199:capillary action
130:osmotic pressure
93:are a result of
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2631:Botanical terms
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2520:Citrus taxonomy
2498:Author citation
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2358:
2337:
2259:
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2249:Turgor pressure
2157:
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1914:Floral symmetry
1832:
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1743:Vascular bundle
1738:Vascular tissue
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1604:Vascular plants
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1565:Plant pathology
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1119:
1088:10.1038/525043a
1074:(7567): 43–44.
1064:
1060:
1015:(7567): 91–94.
1005:
1001:
954:
950:
944:
930:
926:
895:
891:
884:
870:
866:
859:
845:
841:
834:
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816:
805:
801:
794:
778:
774:
767:
751:
744:
729:
725:
718:
702:
698:
694:
689:
680:Turgor pressure
644:Eddy covariance
628:Antitranspirant
623:
618:
617:
584:
569:
564:
543:
459:
456:
447:
444:
435:
432:
377:
281:
273:adhesive forces
265:surface tension
257:biological cell
238:
229:
203:water potential
158:
147:
51:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2715:
2705:
2704:
2699:
2682:
2681:
2679:
2678:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2633:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2622:
2621:Related topics
2619:
2615:
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2609:
2608:
2603:
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2582:
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2576:
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2570:Taxonomic rank
2567:
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2546:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2522:
2512:
2511:
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2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2488:Botanical name
2480:
2474:
2472:
2470:Plant taxonomy
2466:
2465:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2446:Megasporangium
2443:
2442:
2441:
2434:Microsporangia
2426:
2425:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
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2272:Cushion plants
2263:
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2255:
2254:
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2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2225:
2224:
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2209:
2207:Plant hormones
2204:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2190:Photosynthesis
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2151:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2133:
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2123:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2092:
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2082:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2028:
2023:
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2020:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2008:
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2002:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1909:Floral formula
1906:
1904:Floral diagram
1901:
1896:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1857:
1847:
1842:
1836:
1834:
1833:(incl. Flower)
1826:
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1733:Storage organs
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1619:Spermatophytes
1616:
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1601:
1596:
1591:
1589:Archaeplastida
1586:
1580:
1578:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1543:Phytogeography
1540:
1538:Phytochemistry
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1499:
1497:
1495:Subdisciplines
1491:
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1473:
1472:
1465:
1464:
1457:
1450:
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1428:
1427:External links
1425:
1423:
1422:
1410:
1388:
1346:
1339:
1319:
1313:978-1605352558
1312:
1294:
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527:photosynthesis
499:, porometers,
461:
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406:boundary layer
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150:photosynthesis
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2244:Transpiration
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2031:Inflorescence
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2015:
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1716:Ground tissue
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1639:Plant anatomy
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1560:Plant ecology
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1503:Archaeobotany
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833:0-13-146906-1
829:
825:
824:Plant Biology
818:
810:
803:
795:
789:
785:
784:
776:
768:
762:
759:. CRC Press.
758:
757:
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407:
402:
399:
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394:
391:
390:
387:
385:
381:
378:2) Decreased
373:
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365:
361:
358:
357:
353:
348:
343:
341:
340:plant cuticle
337:
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312:
308:
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119:
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107:
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102:Transpiration
96:
92:
88:
83:
77:
73:
69:
65:
57:
47:
44:
41:
37:
36:
32:
26:
25:Hyperhydrosis
22:
2601:Horticulture
2591:Floriculture
2493:Correct name
2343:Reproduction
2333:Woody plants
2258:Plant growth
2243:
2217:Gas Exchange
2202:Phytomelanin
2080:Plant embryo
1830:Reproductive
1678:Phragmoplast
1415:, retrieved
1401:
1391:
1364:
1360:
1349:
1329:
1322:
1303:
1297:
1265:(1): 27–31.
1262:
1258:
1210:
1206:
1196:
1161:
1157:
1147:
1127:
1120:
1071:
1067:
1061:
1012:
1008:
1002:
961:
957:
951:
933:
927:
905:(1): 15–28.
902:
898:
892:
873:
867:
848:
842:
823:
817:
808:
802:
782:
775:
755:
736:
732:
726:
706:
699:
660:Perspiration
639:Ecohydrology
593:
586:
570:
553:
544:
509:
490:
481:
474:
417:Water stress
413:Water supply
379:
375:
359:Light supply
338:Presence of
282:
253:carbon fiber
239:
230:
195:
159:
101:
100:
2417:Pollen tube
2412:Pollinators
2402:Pollination
2397:Germination
2212:Respiration
2195:Chlorophyll
2041:Pedicellate
1975:Gametophyte
1894:Aestivation
1845:Antheridium
1840:Archegonium
1688:Plasmodesma
1665:Plant cells
1528:Paleobotany
1523:Ethnobotany
1508:Astrobotany
739:(9): 12–13.
488:produced).
371:Temperature
298:rhizoctonia
290:temperature
186:guard cells
114:evaporation
2691:Categories
2439:Microspore
2429:Sporangium
2407:Artificial
2095:Sporophyte
2090:Sporophyll
2085:Receptacle
1980:Gynandrium
1850:Androecium
1759:Vegetative
1629:Angiosperm
1624:Gymnosperm
1518:Dendrology
1417:2022-11-21
692:References
604:ecosystems
600:Deforested
548:cavitation
541:Cavitation
497:lysimeters
493:potometers
469:xerophytes
352:xerophytes
279:Regulation
255:, or in a
221:atmosphere
142:atmosphere
2697:Hydrology
2636:Botanists
2554:Herbarium
2451:Megaspore
2349:Evolution
2292:Subshrubs
2260:and habit
2185:Nutrition
2180:Cellulose
2175:Bulk flow
2158:Materials
2121:Epidermis
1985:Gynoecium
1966:Endosperm
1961:Dispersal
1877:Staminode
1813:Sessility
1801:Cataphyll
1721:Mesophyll
1673:Cell wall
1614:Lycophyte
1594:Bryophyte
1548:Geobotany
1533:Phycology
1383:0959-3780
1367:: 51–61.
1112:205086035
1096:0028-0836
1037:0028-0836
919:0378-1127
531:succulent
347:trichomes
227:Etymology
217:diffusion
162:guttation
134:mass flow
2676:Category
2596:Forestry
2586:Agronomy
2579:Practice
2530:Cultivar
2525:Cultigen
2385:timeline
2277:Rosettes
2165:Aleurone
2141:Trichome
2058:Perianth
1870:Filament
1728:Meristem
1651:glossary
1513:Bryology
1289:11351066
1237:28351909
1188:27733514
1104:26333464
1045:26333467
986:23552893
621:See also
525:conduct
515:cuticles
380:relative
286:humidity
269:cohesion
178:cohesion
174:adhesion
112:and its
21:Sweating
2354:Ecology
2111:Cuticle
1941:Capsule
1931:Anatomy
1882:Tapetum
1806:Petiole
1781:Rhizome
1776:Rhizoid
1703:Tissues
1693:Vacuole
1683:Plastid
1485:Outline
1480:History
1280:1540104
1228:5462014
1179:5129713
1076:Bibcode
1053:4467297
1017:Bibcode
994:4371468
966:Bibcode
567:Cooling
306:Feature
294:pythium
249:gravity
208:menisci
182:stomata
166:osmosis
126:flowers
2658:Plants
2561:(IAPT)
2314:Lianas
2282:Shrubs
2234:Starch
2126:Nectar
2046:Raceme
2012:Stigma
2000:Locule
1990:Carpel
1951:Pyrena
1889:Flower
1865:Anther
1860:Stamen
1855:Pollen
1577:groups
1469:Botany
1408:
1381:
1337:
1310:
1287:
1277:
1235:
1225:
1186:
1176:
1135:
1110:
1102:
1094:
1068:Nature
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486:matter
245:liquid
118:leaves
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2618:Lists
2535:Group
2458:Spore
2392:Flora
2309:Vines
2304:Trees
2267:Habit
2239:Sugar
2131:Stoma
2073:Sepal
2068:Petal
2063:Tepal
2051:Umbel
2036:Bract
2017:Style
2005:Ovule
1995:Ovary
1936:Berry
1926:Fruit
1919:Whorl
1786:Shoot
1584:Algae
1575:Plant
1108:S2CID
1049:S2CID
990:S2CID
523:cacti
519:hairs
478:crops
467:Some
170:xylem
122:stems
110:plant
106:water
70:in a
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40:xylem
2540:Grex
2422:Self
1956:Seed
1818:Stem
1796:Leaf
1771:Root
1766:Bulb
1750:Wood
1711:Cork
1609:Fern
1406:ISBN
1379:ISSN
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