Traditional African medicine

2197:. This results in the inhibition of drug metabolism and transport. Peltzer et al. also found that an important issue with herbal medicines used in traditional medicine is that when a patient decides to see a doctor in addition to a traditional healer, they do not always mention that he or she is taking an herbal medicine. Herbal medicines can interact with the modern medicine prescribed by the doctor to treat HIV and negatively impact the patient. Peltzer et al. mentions that a "IGM-1 seem to be effective in symptom improvement, but generally no significant effect on antiviral or immunity enhancement among reviewed herbs was seen" for the treatment of HIV. Since HIV is such a volatile disease, it is imperative to try to boost the patient's immunity, not just relieve symptoms. 2446: 1274:

and treat illnesses are a gift from God. Rather than looking for the medical or physical reasons behind an illness (or a spell of bad luck), traditional healers attempt to determine the root cause underlying it, which is believed to stem from a lack of balance between the patient and their social environment or the spiritual world. In other words, supernatural causes, not natural causes, are attributed to illnesses. According to the type of imbalance the individual is experiencing, an appropriate healing plant will be used, which is valued for its symbolic and spiritual significance as well as for its medicinal effect.

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return home with it. Furthermore, since traditional medicine does not have an early detection method, infectious diseases are often spread unknowingly, allowing the 3.1 million people infected with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa to grow exponentially to 25.4 million in 2004. The patriarchal culture that defines traditional marriages in rural areas, places female sexuality under male control and decrees that women are not permitted to discuss and practice safe sex with their partners, which results in a higher risk for HIV exposure for women in rural areas.

1781: 1655: 1249: 1759: 1397:, South Africa. However, approximately 60%-80% of the people in Africa rely on traditional remedies to treat themselves for various diseases. A 2018 systematic review estimated that close to 60% of the general population in sub-Saharan Africa regularly use traditional and complementary medicine products for themselves and to treat their animals for various diseases. Ebola survivors in Sierra Leone have recently been reported to use traditional medicine alone or together with conventional medicine. 4982: 2150:

defined 'good health' as the ability to perform domestic duties and the state of being disease free. Furthermore, the study found that they attributed poor health to supernatural, evil forces, that illness is seen as a form of punishment from spirits. In another study, which explored the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Ghana, women identified HIV/AIDS with reprobate behaviour, such as "prostitution, promiscuity, and extramarital relationships", or traveling to areas outside the community.

5374: 1406: 2018: 2007: 5677: 5292: 22: 1721: 53: 1823: 1677: 1952: 2432: 1982:. Superstitious beliefs regarding spirits are also exploited and people are convinced that "spirits of deceased relatives trouble the living and cause illness." In these instances "medicine men prescribe remedies, often in the form of propitiatory sacrifice, in order to put them to rest so that they will no longer trouble the living, especially children." 2130:

form of medicine is "the most affordable and accessible system of health care for the majority of the African rural population," the African Union declared 2001 to 2010 to be the Decade for African Traditional Medicine with the goal of making "safe, efficacious, quality, and affordable traditional medicines available to the vast majority of the people."

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traditional healers played in the basic health needs of their communities; the colonial authorities along with doctors and health practitioners continued to shun their contributions. It was also believed that during times of conflict people were more likely to resort to supernatural explanations and would seek treatment involving the supernatural.

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areas is that they are conveniently located within the community. Modern medicine is normally not as accessible in rural areas because it is much more costly. Older rural women particularly tend to utilize traditional healers in their communities. Younger women and the urbanized have been found to be renouncing the use of traditional healers.

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require payment before the patient has assessed the effectiveness of the treatment. The payment methods have changed over time, with many practitioners now asking for monetary payment, especially in urban settings, rather than their receiving good in exchange, as happened formerly. There are also a growing number of

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African healers and Western techniques, T. Adeoze Lambo, a Nigerian psychiatrist, stated in 1979, "At about three years ago, we made an evaluation, a programme of their work, and compared this with our own, and we discovered that actually they were scoring almost sixty percent success in their treatment of

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Sub-Saharan countries have found ways to unite modern medicine with traditional medicine due to the urgency of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In South Africa, the Kundalia Foundation has provided funding to train traditional healers on HIV/AIDS. The training included prevention, safe sex, and knowledge about

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These women endure arduous conditions and a traditional healer plays an instrumental role in their daily lives. The traditional healer provides health care to the rural communities and represents him/herself as an honorable cultural leader and educator. An advantage of the traditional healer in rural

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manufacture are far too costly and not available widely enough for most Africans. Many rural African communities are not able to afford the high price of pharmaceuticals and can not readily obtain them even if they were affordable; therefore, healers are their only means of medical help. Because this

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there are, on average almost, 100 traditional practitioner for every university trained doctor. This equates to one traditional healer for every 200 people in the Southern African region, which is a much greater doctor-to-patient ratio than is found in North America. In many parts of Africa there are

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in Europe since the 1970s. Although used extensively in Africa, there is insufficient evidence for its effectiveness in treating fever, inflammation, kidney disease, malaria, stomach aches and other conditions. In traditional African practice, the bark is made into tea, whereas elsewhere in the world

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has come to consider traditional medicine as a source for identification of bio-active agents that can be used in the preparation of medicine." Pharmaceutical industries are looking into the medicinal effects of the most commonly and widely used plants to use in drugs. In comparing the techniques of

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is typically used if the illness is not easily identified, otherwise, the sickness may be quickly diagnosed and a remedy prescribed. Sometimes the practitioner will advise the patient to consult a diviner who can give a diagnosis and recommend a treatment. It is believed that contact with the spirit

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drugs for HIV/AIDS. Herbal treatments are frequently used in Africa as a primary treatment for HIV/AIDS and for HIV-related issues. Collaboration with traditional healers has been recommended to determine what herbal treatments are used for HIV and to educate people supplying alternative treatments

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Women experience the most fatal impact from the HIV/AIDS epidemic. When industrial development required the labor of men from rural communities, the men often left those communities and while away at the migratory camps many of these men would have sex with prostitutes, become infected with HIV and

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For patients with HIV/AIDS, traditional healers provided a local, familiar, and accessible option compared to biomedical personnel who were usually overbooked and located farther away. Traditional healers were seen as having an authoritative role in physical, psychological, and spiritual aspects of

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and the technologies that they are dependent on are not locally manufactured and maintained thus making them expensive and rendering the population dependent on supply-chains that might be erratic or politicised. Due to this, interest in integrating traditional African medicine into the continent's

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Diagnosis is reached through spiritual means and a treatment is prescribed, usually consisting of a herbal remedy that is considered to have not only healing abilities but also symbolic and spiritual significance. Traditional African medicine, with its belief that illness is not derived from chance

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Traditional healers have also been under scrutiny during the HIV/AIDS epidemic for unsanitary medical practices. The "re-use of medical instruments and lack of hygienic habits such as hand washing" have contributed to the spread of infectious diseases by traditional healers. A study of traditional

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and chosen methods of treatment in traditional African medicine rely heavily on spiritual aspects, often based on the belief that psycho-spiritual aspects should be addressed before the medical aspects. There is the belief among the practitioners of traditional healing that the ability to diagnose

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The ethical issue, as presented by modern medicine, is the complete lack of clinical trials to test any traditional African medicine before practicing with it on the public. Modern medicine in the United States is subject to The Nuremberg Code and the related Declaration of Helsinki which are the

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Traditional healers, like any other profession, are rewarded for their services. In African societies, the payment for a treatment depends on its efficacy. They do not request payment until after the treatment is given. This is another reason many prefer traditional healers to western doctors who

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Many traditional medicinal practitioners are people without formal education, who have rather received knowledge of medicinal plants and their effects on the human body from their forebears and by observation. Traditional practitioners and their practices vary but common features among them are a

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During the HIV/AIDS epidemic traditional healers' methods were criticised by practitioners of modern medicine, and in particular the use of certain herbal treatments for HIV/AIDS. According to Edward Mills, herbal remedies are used as a therapy for HIV-symptoms such as "dermatological disorders,

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rural African communities are almost entirely responsible for domestic work in their households. These women are often at higher risk for disease and poverty than their male counter-parts and have less control over their daily lives than them. A literature survey from 2001 found that these women

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societies. Not only are plants used and chosen for their healing abilities, but they also often have symbolic and spiritual significance. For example, leaves, seeds, and twigs that are white, black and red are seen as especially symbolic or magical and are believed to possess special properties.

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believe that the great God Hishe created all things and, therefore, controls all sickness and death. Hishe presents himself to these medicine men in dreams and hallucinations, giving them curative power and this god is generous enough to give this power to the medicine men, they are expected to

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spread through Africa, colonialists built general hospitals and Christian missionaries built private ones, with the hopes of making headway against widespread diseases. However, little was done to investigate the legitimacy of the traditional medical practices, despite the obvious role that the

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Some healers learn the trade through personal experience while being treated as a patient who decide to become healers upon recovery. Others become traditional practitioners through a "spiritual calling" and, therefore, their diagnoses and treatments are decided through belief in supernatural

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There are many plants in Africa that can be used for medicinal purposes and more than 4000 are used for this purpose in the tropical regions of Africa. Medicinal plants are used in the treatments of many diseases and illnesses, the uses and effects of which are of growing interest to Western

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A 2001 study of rural Ethiopian women where HIV was present found that they rejected the presence of HIV in rural villages and claimed it was an urban illness, despite the presence of HIV in the rural communities. However, these women also claimed that their communities did not advocate for

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should inform medical students about traditional, supplementary and alternative medicine and the possible conflicts and interactions with modern medicine. Use of traditional African medicines as antivirals instead of using specific antiretroviral drugs, is especially a risk with HIV.

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showed that treatment decisions were made "largely on traditional notions of the efficacy of a medicine of a particular color, consistency, taste, size and reputed success in treating analogous illnesses". This led to the inappropriate use of many modern medicines by the Mende.

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health. In the early 1980s in southwestern Uganda, it was reported that many locals infected with the disease ("Slim") after showing symptoms of diarrhoea and weight-loss would consult traditional healers due to their belief in the connection between the disease and witchcraft.

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Petrelli, Riccardo; Orsomando, Giuseppe; Sorci, Leonardo; Maggi, Filippo; Ranjbarian, Farahnaz; Biapa Nya, Prosper C.; Petrelli, Dezemona; Vitali, Luca A.; Lupidi, Giulio; Quassinti, Luana; Bramucci, Massimo; Hofer, Anders; Cappellacci, Loredana (13 August 2016).

1177:, which is technically and analytically based. In the 21st century, modern pharmaceuticals and medical procedures remain inaccessible to large numbers of African people due to their relatively high cost and concentration of health facilities in urban centres. 1392:

Consensus between traders of the components of the medication used by practitioners of traditional African medicine regarding what should be used to treat different illnesses varies considerably, even within a small area such as the Faraday Street market in

1191:, which was a noticeable turning point in the history of this tradition and culture. Herbal medicines in Africa are generally not adequately researched, and are weakly regulated. There is a lack of the detailed documentation of the 2073:

also make extensive use of indigenous plants to aid childbirth. African healers commonly "describe and explain illness in terms of social interaction and act on the belief that religion permeates every aspect of human existence."

1930:, which is described by Ngubane as an extreme form of depression coupled with psychotic symptoms such as delusions, hysteria, violent outburst and suicide ideations. The roots are mixed with other medications to treat it. 2122:

few practitioners trained in modern medicine and traditional healers are a large and influential group in primary health care and an integral part of the African culture. Without them, many people would go untreated.

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Overgaard, Hans; Sirisopa, Patcharawan; Mikolo, Bertin; Malterud, Karl; Wangensteen, Helle; Zou, Yuan-Feng; Paulsen, Berit; Massamba, Daniel; Duchon, Stephane; Corbel, Vincent; Chandre, Fabrice (17 December 2014).

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In Africa, traditional healers and remedies made from indigenous plants play a crucial role in the health of millions since as many as 85% of African routinely use these services for primary health care in

2259:, which is generally transferred orally. A literature survey in 2014, indicated that several African medicinal plants contain bioactive anti-trypanosomal compounds that could be used for the treatment of 2113:. The relative ratios of traditional practitioners and university trained doctors in relation to the whole population in African countries underscores this importance. Across Sub-Saharan Africa, from 1742:, bronchitis, headache, epilepsy, pains, colds, influenza, labour pains, hypertension, diabetes, malaria, blackwater fever, blood-poisoning, anthrax, dysentery, tetanus, menstrual cramps and rabies. 2096:

intervention. Another route is to receive the knowledge and skills passed down informally from a close family member such as a father or uncle, or even a mother or aunt in the case of midwives.

1145:. Practitioners of traditional African medicine claim, largely without evidence, to be able to cure a variety of diverse conditions including cancer, psychiatric disorders, high blood pressure, 2069:. Smaller trade markets exist in virtually every community. Their knowledge of herbs has been invaluable in African communities and they among the few who could gather them in most societies. 5321: 1776:). The leaves are used to treat pain and swelling (including after a circumcision), boils and abscesses, measles, asthma and headaches, tetanus, foot ailments and respiratory conditions. 2335:"may put the patients at risk for antiretroviral treatment failure, viral resistance, or drug toxicity" since they interact with antiretroviral treatments and prevent the expression of 2189:"may put the patients at risk for antiretroviral treatment failure, viral resistance, or drug toxicity" since they interact with antiretroviral treatments and prevent the expression of 2474: 3441:

Moussavi, Nastaran; Malterud, Karl Egil; Mikolo, Bertin; Dawes, Dag; Chandre, Fabrice; Corbel, Vincent; Massamba, Daniel; Overgaard, Hans J.; Wangensteen, Helle (1 October 2015).

1716:), ill feeling, jealousy or animosity. Also used to treat diarrhoea, colic, rheumatism, syphilis, earache, constipation, intestinal worms, Malaria, ring worm, jaundice and coughs. 1256:

For various reasons, in the late 20th century the traditional systems of medical care in developing countries underwent a major revival. These countries also realized that modern

1710:). The water from the boiled roots is consumed to treat infertility in women. Bathing in water in which the leaves have been soaked is believed to protect one from evil spirits ( 1672:). Swollen feet from poor circulation and/or liver and kidney problems are treated with a leaf poultice, while the sap is used to treat a rash caused by contact with dirty water. 1455:

region, in lowering blood pressure "by acting as an ACE inhibitor." Of the 16 plants, only one (Tulbaghia violacea) showed promise. It then was tested on rats and "demonstrated

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Bruchhausen, Walter (2018). Medicalized Healing in East Africa: The Separation of Medicine and Religion by Politics and Science. In: Lüddeckens, D., & Schrimpf, M. (2018).

1856:). A poultice of the cooked leaves is used to treat sores between toes and the fingers caused by fungal infections. The belief is that these sores are caused by "dirty blood" ( 1978:

is also used, in which a model is made of the victim and it is believed that actions performed on the model are transferred to the victim, in a manner similar to the familiar

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Animals are also sometimes used to transfer the illness to afterward or for the manufacture of medicines for zootherapy. For example, the bones of baboons are used to treat

4379:

Ibrahim, Mohammed Auwal; Mohammed, Aminu; Isah, Murtala Bindawa; Aliyu, Abubakar Babando (2014). "Anti-trypanosomal activity of African medicinal plants: A review update".

1594:. Most common medical uses were for the treatment of "infections, internal parasites, digestive ailments and injuries." Socially the plants are used as ingredients in 3500:

Goodman, Christopher Dean; Austarheim, Ingvild; Mollard, Vanessa; Mikolo, Bertin; Malterud, Karl Egil; McFadden, Geoffrey I.; Wangensteen, Helle (20 September 2016).

2569: 1974:

To remove the malignant object, the intervention of a second medicine man is typically required, who then removes it by making an incision in the patient. A form of

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province of South Africa, that are considered weeds, alien invaders or problem plants were investigated for their uses in traditional medicine. The plants included:

2100:

to an established practitioner, who formally teaches the trade over a long period of time and is paid for their tutoring, is another route to becoming a healer.

1106: 4705:"Self-Reported Use of Traditional, Complementary And Over-The-Counter Medicines By Hiv-Infected Patients on Antiretroviral Therapy in Pretoria, South Africa" 2206: 4552:

Street, R.A.; Stirk, W.A.; Van Staden, J. (2008). "South African traditional medicinal plant trade—Challenges in regulating quality, safety and efficacy".

5382: 3691:

Mzimkulu, Kanyiswa G.; Simbayi, Leickness C. (2006). "Perspectives and Practices of Xhosa-speaking African Traditional Healers when Managing Psychosis".

3443:"Identification of chemical constituents of Zanthoxylum heitzii stem bark and their insecticidal activity against the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae" 1231:

some traditional medical practices were outlawed. During this time, attempts were also made to control the sale of herbal medicines. For example, after

1235:

gained independence in 1975, attempts to control traditional medicine went as far as sending diviner-healers to re-education camps. As colonialism and

4223:

Peters, E J; Immananagha, K K; Essien, O E; Ekott, J U (2004). "Traditional Healers' Practices and the Spread of HIV/AIDS in South Eastern Nigeria".

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Mills, Edward; Foster, Brian C; Heeswijk, Rolf van; Phillips, Elizabeth; Wilson, Kumanan; Leonard, Blair; Kosuge, Kazuhiro; Kanfer, Isadore (2005).

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Williams, Vivienne Linda; Whiting, Martin John (2016). "A picture of health? Animal use and the Faraday traditional medicine market, South Africa".

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personal involvement in the healing process; protection of the therapeutic knowledge by keeping it a secret; and being rewarded for their services.

2255:

Herbal medicines in Africa are generally not adequately researched, and are weakly regulated. There is a lack of the detailed documentation of the

2209:, to oblige humane behavior in experimenting on the public for the good of society. Since traditional African healers do not have to adhere to the 1985:

According to Onwuanibe, Africans hold a religious world view which includes divine or spiritual intervention in medical practice. For example, the

1962:

Some healers may employ the use of charms, incantations, and the casting of spells in their treatments. For example, there is the belief among the

1942:). This root decoction is mixed with the roots of the rubus pinnatus (iqunube) and is administered through the use of an enema to cure kidney pain. 5328: 500: 4422:

Ncube, Bhekumthetho; Ndhlala, Ashwell R.; Okem, Ambrose; Van Staden, Johannes (2013). "Hypoxis (Hypoxidaceae) in African traditional medicine".

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show no toxity and justify controlled clinical studies. However, when used in conjunction with antiretroviral treatments, the herbal treatments

1754:). The patient is given an emetic and instructed to vomit onto the plant. The belief is that the plant will "suck out the cause of the illness." 5713: 4908: 4487:

van Wyk, B-E.; Albrecht, C. (2008). "A review of the taxonomy, ethnobotany, chemistry and pharmacology of Sutherlandia frutescens (Fabaceae)".

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plants in South Africa had been researched for biological activity. A literature survey conducted in 2013 identified several compounds (mostly

4597:"Potential pharmacokinetic interactions between antiretrovirals and medicinal plants used as complementary and African traditional medicines" 4531: 3079:

McGaw, L.J.; Eloff, J.N. (2008). "Ethnoveterinary use of southern African plants and scientific evaluation of their medicinal properties".

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against unsafe practices. Given the demands of the local population on the use of traditional African medicine, it has been proposed that

4646:"A review of the integration of traditional, complementary and alternative medicine into the curriculum of South African medical schools" 4193: 3735: 2263:("Sleeping sickness") but no clinical studies had been conducted on them. A 2008 literature survey found that only a small proportion of 2374:

contamination. Serious adverse effects, even death, can result from misidentification or misuse of healing plants. For example, various

1912:). Fever and influenza are treated by consuming a leaf decoction or steaming. A combination of leaves and bark is used to treat wounds. 1099: 175: 3650:"The medicinal use of some weeds, problem and alien plants in the Grahamstown and Peddie districts of the Eastern Cape, South Africa" 3562:"Insecticidal Activities of Bark, Leaf and Seed Extracts of Zanthoxylum heitzii against the African Malaria Vector Anopheles gambiae" 2993: 1638:

As a result of a study conducted from 2011 to 2016, a traditional medicine from the tropical Olon tree, and another species of genus

220: 4795:

Bledsoe, Caroline H.; Goubaud, Monica F. (1985). "The reinterpretation of Western pharmaceuticals among the Mende of Sierra Leone".

4020:

Liddell, Christine; Barrett, Louise; Bydawell, Moya (2005). "Indigenous representations of illness and AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa".

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Grace, O.M.; Simmonds, M.S.J.; Smith, G.F.; van Wyk, A.E. (2008). "Therapeutic uses of Aloe L. (Asphodelaceae) in southern Africa".

1958:

diviner outside Iwol, southeast Senegal (West Africa). He makes predictions based on the color of the organs of sacrificed chickens.

1583:

A 2008 literature survey was made to assess the botanical knowledge and uses within traditional medicine in Southern Africa for the

5837: 2053:, and others specialize in a combination of both forms of practice. There are also traditional bone setters and birth attendants. 5823: 2800: 3183: 5217: 4966: 3977:

Berhane, Y; Gossaye, Y; Emmelin, M; Hogberg, U (2001). "Women's health in a rural setting in societal transition in Ethiopia".

789: 95: 4328:

Thege, Britta (December 2009). "Rural black women's agency within intimate partnerships amid the South African HIV epidemic".

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African Perspectives on Genetic Resources: A Handbook on Laws, Policies, and Institutions Governing Access and Benefit-sharing

1970:

that medicine men can implant something into a person from a distance to inflict sickness on them, in a process referred to as

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national health care systems has increased and the use of traditional medicinal plants is being encouraged in some countries.

5999: 5927: 5855: 5847: 4877: 4074: 3826: 2754: 2606: 1092: 749: 314: 1884:). A cold water infusion of the roots are used as a body wash as it is believed to cleanse the body of misfortunes and evil. 5870: 5831: 5730: 2573: 2362:

A small proportion of ethnoveterinary medicine plants in South Africa have been researched for toxic effects. The possible

744: 739: 590: 393: 4277:

Nyika, Aceme (2007). "Ethical and Regulatory Issues Surrounding African Traditional Medicine in the Context of Hiv/Aids".

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healers in Nigeria found that 60% of the population was at risk because of the contamination spread by tradition healers.

5170: 2451: 2010: 700: 77: 5706: 5242: 5036: 4901: 2489: 806: 673: 2688:"African herbal medicines in the treatment of HIV: Hypoxis and Sutherlandia. An overview of evidence and pharmacology" 2181:

nausea, depression, insomnia, and weakness." While some of these remedies have been beneficial, the herbal treatments

245: 3766: 3657: 2968: 2351: 1078: 1048: 3126:"Utilisation of and Attitude towards Traditional and Complementary Medicine among Ebola Survivors in Sierra Leone" 2037:, the practitioners of traditional medicine specialize in particular areas of their profession. Some, such as the 1844:

and urinary tract infections. It is also used to treat coughs, colds, jaundice, rheumatism and as a contraceptive.

5748: 5600: 5249: 5134: 5104: 1010: 990: 200: 84: 72: 732: 6004: 5901: 5314: 5124: 5001: 2238:

There has been more interest expressed recently in the effects of some of the medicinal plants of Africa. "The

1840:). The roots are boiled and the liquid consumed for lower back or abdominal pain, or used as an enema to treat 960: 828: 818: 707: 663: 4870:

Medicine – religion – spirituality: Global perspectives on traditional, complementary, and alternative healing

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Nelms, Linda W.; Gorski, June (29 June 2016). "The Role of the African Traditional Healer in Women's Health".

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of the root is used to treat constipation, biliousness and other stomach complaints and to stimulate appetite.

5699: 5296: 4894: 1134: 1063: 230: 190: 36: 4100:

Mills, Edward; Cooper, Curtis; Kanfer, Izzy (2005). "Traditional African medicine in the treatment of HIV".

5803: 5507: 5129: 5114: 5072: 5006: 4063:

Iliffe, J.; Anderson, D.; Brown, C.; Clapham, C.; Gomez, M.; Manning, P.; Robinson, D. (1998). "10. AIDS".

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Mill, Judy E. (2001). "I'm Not a "Basabasa" Woman: An Explanatory Model of HIV Illness in Ghanaian Women".

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Traditional practitioners use a wide variety of treatments ranging from standard medical treatments to the

1162: 1127: 1000: 925: 905: 833: 4883:

Sobiecki, Jean-Francois (2023). African Psychoactive Plants: Journeys in Phytoalchemy. ISBN 978-0639763859

3666: 5119: 2202: 950: 868: 485: 368: 5886: 4961: 2479: 2293:) that had been isolated and tested with "promising prospects reported in some studies". South African 490: 309: 235: 2401:

Cultural expectations play an important role in treatment as a 1985 study amongst the Mende people of

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to make a diagnosis. The incantations are thought to give the air of mystical and cosmic connections.

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of South African traditional medicines are not well documented; there has been limited research into

759: 373: 319: 3027:"Traditional, complementary and alternative medicine use in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review" 1644:, was found to have synergistic compounds that kill both mosquitoes and their plasmodium parasites. 5363: 5165: 5077: 2264: 1038: 205: 4752:

Bye, S.N.; Dutton, M.F. (1991). "The inappropriate use of traditional medicines in South Africa".

2830: 1888: 5989: 5984: 5953: 5865: 4869: 2371: 2307: 2260: 2239: 2126: 1188: 1184: 754: 712: 640: 520: 155: 1627:

cells" and "ferric reducing antioxidant power." Among the constituents of the essential oil are

5994: 5979: 5958: 5487: 5479: 5155: 5062: 2878: 2459: 2281: 1430: 1228: 695: 685: 580: 4201: 3743: 3213: 2021:

Successful Cesarean section performed by indigenous healers in Kahura, Uganda. As observed by

5585: 5567: 5401: 3502:"Natural products from Zanthoxylum heitzii with potent activity against the malaria parasite" 2469: 2256: 2022: 1619: 1315: 1192: 1073: 680: 610: 450: 250: 115: 2394: 5922: 5917: 5808: 5722: 5269: 5207: 4971: 4917: 2484: 1526: 1180: 1123: 1043: 772: 555: 418: 346: 294: 215: 122: 67: 44: 3000: 1866: 1417: 1183:

was the dominant medical system for millions of people in Africa prior the arrival of the

8: 3950: 2213:, there is a potential danger to society when healers do not practice medicine humanely. 1780: 1543: 1488: 1480: 1472: 690: 475: 388: 165: 2061:

that is said to attract between 700,000 and 900,000 traders per year from South Africa,

1654: 5937: 5160: 4729: 4704: 4680: 4645: 4361: 4310: 4256: 4174: 3931: 3880: 3716: 3596: 3561: 3536: 3501: 3477: 3442: 3418: 3391: 3366: 3329: 3265: 3152: 3125: 3051: 3026: 2895: 2714: 2687: 2656: 2623: 2146: 2110: 1367: 1257: 1248: 1207: 1058: 1033: 970: 668: 495: 403: 383: 363: 289: 5625: 4113: 3990: 2808: 2544: 1227:

Modern science has considered methods of traditional knowledge as primitive and under

5896: 5891: 4936: 4873: 4820: 4812: 4808: 4777: 4769: 4765: 4734: 4685: 4667: 4626: 4618: 4577: 4569: 4512: 4504: 4447: 4439: 4404: 4396: 4353: 4345: 4302: 4294: 4290: 4248: 4240: 4166: 4158: 4153: 4136: 4117: 4070: 4045: 4037: 4002: 3994: 3923: 3915: 3872: 3822: 3793: 3720: 3708: 3601: 3583: 3541: 3523: 3482: 3464: 3423: 3371: 3353: 3310: 3302: 3191: 3157: 3106: 3098: 3056: 2944: 2936: 2750: 2719: 2661: 2643: 2602: 2380: 2057:

are becoming more and more popular in Africa with an emerging herb trading market in

1975: 1510: 1496: 1464: 1270: 843: 600: 565: 470: 408: 356: 257: 4260: 4178: 4033: 3935: 3884: 3269: 2388:

interactions is unknown, especially interactions between traditional treatments and

2384:, are toxic and can cause death. The potential for traditional African medicine and 2378:

plants are widely used in traditional African medicine, but some varieties, such as

1459:

activity", i.e. reduction of blood pressure. The plants included in the study were:

1451:

A 2007 study investigated the effectiveness of 16 plants, growing in South Africa's

1173:

occurrences, but through spiritual or social imbalance, differs greatly from modern

5021: 4855: 4804: 4761: 4724: 4716: 4675: 4657: 4608: 4561: 4496: 4431: 4388: 4337: 4314: 4286: 4232: 4148: 4109: 4029: 3986: 3907: 3864: 3700: 3591: 3573: 3531: 3513: 3472: 3454: 3413: 3403: 3361: 3343: 3294: 3255: 3147: 3137: 3090: 3046: 3038: 2973: 2928: 2887: 2742: 2709: 2699: 2651: 2635: 1994:

practice healing freely. The !Kung medicine men effect a treatment by performing a

1557: 1318:(also called "wet cupping"), followed by herbal ointment and herbal drugs to treat 1299: 858: 620: 480: 267: 25: 4365: 1579:,a bulbous plant with hairless leaves often referred to as society or wild garlic. 5758: 5641: 5590: 5497: 5453: 5237: 5099: 5031: 4341: 4064: 3816: 2835: 2596: 2437: 2385: 1990: 1758: 1602:

in sub-Saharan Africa are used in various ritual practices, including the use of

1595: 1028: 985: 570: 560: 435: 398: 336: 304: 299: 272: 210: 180: 4465: 3815:

Nnadozie, K.; Lettington, Robert; Bruch, Carl; Bass, Susan; King, Sarah (2003).

3260: 3243: 2978: 2963: 1310:, and surgical procedures. Examples of the pseudoscientific treatments include: 5813: 5681: 5575: 5358: 5337: 5139: 4996: 4236: 3578: 3334: 2389: 2363: 2347: 2340: 2210: 2194: 2097: 1591: 1518: 1506:, a tall annual plant that flowers in summer sometimes referred to as poppy sue 1385: 1196: 1005: 878: 645: 630: 545: 465: 460: 4981: 4851: 4720: 4565: 4500: 4435: 4392: 3704: 3518: 3459: 3408: 3330:"Ritual uses of palms in traditional medicine in sub-Saharan Africa: a review" 3298: 3094: 3042: 2932: 5973: 5932: 5763: 5550: 5532: 5227: 5186: 5026: 4816: 4773: 4671: 4622: 4573: 4508: 4443: 4400: 4349: 4298: 4244: 4162: 4041: 3998: 3919: 3868: 3712: 3587: 3527: 3468: 3357: 3306: 3142: 3102: 2940: 2647: 2464: 2423: 1995: 1979: 1955: 1452: 1340:

A steaming mixture of herbs is both consumed and inhaled in the treatment of

1211: 940: 915: 823: 813: 625: 540: 455: 378: 341: 284: 262: 150: 100: 4662: 3348: 2876:

Onwuanibe, Richard C. (1979). "The Philosophy of African Medical Practice".

1617:, used as a medicinal plant in Cameroon, demonstrated good activity against 1333:

Some cultures rub hot herbal ointment across the patient's eyelids to treat

5773: 5753: 5743: 5660: 5492: 5259: 5057: 4738: 4689: 4630: 4581: 4516: 4451: 4408: 4357: 4306: 4252: 4170: 4121: 4049: 4006: 3927: 3876: 3605: 3545: 3486: 3427: 3375: 3314: 3161: 3110: 3060: 2948: 2723: 2704: 2665: 2639: 2402: 2332: 2320: 2186: 1986: 1648: 1500:, a small herbaceous annual plant commonly referred to as Asiatic pennywort 1394: 1236: 995: 965: 838: 717: 605: 530: 430: 425: 331: 326: 277: 240: 185: 170: 5621: 5373: 4824: 4781: 4532:"Africa's attempt to regulate traditional medicine fails to gain traction" 2017: 1405: 5783: 5636: 5580: 5353: 5264: 5232: 2006: 1963: 1640: 1628: 1456: 1388:(Mylabris sp.) are rubbed into the skin as a treatment for skin diseases. 1278: 955: 873: 585: 510: 505: 445: 225: 195: 145: 140: 105: 2161: 5793: 5788: 5778: 5691: 5605: 5212: 4886: 4709:

African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines

2899: 2628:

African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines

2297:

have been long and vocal advocates of a local traditional plant called

2247:. And we were scoring forty percent-in fact, less than forty percent." 2066: 2050: 1720: 1695: 1363: 1352: 1282: 1232: 1138: 1053: 550: 535: 525: 413: 160: 110: 21: 3392:"Biological Activities of the Essential Oil from Erigeron floribundus" 2346:

There have been attempts to assess some traditional medicines through

1818:, boiled and used to treat kidney pains in adults and colic in babies. 1165:, urinary tract infections, gout, and healing of wounds and burns and 5798: 5768: 5427: 5274: 5222: 5016: 5011: 2367: 2268: 2070: 2054: 1841: 1799: 1624: 1599: 1381: 1374: 1334: 1287: 1203: 1142: 1130: 975: 935: 910: 615: 575: 440: 4613: 4596: 3911: 2891: 52: 5738: 5650: 5458: 5345: 5254: 5052: 4951: 2686:

Mills, Edward; Cooper, Curtis; Seely, Dugald; Kanfer, Izzy (2005).

2312: 2294: 2276: 2244: 2118: 2084: 2062: 2045:

are experts in herbalism, whilst others, such as the South African

2042: 2034: 1822: 1676: 1632: 1603: 1445: 1327: 1319: 1174: 1150: 888: 796: 635: 89: 5595: 5306: 5279: 5202: 4137:"Impact of African herbal medicines on antiretroviral metabolism" 2475:

Traditional and Modern Health Practitioners Together against AIDS

2328: 2182: 2134: 2046: 2038: 1967: 1348: 1341: 1323: 1307: 1303: 1286:

world through divination often requires not only medication, but

1252:

Nurse at Koidu Hospital in Sierra Leone consulting with patients.

1214:

medical traditions have influenced traditional African medicine.

1146: 980: 898: 863: 853: 595: 3254:(6). Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 2087:

who only interested in making money, especially in urban areas.

5654: 5545: 5512: 5502: 5469: 5094: 4946: 3558: 3214:"Pygeum: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Dosage, and Warning" 2831:"US lawmakers push to reclaim medical supply chains from China" 2801:"Africa: Overview on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine" 2336: 2316: 2272: 2190: 2158:

prevention, but rather treated an illness once it was present.

2058: 1951: 1739: 1199:

can result from misidentification or misuse of healing plants.

1158: 1154: 1068: 893: 848: 515: 4846: 3693:

International Journal of Disability, Development and Education

3499: 3244:"ACE inhibitor activity of nutritive plants in Kwa-Zulu Natal" 1698:

caused by congenital problems, tuberculosis and malnutrition.

5631: 5540: 5522: 5390: 5089: 5067: 2114: 1647:

A 2000 study of thirty-three species of plants, found in the

1584: 1166: 945: 920: 801: 351: 4222: 3976: 2741: 1421:

Preparing and drying out freshly dug traditional medicines (

5646: 5084: 4941: 4134: 3951:"Indigenous Knowledge and HIV/AIDS : Ghana and Zambia" 3814: 3440: 3388: 2375: 1587: 1514:, also called lamb's quarters, this is a weedy annual plant 1422: 1359: 930: 784: 4421: 4062: 3328:

Gruca, Marta; van Andel, Tinde R; Balslev, Henrik (2014).

3184:"Recognition and Respect for African Traditional Medicine" 3282: 2624:"Trends and Challenges of Traditional Medicine in Africa" 1277:

When a person falls ill, a traditional practitioner uses

4841: 4378: 4194:"Patients' rights: from Alder Hey to the Nuremberg Code" 4066:

East African Doctors: A History of the Modern Profession

883: 4019: 2911: 2909: 2685: 2001: 1567:, a very leafy tropical shrub, also called septic weed 4644:

Chitindingu, Ethel; George, Gavin; Gow, Jeff (2014).

4551: 3327: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2207:

United States Department of Health and Human Services

2162:

Traditional African healers and the HIV/AIDS epidemic

1694:). Grated bark mixed with water is consumed to treat 1492:, an ornamental ground cover known as Chinese violet. 4643: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2413: 2233: 1476:, commonly known as smooth pig-weed or slim amaranth 1366:, and is thought to relieve chest pain when applied 3684: 3512:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 481. 3453:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 503. 2964:"Turning folklore into an ethnomedicinal catalogue" 2906: 2823: 4788: 3736:"Traditional Vs. Western Medicine-African Context" 3188:Canada's International Development Research Centre 1598:. A 2014 literature survey found that at least 12 1468:, a flowering plant, also known as spleen amaranth 4099: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3635: 2763: 1195:, which is generally transferred orally. Serious 5971: 4185: 3765:"Traditional medicine and traditional healers". 3633: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3242:Mackraj, Irene; Ramesar, Shamal (1 April 2007). 2745:; van Oudtshoorn, Bosch; Gericke, Nigel (1999). 1738:). Various parts of the plant are used to treat 4637: 4486: 4069:. African Studies. Cambridge University Press. 3690: 2915: 2798: 1907: 1439:), which has been used as a treatment for mild 4794: 3241: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3171: 1522:, commonly known as southern three corner jack 1358:The fat of a boa constrictor is used to treat 1344:. Fevers are often treated using a steam bath. 5707: 5322: 4902: 4745: 4595:Müller, Adrienne C.; Kanfer, Isadore (2011). 4272: 4270: 3733: 3612: 2542: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 1100: 4594: 3648:Dold, A. P.; Cocks, M. L. (September 2000). 3321: 3206: 3181: 3074: 3072: 3070: 2749:. Pretoria: Briza Publications. p. 10. 2615: 2598:Preventive Therapy in Complementary Medicine 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2137:risk, as this may lead to their extinction. 4372: 3851: 3727: 3168: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2675: 1937: 1925: 1919: 1901: 1879: 1857: 1851: 1835: 1809: 1793: 1771: 1749: 1733: 1711: 1705: 1689: 1667: 1434: 5714: 5700: 5329: 5315: 4909: 4895: 4588: 4545: 4267: 3786: 3078: 2311:) claiming it assists in the treatment of 1107: 1093: 176:Association for Research and Enlightenment 4751: 4728: 4679: 4661: 4612: 4415: 4152: 4095: 4093: 3647: 3595: 3577: 3552: 3535: 3517: 3476: 3458: 3417: 3407: 3365: 3347: 3335:Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 3276: 3259: 3237: 3235: 3151: 3141: 3067: 3050: 3018: 2977: 2875: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2713: 2703: 2655: 2621: 2549:Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine 2507: 1530:, commonly referred to as gallant soldier 5721: 4916: 4529: 4480: 3847: 3845: 3808: 3434: 3382: 2854: 2672: 2125:Medications and treatments that Western 2016: 2005: 1950: 1887: 1865: 1821: 1779: 1757: 1719: 1675: 1653: 1416: 1404: 1247: 20: 4702: 4601:Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition 4013: 3970: 3774:. World Health Organisation. p. 89 3740:Drury University, Springfield, Missouri 3493: 2961: 2955: 2140: 16:Traditional medical practices in Africa 5972: 5218:Medicine in the medieval Islamic world 4967:Traditional healers of Southern Africa 4216: 4191: 4128: 4090: 4056: 3232: 2999:. WHO. 2002. p. 1. Archived from 2730: 2049:, are experts in spiritual healing as 1553:, an invasive weed with no common name 1306:, dieting, herbal therapies, bathing, 1302:and "magical". Treatments may include 5695: 5310: 4890: 4327: 4321: 4276: 3842: 3123: 3117: 3031:British Medical Journal Global Health 3024: 2595:Ubani, Lumumba Umunna (5 July 2011). 2594: 2562: 2090: 4696: 3948: 3942: 3897: 3891: 3758: 2588: 2350:, although none have so far reached 1429:One example of a medicinal plant is 28:, used as traditional medicine, 2014 5171:Medieval medicine of Western Europe 4530:Chakamba, Rumbi (28 January 2021). 4458: 2994:"WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy" 2986: 2572:. 27 September 1999. Archived from 2452:Traditional African religion portal 2002:Traditional medicinal practitioners 1409:Prunus africana with stripped bark. 1400: 13: 5336: 5037:Traditional Alaska Native medicine 3796:. Africa Witness. 11 February 2011 2490:Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2323:. A review of preclinical data on 2224: 14: 6016: 4835: 3906:(3). SAGE Publications: 254–274. 3854:Journal of Transcultural Nursing 3182:Stanley, Bob (13 February 2004). 2234:Relationship with modern medicine 1561:, known as starhair ground cherry 246:Chiropractic treatment techniques 5928:Glossary of alternative medicine 5676: 5675: 5372: 5291: 5290: 4980: 4872:. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. 4330:African Journal of AIDS Research 4291:10.1111/j.1471-8847.2006.00157.x 4200:. United Kingdom. Archived from 4154:10.1097/00002030-200501030-00013 3794:"Inside the Fake healers shrine" 3658:South African Journal of Science 2969:South African Journal of Science 2807:. Pambazuka News. Archived from 2747:Medicinal Plants of South Africa 2570:"A folk remedy for killer Ebola" 2444: 2430: 2416: 2250: 1613:study of the essential oil from 1573:, also known as white nightshade 1547:, also known as the balsam apple 1243: 1049:Electromagnetic hypersensitivity 51: 5250:History of alternative medicine 5135:Traditional Vietnamese medicine 5105:Sri Lankan traditional medicine 4862: 4523: 4034:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.020 3821:. Environmental Law Institute. 3025:James, PB; et al. (2018). 2013:from Johannesburg, South Africa 1946: 1222: 85:Alternative veterinary medicine 5125:Traditional Mongolian medicine 5002:Brazilian traditional medicine 4703:Malangu, N. (1 January 2007). 4192:Hurren, Elizabeth (May 2002). 4102:The Lancet Infectious Diseases 3985:(11). Elsevier BV: 1525–1539. 2799:Conserve Africa (4 May 2002). 2545:"Traditional African medicine" 2133:Excessive use of plants is an 1484:, also known as spiny amaranth 1264: 1161:, fever, anxiety, depression, 708:Water fluoridation controversy 664:Big Pharma conspiracy theories 1: 5866:Manual and body-based methods 5297:Category:Traditional medicine 4847:THETA Uganda Official Website 4797:Social Science & Medicine 4466:"Medicinal plant fights Aids" 4114:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70172-9 4022:Social Science & Medicine 3991:10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00441-x 3979:Social Science & Medicine 3949:Naur, Maja (13 August 2012). 2500: 2395:South African medical schools 2103: 1293: 1079:Wilson's temperature syndrome 1064:Multiple chemical sensitivity 191:Biological terrain assessment 6000:Traditional African medicine 5804:Traditional Chinese medicine 5130:Traditional Tibetan medicine 5115:Traditional Chinese medicine 5073:Iranian traditional medicine 5007:Chumash traditional medicine 4957:Traditional African medicine 4809:10.1016/0277-9536(85)90101-7 4766:10.1016/0378-8741(91)90044-E 4754:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 4554:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 4489:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 4468:. BBC News. 30 November 2001 4424:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 4381:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 4342:10.2989/AJAR.2009.8.4.9.1046 3572:(12). MDPI AG: 21276–21290. 3286:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 3082:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2918:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2175: 1814:). The roots are mixed with 1441:benign prostatic hyperplasia 1163:benign prostatic hyperplasia 1120:Traditional African medicine 7: 5959:Anti-quackery organizations 5120:Traditional Korean medicine 4028:(4). Elsevier BV: 691–700. 3261:10.1096/fasebj.21.6.A1247-c 2962:Makunga, N.P. (July 2009). 2879:Issue: A Journal of Opinion 2409: 2285:species, (known locally as 2203:Code of Federal Regulations 2077: 2035:orthodox medicinal practice 740:Alternative medical systems 369:Fabunan Antiviral Injection 135:Fringe medicine and science 10: 6021: 5856:Biologically based therapy 4962:Traditional Hausa medicine 4279:Developing World Bioethics 4237:10.1177/004947550403400206 3579:10.3390/molecules191221276 2480:Traditional Hausa medicine 1658:Anredera cordifolia leaves 1217: 1149:, most venereal diseases, 750:Biologically based therapy 310:Dental amalgam controversy 5946: 5910: 5879: 5846: 5822: 5729: 5673: 5614: 5566: 5559: 5531: 5478: 5381: 5370: 5344: 5288: 5195: 5179: 5148: 5110:Traditional Thai medicine 5045: 4989: 4978: 4932:Ancient Egyptian medicine 4924: 4842:PROMETRA Official Website 4721:10.4314/ajtcam.v4i3.31219 4566:10.1016/j.jep.2008.06.019 4501:10.1016/j.jep.2008.08.003 4436:10.1016/j.jep.2013.10.032 4393:10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.012 3956:Open Knowledge Repository 3900:Clinical Nursing Research 3768:Mental Health of Refugees 3705:10.1080/10349120601008563 3665:: 467–473. Archived from 3519:10.1186/s12936-016-1533-x 3460:10.1186/s13071-015-1113-x 3409:10.3390/molecules21081065 3299:10.1016/j.jep.2008.07.002 3095:10.1016/j.jep.2008.06.013 3043:10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000895 2979:10.4102/sajs.v105i7/8.120 2933:10.1016/j.jep.2015.12.024 2495:Ancient Egyptian medicine 2357: 1724:Carduus tenuiflorus plant 1623:, "cytotoxicity on colon 374:Facilitated communication 5166:Medicine in ancient Rome 3869:10.1177/1043659605285411 3143:10.3390/medicina55070387 2265:ethnoveterinary medicine 2127:pharmaceutical companies 2085:fraudulent practitioners 1444:it is found in powders, 1039:Candida hypersensitivity 221:Fake COVID-19 treatments 35:This article is part of 5954:Evidence-based medicine 4663:10.1186/1472-6920-14-40 3856:(subscription required) 3447:Parasites & Vectors 3349:10.1186/1746-4269-10-60 2920:(subscription required) 2850:(subscription required) 2601:. Xlibris Corporation. 2325:Sutherlandia frutescens 2308:Sutherlandia frutescens 2261:African trypanosomiasis 2240:pharmaceutical industry 2166: 2033:In a manner similar to 1924:). It is used to treat 1762:Datura stramonium plant 1536:, also known as yellow 1189:evidence-based medicine 713:COVID-19 misinformation 641:Young blood transfusion 521:Orthomolecular medicine 486:Mind–body interventions 156:Anthroposophic medicine 96:Rise of modern medicine 5923:Complementary medicine 5871:Mind-body intervention 5832:Mind-body intervention 5156:Ancient Greek medicine 5063:Georgian folk medicine 3734:Mokaila, Aone (2001). 2839:. London. 2 April 2020 2705:10.1186/1475-2891-4-19 2640:10.4314/ajtcam.v8i5S.5 2622:Abdullahi, AA (2011). 2543:Helwig, David (2005). 2460:Infant oral mutilation 2026: 2014: 1959: 1938: 1926: 1920: 1908: 1902: 1893: 1880: 1871: 1870:Rumex sagittatus plant 1858: 1852: 1836: 1827: 1810: 1794: 1785: 1772: 1763: 1750: 1734: 1725: 1712: 1706: 1690: 1681: 1668: 1659: 1435: 1426: 1410: 1253: 1137:, typically including 1126:disciplines involving 745:Mind–body intervention 696:MMR vaccine and autism 686:Vaccine misinformation 581:Rapid prompting method 29: 6005:Traditional knowledge 5784:Naturopathic medicine 4650:BMC Medical Education 3430:– via mdpi.com. 3124:James, Peter (2019). 2470:San healing practices 2257:traditional knowledge 2020: 2009: 1954: 1891: 1869: 1842:gonococcal infections 1825: 1783: 1761: 1723: 1680:Cannabis Sativa plant 1679: 1657: 1620:Staphylococcus aureus 1606:in healing mixtures. 1420: 1408: 1251: 1193:traditional knowledge 1074:Vertebral subluxation 1023:Alternative diagnoses 611:Thought Field Therapy 251:Vertebral subluxation 24: 5918:Alternative medicine 5880:Public-health issues 5809:Traditional medicine 5723:Alternative medicine 5488:Ancestral veneration 5395:Chicamassi-chinuinji 5270:Prehistoric medicine 5208:Alternative medicine 4918:Traditional medicine 4198:History & Policy 3746:on 14 September 2006 2811:on 24 September 2015 2141:In relation to women 1848:Opuntia ficus-indica 1826:Lantana camara plant 1784:Emex australis plant 1615:Erigeron floribundus 1527:Galinsoga parviflora 1347:Vomiting induced by 1181:Traditional medicine 1135:African spirituality 1124:traditional medicine 1044:Chronic Lyme disease 773:Traditional medicine 755:Manipulative methods 556:Postural Integration 419:Bach flower remedies 295:Craniosacral therapy 123:Therapeutic nihilism 68:Alternative medicine 45:Alternative medicine 5947:Contrary viewpoints 3672:on 24 November 2020 2279:) contained in the 1892:Schinus molle plant 1746:Carduus tenuiflorus 1686:Araucaria bidwillii 1664:Anredera cordifolia 1544:Momordica balsamina 1504:Ceratotheca triloba 1489:Asystasia gangetica 1481:Amaranthus spinosus 1473:Amaranthus hybridus 1258:health care systems 1206:of this article is 1175:scientific medicine 691:Vaccines and autism 681:Anti-vaccinationism 674:OPV AIDS hypothesis 476:Megavitamin therapy 389:Functional medicine 166:Applied kinesiology 62:General information 5938:Skeptical movement 5902:Water fluoridation 5161:Byzantine medicine 4204:on 7 December 2013 2576:on 2 December 2013 2111:Sub-Saharan Africa 2091:Learning the trade 2027: 2015: 1960: 1916:Araujia sericifera 1894: 1872: 1828: 1786: 1764: 1726: 1682: 1660: 1590:within the family 1577:Tulbaghia violacea 1571:Solanum nodiflorum 1565:Senna occidentalis 1427: 1411: 1254: 1208:Sub-Saharan Africa 1204:geographical reach 1059:Leaky gut syndrome 1034:Aerotoxic syndrome 971:Prophetic medicine 669:HIV/AIDS denialism 496:Myofascial release 404:Holistic dentistry 384:Feldenkrais Method 364:Estrogen dominance 290:Conversion therapy 30: 5967: 5966: 5689: 5688: 5669: 5668: 5364:Kongo Catholicism 5304: 5303: 4937:Tabernanthe iboga 4880:, pp. 23–56. 4878:978-3-8376-4582-8 4076:978-0-521-63272-0 3828:978-1-58576-068-8 3248:The FASEB Journal 3220:. 30 January 2019 3194:on 28 August 2010 2756:978-1-875093-37-3 2743:van Wyk, Ben-Erik 2692:Nutrition Journal 2608:978-1-4628-7687-7 2381:Aloe globuligemma 1976:sympathetic magic 1934:Argemone mexicana 1768:Datura stramonium 1551:Oxygonum sinuatum 1511:Chenopodium album 1497:Centella asiatica 1465:Amaranthus dubius 1351:is used to treat 1271:medical diagnoses 1187:, who introduced 1117: 1116: 844:Chinese herbology 601:Scientific racism 566:Psychodermatology 471:Medical intuitive 451:Lightning Process 409:Hologram bracelet 357:Therapeutic touch 258:Christian Science 231:Cancer treatments 6012: 5716: 5709: 5702: 5693: 5692: 5679: 5678: 5564: 5563: 5376: 5331: 5324: 5317: 5308: 5307: 5294: 5293: 5022:Mapuche medicine 4984: 4911: 4904: 4897: 4888: 4887: 4856:Ben-Erik van Wyk 4852:Medicinal plants 4829: 4828: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4760:(2–3): 253–259. 4749: 4743: 4742: 4732: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4683: 4665: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4616: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4549: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4527: 4521: 4520: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4419: 4413: 4412: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4274: 4265: 4264: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4189: 4183: 4182: 4156: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4097: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4017: 4011: 4010: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3857: 3849: 3840: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3790: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3773: 3762: 3756: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3742:. Archived from 3731: 3725: 3724: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3671: 3654: 3645: 3610: 3609: 3599: 3581: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3539: 3521: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3480: 3462: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3421: 3411: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3369: 3351: 3325: 3319: 3318: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3263: 3239: 3230: 3229: 3227: 3225: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3190:. Archived from 3179: 3166: 3165: 3155: 3145: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3076: 3065: 3064: 3054: 3022: 3016: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3006:on 10 April 2004 3005: 2998: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2981: 2959: 2953: 2952: 2921: 2913: 2904: 2903: 2873: 2852: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2796: 2761: 2760: 2739: 2728: 2727: 2717: 2707: 2683: 2670: 2669: 2659: 2619: 2613: 2612: 2592: 2586: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2557: 2555: 2540: 2454: 2449: 2448: 2440: 2435: 2434: 2433: 2426: 2421: 2420: 2419: 1941: 1929: 1923: 1911: 1905: 1883: 1876:Rumex sagittatus 1861: 1855: 1839: 1813: 1797: 1775: 1773:uQhwangu-qhwangu 1753: 1737: 1715: 1709: 1693: 1671: 1558:Physalis viscosa 1438: 1401:Medicinal plants 1300:pseudoscientific 1141:, midwives, and 1109: 1102: 1095: 859:Gill plate trade 621:Vaginal steaming 268:Colloidal silver 236:Charcoal cleanse 55: 32: 31: 6020: 6019: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6011: 6010: 6009: 5970: 5969: 5968: 5963: 5942: 5906: 5887:Dental amalgams 5875: 5842: 5818: 5759:Energy medicine 5725: 5720: 5690: 5685: 5665: 5610: 5591:Hot foot powder 5555: 5527: 5498:Kongo cosmogram 5474: 5377: 5368: 5340: 5335: 5305: 5300: 5284: 5243:herbs and fungi 5238:Herbal medicine 5191: 5175: 5144: 5100:Siddha medicine 5041: 5032:Navajo medicine 4985: 4976: 4972:Yorùbá medicine 4920: 4915: 4865: 4838: 4833: 4832: 4793: 4789: 4750: 4746: 4701: 4697: 4642: 4638: 4614:10.1002/bdd.775 4593: 4589: 4550: 4546: 4536: 4534: 4528: 4524: 4485: 4481: 4471: 4469: 4464: 4463: 4459: 4420: 4416: 4377: 4373: 4326: 4322: 4275: 4268: 4225:Tropical Doctor 4221: 4217: 4207: 4205: 4190: 4186: 4133: 4129: 4098: 4091: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4061: 4057: 4018: 4014: 3975: 3971: 3961: 3959: 3947: 3943: 3912:10.1177/c10n3r4 3896: 3892: 3855: 3850: 3843: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3813: 3809: 3799: 3797: 3792: 3791: 3787: 3777: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3763: 3759: 3749: 3747: 3732: 3728: 3689: 3685: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3652: 3646: 3613: 3557: 3553: 3506:Malaria Journal 3498: 3494: 3439: 3435: 3387: 3383: 3326: 3322: 3281: 3277: 3240: 3233: 3223: 3221: 3212: 3211: 3207: 3197: 3195: 3180: 3169: 3122: 3118: 3077: 3068: 3023: 3019: 3009: 3007: 3003: 2996: 2992: 2991: 2987: 2960: 2956: 2919: 2914: 2907: 2892:10.2307/1166259 2874: 2855: 2849: 2842: 2840: 2836:Financial Times 2829: 2828: 2824: 2814: 2812: 2805:Conserve Africa 2797: 2764: 2757: 2740: 2731: 2684: 2673: 2620: 2616: 2609: 2593: 2589: 2579: 2577: 2568: 2567: 2563: 2553: 2551: 2541: 2508: 2503: 2485:Yorùbá medicine 2450: 2443: 2438:Medicine portal 2436: 2431: 2429: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2412: 2386:pharmacokinetic 2370:properties and 2364:adverse effects 2360: 2348:clinical trials 2253: 2236: 2227: 2225:Modern medicine 2178: 2169: 2164: 2143: 2106: 2093: 2080: 2011:Inyanga/Sangoma 2004: 1991:Kalahari Desert 1949: 1806:Galenia secunda 1730:Cannabis sativa 1436:Prunus africana 1403: 1316:"bleed-cupping" 1296: 1267: 1246: 1225: 1220: 1197:adverse effects 1113: 1084: 1083: 1029:Adrenal fatigue 1024: 1016: 1015: 790:Southern Africa 775: 765: 764: 735: 733:Classifications 725: 724: 701:in chiropractic 659: 651: 650: 571:Quantum healing 561:Psychic surgery 436:Ionized jewelry 399:Herbal medicine 347:Esoteric energy 337:Energy medicine 305:Cupping therapy 300:Crystal healing 273:Colon cleansing 211:Bowen technique 181:Auriculotherapy 136: 128: 127: 63: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6018: 6008: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5990:Oral tradition 5987: 5985:Kongo religion 5982: 5965: 5964: 5962: 5961: 5956: 5950: 5948: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5914: 5912: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5892:Growth hormone 5889: 5883: 5881: 5877: 5876: 5874: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5861:Energy therapy 5858: 5852: 5850: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5840: 5835: 5828: 5826: 5820: 5819: 5817: 5816: 5814:Unani medicine 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5735: 5733: 5727: 5726: 5719: 5718: 5711: 5704: 5696: 5687: 5686: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5663: 5658: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5576:Black cat bone 5572: 5570: 5561: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5537: 5535: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5508:Nature spirits 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5484: 5482: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5472: 5467: 5464: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5436: 5433: 5430: 5425: 5422: 5419: 5416: 5413: 5410: 5407: 5404: 5399: 5396: 5393: 5387: 5385: 5379: 5378: 5371: 5369: 5367: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5350: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5338:Kongo religion 5334: 5333: 5326: 5319: 5311: 5302: 5301: 5289: 5286: 5285: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5199: 5197: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5189: 5183: 5181: 5177: 5176: 5174: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5152: 5150: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5142: 5140:Unani medicine 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5081: 5080: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5049: 5047: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4997:Aztec medicine 4993: 4991: 4987: 4986: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4928: 4926: 4922: 4921: 4914: 4913: 4906: 4899: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4881: 4864: 4861: 4860: 4859: 4849: 4844: 4837: 4836:External links 4834: 4831: 4830: 4803:(3): 275–282. 4787: 4744: 4715:(3): 273–278. 4695: 4636: 4607:(8): 458–470. 4587: 4560:(3): 705–710. 4544: 4522: 4495:(3): 620–629. 4479: 4457: 4430:(3): 818–827. 4414: 4371: 4336:(4): 455–464. 4320: 4266: 4215: 4184: 4127: 4108:(8): 465–467. 4089: 4075: 4055: 4012: 3969: 3941: 3890: 3863:(2): 184–189. 3841: 3827: 3807: 3785: 3757: 3726: 3699:(4): 417–431. 3683: 3611: 3551: 3492: 3433: 3381: 3320: 3293:(3): 604–614. 3275: 3231: 3205: 3167: 3116: 3089:(3): 559–574. 3066: 3037:(5): e000895. 3017: 2985: 2954: 2905: 2853: 2822: 2762: 2755: 2729: 2671: 2634:(5S): 115–23. 2614: 2607: 2587: 2561: 2505: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2498: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2441: 2427: 2411: 2408: 2390:antiretroviral 2359: 2356: 2341:P-glycoprotein 2291:African potato 2252: 2249: 2235: 2232: 2226: 2223: 2211:Nuremberg code 2205:issued by the 2201:basis for the 2195:P-glycoprotein 2177: 2174: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2142: 2139: 2105: 2102: 2098:Apprenticeship 2092: 2089: 2079: 2076: 2003: 2000: 1948: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1931: 1913: 1886: 1885: 1864: 1863: 1859:igazi elimdaka 1845: 1832:Lantana camara 1820: 1819: 1816:Emex australis 1803: 1790:Emex australis 1778: 1777: 1756: 1755: 1743: 1718: 1717: 1699: 1674: 1673: 1592:Asphodeloideae 1581: 1580: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1554: 1548: 1540: 1534:Justicia flava 1531: 1523: 1519:Emex australis 1515: 1507: 1501: 1493: 1485: 1477: 1469: 1402: 1399: 1390: 1389: 1386:blister beetle 1378: 1371: 1356: 1345: 1338: 1331: 1295: 1292: 1266: 1263: 1245: 1242: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1122:is a range of 1115: 1114: 1112: 1111: 1104: 1097: 1089: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 903: 902: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 879:Pressure point 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 810: 809: 804: 794: 793: 792: 787: 776: 771: 770: 767: 766: 763: 762: 760:Energy therapy 757: 752: 747: 742: 736: 731: 730: 727: 726: 723: 722: 721: 720: 710: 705: 704: 703: 698: 693: 688: 678: 677: 676: 666: 660: 657: 656: 653: 652: 649: 648: 646:Zero balancing 643: 638: 633: 631:Vision therapy 628: 623: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 546:Parapsychology 543: 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 466:Manual therapy 463: 461:Magnet therapy 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 423: 422: 421: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 360: 359: 354: 349: 344: 334: 329: 324: 323: 322: 315:Detoxification 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 281: 280: 270: 265: 260: 255: 254: 253: 248: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 137: 134: 133: 130: 129: 126: 125: 120: 119: 118: 108: 103: 98: 93: 92:(health fraud) 87: 82: 81: 80: 75: 64: 61: 60: 57: 56: 48: 47: 41: 40: 26:Ghanaian foods 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6017: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5995:Pseudoscience 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5980:Kongo culture 5978: 5977: 5975: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5949: 5945: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5933:Pseudoscience 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5884: 5882: 5878: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5849: 5845: 5839: 5836: 5833: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5825: 5821: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5764:Faith healing 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5717: 5712: 5710: 5705: 5703: 5698: 5697: 5694: 5684: 5683: 5672: 5662: 5659: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5627: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5617: 5613: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5573: 5571: 5569: 5565: 5562: 5558: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5530: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5485: 5483: 5481: 5477: 5471: 5468: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5454:Nzambi Mpungu 5452: 5449: 5446: 5443: 5440: 5437: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5423: 5420: 5417: 5414: 5411: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5380: 5375: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5332: 5327: 5325: 5320: 5318: 5313: 5312: 5309: 5299: 5298: 5287: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5228:Ethnomedicine 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5194: 5188: 5187:Bush medicine 5185: 5184: 5182: 5178: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5147: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5044: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5027:Maya medicine 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4988: 4983: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4929: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4912: 4907: 4905: 4900: 4898: 4893: 4892: 4889: 4882: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4866: 4857: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4791: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4748: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4691: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4640: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4548: 4533: 4526: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4467: 4461: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4375: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4324: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4273: 4271: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4219: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4188: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4094: 4078: 4072: 4068: 4067: 4059: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3958: 3957: 3952: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3894: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3848: 3846: 3830: 3824: 3820: 3819: 3811: 3795: 3789: 3770: 3769: 3761: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3687: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3659: 3651: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3607: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3555: 3547: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3437: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3336: 3331: 3324: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3287: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3238: 3236: 3219: 3215: 3209: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3163: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3083: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3021: 3002: 2995: 2989: 2980: 2975: 2971: 2970: 2965: 2958: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2912: 2910: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2880: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2838: 2837: 2832: 2826: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2758: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2618: 2610: 2604: 2600: 2599: 2591: 2575: 2571: 2565: 2550: 2546: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2506: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2466: 2465:Pharmacognosy 2463: 2461: 2458: 2457: 2453: 2447: 2442: 2439: 2428: 2425: 2424:Africa portal 2414: 2407: 2404: 2399: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2382: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2355: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 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1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1607: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1596:tobacco snuff 1593: 1589: 1586: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1528: 1524: 1521: 1520: 1516: 1513: 1512: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1494: 1491: 1490: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1461: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1453:KwaZulu-Natal 1449: 1448:, and pills. 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1424: 1419: 1415: 1407: 1398: 1396: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1376: 1372: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1343: 1339: 1336: 1332: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1312: 1311: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1291: 1289: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1272: 1262: 1259: 1250: 1244:Modern period 1241: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1229:colonial rule 1215: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1176: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1091: 1090: 1088: 1087: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 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