Torture during the Algerian War

160: 30: 62: 400: 652:, despite the latter's popularity with Algerian expatriates at the onset of the war. Torture was occasionally used alongside beatings and killings to eliminate opponents of the FLN, and the death toll of this internecine violence within France alone was approximately 4,000. Subsequently, the FLN used this organization to obtain a "revolutionary tax" that FLN leader Ali Haroun estimates amounted to "80% of the resources of the rebellion"; this was partly done through 850: 4195: 779: 4254: 4206: 108:(ICRC) access to the detainees. Those detained by the French were considered criminals and therefore did not receive the treatment that should be granted to them under Common Article 3. It wasn't until it became public knowledge in 1957 that the French government was using torture that they began to grant more rights to captured rebels. In 1957 the leader of the French Army in Algeria, 846:), created a Commission of Safeguard of Rights and Individual Liberties, composed of various personalities named by the government, which gave the public its report in September 1957: according to it, torture was a frequent practice in Algeria. However, some claim that the main aim was in fact to absolve the French army of accusations and to gain time (Raphaëlle Branche, 2004). 722:- 45, rue Rondenay - have been tasked with declaring in cafés and public places that they have suffered exactions, were robbed of pocketbooks or watches, and were victims of violence by the 'Algerian police'." A note diffused by the French arm of the FLN to its branches in September 1959 specifically focused on making claims of torture to influence the legal system: 641:. Little firm evidence exists about the use of torture by either side in France, but there were instances where French police or police auxiliaries may have engaged in torture as well as murder of FLN agents or protesters, and likewise the FLN may have used torture in eliminating opponents and collecting funds among Algerian expatriates in France. 112:, announced that the they would start treating captured enemies “as close as possible as the way in which prisoners of war are taken care of by civilized countries.” There was also the creation of internment camps for prisoners the following year, but the French government continued with their stance that the conflict was not a war. 1114:'Le Monde' that "Torture isn't indispensable in times of war, and one can very well do without it. When l look back on Algeria, it saddens me... One could have done things differently." To the contrary, General Bigeard (then Colonel) called her remarks a "tissue of lies", while Aussaresses justified it 1113:

on 20 June 2000. At the age of twenty she had been captured in September 1957, during the Battle of Algiers, and raped and tortured for three months. She named General Massu as the responsible of the French military at the time. Massu, 94 years old, acknowledged Ighilahriz's testimony and declared to

379:

published a summary of the report on the ICRC's seventh mission to Algeria. "Numerous cases of ill-treatment and torture are still being reported", the article disclosed, giving the ICRC's legitimacy to the many previously documented cases. A colonel in the French police force had told the delegates,

324:

If, in the general interest, the law allows a murderer to be killed, why should it be seen as monstrous to submit a delinquent who has been recognized as such, and is therefore liable to be put to death, to an interrogation which might be painful but whose only object is, thanks to the revelations he

151:

on 2 February 1955, to have access to the detainees for short missions of one month, but their report "was not to be made public." His government had to resign three days later. According to historian Raphaëlle Branche, "it was as if Mendès France was preparing for his departure by setting up as many

273:

that torture was to become a growing cancer for France, leaving behind a poison that would linger in the French system long after the war itself had ended. At the time, Horne could not confirm or deny that torture had been ordered by the highest ranks of the military and civilian hierarchy of the

1280:

on 20 June 2000, as "lies". An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz, had been tortured by General Massu. She herself called Bigeard a "liar", and criticized him for continuing to deny the use of torture 40 years later. However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has now admitted the use of

1179:

said, concerning Mitterrand, who was President of France from 1981 to 1995, that "when he was Justice Minister in 1956–57, during the Algerian War, he has been not as bad as had been claimed. He had under his charge only civil justice, and Reliquet (the public prosecutor in Algiers and who was a

470:

it is practiced on "industrial scale". The suspects were arrested during raids, after having been denounced. Suspects were divided into two groups, those immediately interrogated and those who would be forced to wait a bit. The latter were deprived of food for from two to eight days in a blatant

717:

An important issue within metropolitan France was public opinion, given that a substantial native population held a formally anticolonialist ideology (Communists, in particular) or was debating the war. The parties fought on this front too. The Prefecture of Police denied using torture or undue

552:

Other historians also show that torture was fully a part of the colonialist system: "Torture in Algeria was engraved in the colonial act, it is the "normal" illustration of an abnormal system", wrote Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard, and Sandrine Lemaire, who have published decisive work on the

506:

According to the "Vérité Liberté", the end of these torture sessions was either liberation (often the case for women and for those who could pay), internment, or "disappearance." "The capacity of this center, opened in 1957, is of 500 to 600 persons...Since its constitution, it has "controlled"

577:, other riots against the European presence occurred in Guelma, Batna, Biskra, and Kherrata, causing 103 deaths among the colonials. The repression of these riots officially caused 1,500 deaths, but N. Bancel, P. Blanchard, and S. Lemaire estimate it to be rather between 6,000 and 8,000 deaths 1246:, who had denied employing torture for forty years, finally also admitted that it had been used, although he claimed that he personally had not engaged in the practice. Bigeard, who qualified FLN activists as "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil." To the contrary, General 2343:

Quant à l'utilisation de la torture, elle était tolérée, sinon recommandée. François Mitterrand, le ministre de la Justice, avait, de fait, un émissaire auprès de Massu en la personne du juge Jean Bérard qui nous couvrait et qui avait une exacte connaissance de ce qui se passait la

2202:

French: "En réalité, le fond du problème était cette guerre injuste elle-même. À partir du moment où on mène une guerre coloniale, c’est-à-dire une guerre pour soumettre un peuple à sa volonté, on peut édicter toutes les lois que l'on veut, il y aura toujours des dépassements." from

703:

as well. While estimates differ, the number of dead officially acknowledged (in French government reports and statements of 1998) in putting down this demonstration was 40 to 48. Some protesters may have been tortured before being killed and having their bodies thrown in the

1231:" does not lead to "accompany the exposure of facts ... with commentaries justifying acts contrary to human dignity and universally reproved", "nor to glorify its author." Aussaresses had written in his book: "torture became necessary when emergency imposed itself." 4353: 687:), which was made up of 600 Algerians by Autumn 1960 and operated in areas densely populated by Algerians in Paris and its suburbs. While incompletely evidenced, the strongest presumption of torture by the FPA pertains to two locations in the 13th arrondissement. 1073:

According to Henri Alleg, "in reality, the base of the problem was this unjust war itself. From the moment one starts a colonial war, i.e. a war to submit a people to one's will, one can issue all the laws one wants, but they will always be violated."

115:

Early in the war, the FLN was progressively assuming control in Algeria through targeted acts against French nationals and Algerians supporting the French. From 1954 to 1956, the amount of violence massively increased, accompanied by

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For those of our brothers who will be arrested, it is important to specify what attitude they must adopt. Regardless of the way that the Algerian patriot is treated by police, he must in all circumstances, when presented to the

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Further escalation occurred from August to October 1961 as the FLN resumed bombings against the French police, and killing 11 policemen and injured 17 (in Paris and its suburbs). This culminated on 17 October 1961, when the

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ratified by France in 1951 because the detainees were not POW's. The civil authorities had different attitudes concerning the use of torture by the military. The IGAME (Inspecteur général en mission extraordinaire) of both

1917:

French: "en métropole, la torture n'atteint pas la même ampleur qu'en Algérie. Elle n'en demeure pas moins sur les deux rives, une pratique tolérée par les autorités et une violence à laquelle les Algériens savent pouvoir

2299:"J'ai rendu compte tous les jours de mon activité à mon supérieur direct, le Général Massu, lequel informaitle commandant en chef. Il aurait été loisible à toute autorité politique ou militaire responsible d'y mettre fin. 1158:

I have given daily accounts of my activity to my direct superior, General Massu, who informed the Chief of Staff. It would have been possible for the political or military authority to put an end to it at any moment.

1149:

According to Aussaresses, Massu followed on a daily basis the list of "interrogated" prisoners and of "accidents" which occurred during these torture sessions. Aussaresses said that it had been directly ordered by

1207:(LDH, Human Rights League) deposed a complaint against him for "apology of war crimes", as Paul Aussaresses justified the use of torture, claiming it had saved lives. He was condemned to a 7,500 Euros fine by the 3045:

Branche, Raphaëlle. "Justice et torture à Alger en 1957 : apports et limites d'un document" (en collaboration avec Sylvie Thénault) in Dominique Borne, Jean-Louis Nembrini et Jean-Pierre Rioux (dir.),

629:, torture did not attain the same height as in Algeria. It remained however, on both banks, a practice tolerated by the authorities and a form of violence to which Algerians knew they could be subjected." 3148: 4358: 1360: 507:(incarcerated for fewer than 8 days) 108,175 persons; filed 11,518 Algerians as nationalist activists...; kept for a duration of more than 8 days 7,363 persons; interned to Hamma 789 suspects." 304:(10e DP), in charge during the Battle of Algiers, was to crush the insurgency by whatever means necessary. They threw hundreds of prisoners into the sea from the port of Algiers or by helicopter 2517: 474:

According to historian R. Branche, torture would begin with the systematic stripping of the victim. Beating was combined with many different techniques, among them hanging by the feet or hands,

3678: 3207: 2684: 2624: 2571: 2272: 1334:, there can be no criminal proceedings against Le Pen for the crimes he is alleged to have committed in Algeria. In 1995, Le Pen unsuccessfully sued Jean Dufour, regional counselor of the 333:, while the army engaged in a "struggle against the terrorism" of the FLN. Special powers were devolved to the military and were returned to civilian powers only in September 1959, when 4286: 3512: 3501: 3099: 3076: 89:, FLN) as a legitimate entity. Thus, until 10 August 1999, the French Republic persisted in calling the Algerian War a simple "operation of public order" against the FLN "terrorism." 2652: 3771: 1219:, two editing houses who had published his book in which he made an apology of the use of torture, were sentenced each to a 15,000 Euros fine. The judgement was confirmed by the 1262: 3240:"The State, Historians and Memories: The Algerian War in France, 1992–2002", conference at the international symposium "Contemporary Historians and the Public Use of History", 498:..., electricity..., burning (using cigarettes, etc.)... Cases of prisoners who were driven insane were frequent... Between interrogation sessions, the suspects are imprisoned 380:"The struggle against terrorism makes it necessary to resort to certain questioning techniques as the only way of saving human life and avoiding new attacks." (Branche, 2004). 1130:", to the systematic use of torture during the war. He confessed to having himself engaged in torture and having himself illegally executed 24 Algerians, under the orders of 1208: 4375: 1171:, the Minister of Justice, had, as a matter of fact, an emissary near Massu in the person of judge Jean Bérard who covered us and knew exactly what was going on at night. 152:

protective barriers as possible." The French Army did not consider the detainees as POW's, but as PAM (French acronym for "taken captive while in possession of weapons",

718:

violence. Conversely, informers reported an organized campaign to implicate the FPA such that FLN "leaders and carefully chosen militants from the workers' residence in

502:

in cells, some of which were small enough to impede lying down. We must point out that some of them were very young teenagers and others old men of 75, 80 years or more.

794:

The systematic use of torture created a national controversy which has had lasting effects on French and Algerian society. As early as 2 November 1954, Catholic writer

4385: 4242: 3379: 1567: 1250:

denounced it, following Aussaresses' revelations, and before his death pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war.

1318:

s investigations as legitimate and credible, though Le Pen appealed. Le Pen still denies the use of torture, claiming there had been only "interrogation sessions".

4267: 2489:

GUERRE D'ALGÉRIE : Mgr Joseph Doré et Marc Lienhard réagissent aux déclarations du général Bigeard justifiant la pratique de la torture par l'armée française

731:

state that he has been beaten and tortured... He must never hesitate to accuse the police of torture and beatings. This greatly influences the judge and courts.

4390: 4275: 3910: 494:), chapter IV: first, the officer questions the prisoner in the "traditional" manner, hitting him with fist and kicking him. Then follows torture: hanging..., 3106: 3937: 1346:

in "Torture; Cancer of Democracy" alleges that, after being refused a drink at an already closed bar in Algiers, Le Pen had the bartender tortured to death.

3202: 93: 3825: 1216: 1011: 671:

on 14 March 1958. Tensions increased after 25 August 1958, when an FLN guerilla offensive in Paris killed three policemen on boulevard de l'Hôpital in the

644:

From 1954 onward, the FLN sought to establish a politico-military organization among the 300,000 Algerians residing in France; by 1958, it had overwhelmed

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torture, although he denies having personally used it. He then declared: "You are striking the heart of an 84-year-old man." Bigeard also recognized that

3683: 3616: 2186: 308:. Since the corpses sometimes came back up to the surface, they began to pour concrete on their feet. These victims were known as "Bigeard's shrimps" (" 2847: 999: 596: 2599: 1845: 3456: 2426: 1825: 384: 387:, a member of the Ministry of Justice who was responsible for internment issues in metropolitan France, had leaked the report to the journalists of 4380: 4370: 940:(1905–1950). Bonnaud was later imprisoned in June 1961, on a charge of supporting the FLN. Pierre Vidal-Naquet, one of the many signatories to the 874: 1726: 1254: 4301: 4258: 3229:"French Soldiers in Algeria, 1954–1962 : Denouncing Torture during the War and Forty Years Later", international symposium organized by the 2676: 2649: 2621: 2568: 2269: 1764: 1258: 843: 317: 243: 17: 2543: 2527: 2444: 1670: 4341: 1234:

However, the Court of Cassation rejected the complaint which had been deposed against him on charges of torture, claiming they were amnestied.

1142:, which had been covered up as "suicides." For justifying the use of torture, he was condemned in court, and stripped of his army rank and his 2491: 459:

was also censored in April 1961. In the same year, he denounced torture as a "habitual repressive method, systematic, official, and massive."

4329: 4235: 3121: 1750: 3989: 53:, a renowned French historian, estimated that there were "hundreds of thousands of instances of torture" by the French military in Algeria. 4365: 1837: 1227:

rejected the intercession in December 2004. The Court of Cassation declared in its judgment that "freedom to inform, which is the basis of

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Since France did not consider the conflict to be a war but rather "maintaining order" in the country, it did not consider itself tied by

4220: 3776: 2709: 1699: 1180:

liberal ) personally told me that he never received such strict instructions against torture as that which he had had from Mitterrand."

622: 3164: 163:"Gégène", a device used by the French forces to generate electricity; electrodes would then be attached to the victim's body parts for 1330:" (French supreme jurisdiction) concluded that it was legitimate to publish these assertions. However, because of the amnesty and the 4168: 3438: 3383: 2472: 1570: 950:(1957), and, as a historian, would continue to work on the Algerian War all his life. Beside Vidal-Naquet, famous signatories of the 1183:

Following Aussaresses' revelations, which proved that torture had been ordered by the highest levels of the French state hierarchy,

4414: 4228: 3373: 3170:"La commission de sauvegarde des droits et libertés individuels pendant la guerre d'Algérie. Chronique d'un échec annoncé ?", 105: 912:, tried unsuccessfully to persuade both sides to at least leave civilians alone, writing editorials against the use of torture in 827:, who was the only army official to denounce the use of torture. He was put in charge of military arrests and then had to resign. 242:, denounced without exception the use of torture, the French government was itself headed in 1957 by the general secretary of the 81:

between the years 1954-1962 which ended with Algeria gaining independence from France. The French state itself refused to see the

65:

An Algerian stripped naked and subjected to the actions of five French soldiers, who spread his legs and touch his intimate parts.

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in camps by the French army. Justified by the notion of "terrorism", torture was used indiscriminately against FLN detainees and

3947: 3051: 33:

An Algerian is submerged in water and tortured by the French army using electricity, while two tires serve as containers (1961).

4424: 3539: 434:, who was said to put people "to the question." Alleg's book detailed the various torture methods, which included the infamous 2081: 4439: 4054: 3954: 3477: 3427: 3403: 3274: 3195: 2923: 2901: 2860: 2060: 1945: 1590: 1488: 325:

may make about his accomplices and leaders, to protect the innocent? Exceptional circumstances call for exceptional measures.

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after the newspaper accused him of having engaged in torture. However, he lost his trial, with the French justice declaring

830:

Torture was denounced during the war by many French left-wing intellectuals, members or not of the PCF, which maintained an

4042: 4006: 3230: 3010: 2386: 2358: 2211: 2167: 2139: 4291: 3506: 3081: 4081: 86: 78: 3068:"Comment rétablir de la norme en temps d'exception. L’IGCI/CICDA pendant la guerre d'Algérie" in Laurent Feller (dir.), 4086: 1106: 391:. He had to resign a few months later, and the ICRC was prohibited for a year from undertaking any mission to Algeria. 278:

confirmed that torture had been employed not only at large scale but also pursuant to orders by the French government.

1799: 4449: 4037: 4027: 3815: 3810: 3750: 3309: 3241: 3006: 2994: 2942: 2894: 2886: 2841: 2013: 1989: 824: 329:

In 1958 General Salan set up special military internment centers for PAM rebels. The Minister of Interior declared a

3639: 301: 218:

newspaper confirmed the allegations of torture made by the opposition to the war, represented in particular by the

100:, which only mandates the humane treatment of persons in a non-interstate conflict. Besides prohibiting the use of 2028:

Valat, Rémy. "Un tournant de la Bataille de Paris: l'engagement de la Force de police auxiliaire (20 mars 1960)".

1335: 811:

Two important officials, one civilian and another military, resigned because of the use of torture. The first was

4152: 4032: 293: 287: 4001: 3915: 699:

curfew imposed on them by the prefecture of police, though the FLN had planned the demonstration as a potential

3788: 3234: 2394: 2367: 2225: 2148: 2121: 1635: 1204: 2183: 4210: 4049: 3395: 3248: 2518:"" le témoignage de cette femme est un tissu de mensonges. Tout est faux, c'est une manoeuvre " - LeMonde.fr" 1582: 137: 4334: 3399: 3062: 1586: 4434: 4147: 2596: 1759: 886: 672: 281: 265:

The controversy over the use of torture continues to have echoes today. Already in 1977, British historian

3699: 1355: 4419: 4250: 2907: 1327: 1224: 679:, leading to arrests and jailing of Algerians suspected of supporting the FLN. In 1960 Papon created the 3120:"La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie : un crime contre l'humanité ?" in Jean-Paul Jean and 4429: 4271: 4093: 3579: 3574: 3532: 3369: 3087: 1723: 744:, by decree, preempting a parliamentary discussion that might have denied immunity to men like General 649: 616: 212:(released in 1963) are famous examples of such censorship. A confidential report of the ICRC leaked to 3672: 2878: 4444: 4178: 3972: 3862: 3830: 2540: 2441: 1660: 538: 3027: 2975: 1015: 834:

line. Under pressure from the left-wing opposition to the war and the use of torture, including the

4098: 3867: 3724: 3596: 2488: 2413: 1602: 820: 763: 752: 419: 3494: 2934: 1747: 4280: 3800: 3584: 3050:, Actes de l'université d'été de l'Education Nationale, CRDP de Versailles, 2002, p. 71–88. 1297: 1200: 878: 363: 29: 894:. Torture was also evoked during the trial of ALN activist Djamila Boupacha, defended by lawyer 148: 4119: 3872: 3837: 3732: 3024:

La Torture dans la République : essai d'histoire et de politique contemporaine (1954–1962)

2799: 2774: 2749: 1431: 1416: 1372: 1339: 1331: 1192: 856:, former FLN militant, was arrested when she was 22 years old and subjected to torture and rape 835: 712: 692: 526: 520: 487: 251: 219: 144: 3111:

Archives "secrètes", secrets d'archives. Historiens et archivistes face aux archives sensibles

2724: 2699: 1544: 1326:

he allegedly used to commit war crimes as court evidence. This affair ended in 2000 when the "

1168: 1143: 1031: 759: 625:, who wrote her doctoral thesis on the use of torture during the Algerian war, noted that "in 198: 4199: 3977: 3525: 3420:

Torture as State Crime: A Criminological Analysis of the Transnational Institutional Torturer

3359: 1808: 1696: 1497: 1406: 1228: 800: 728: 534: 3301: 2384:

La condamnation du général Aussaresses pour apologie de la torture est maintenant définitive

1521:

The French Army and the Geneva Conventions during the Algerian War of Independence and After

3994: 3905: 3621: 3447: 2398: 1282: 1273: 1102: 891: 668: 660: 467: 462:

According to an article of Verité Liberté published in 1961, "In the Ameziane farm, a CRA (

175: 2857: 2469: 1937: 1870: 1452:"[LDH-Toulon] les crimes de l'armée française en Algérie, par Pierre Vidal-Naquet" 1272:, known as a torture center from which many Algerians never left alive. Bigeard qualified 612: 562: 414: 8: 4130: 4124: 3738: 3564: 3015: 2982: 2904:(includes abstract by Raphaëlle Branche, "La torture pendant la guerre", p. 381–402) 2117: 1631: 1343: 1176: 1139: 1063: 1035: 923: 700: 638: 626: 239: 179: 133: 74: 61: 50: 38: 1019: 795: 770:

was declared in 1982. Pierre Vidal-Naquet, among others, has qualified it as a "shame".

695:

suppressed a demonstration by 30,000 Algerians who were ostensibly protesting against a

282:

The Battle of Algiers (January–October 1957), the state of emergency and the ICRC report

4309: 3805: 3466: 3011:"Escadrons de la mort, l’école française" présentation sur le site de la LDH de Toulon. 2960: 2470:

La torture pendant la guerre d’Algérie / 1954 – 1962 40 ans après, l’exigence de vérité

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in 2000 that "torture was not necessary and that we could have decided not to use it".

963: 914: 815:, former General Secretary of the Algiers Police, who had been himself tortured by the 427: 338: 330: 97: 3653: 2315: 2250: 1253:

Bigeard's justification of torture has been criticized by various persons, among whom

1043: 819:. He resigned on 12 September 1957, in protest against the massive use of torture and 3900: 3820: 3744: 3473: 3423: 3305: 3270: 3191: 3057:"La seconde commission de sauvegarde des droits et libertés individuels" in AFHJ, in 3002: 2990: 2948: 2938: 2919: 2897: 2890: 2882: 2837: 2056: 2033: 2009: 1985: 1941: 1692: 1293: 1047: 942: 928: 741: 591: 441: 342: 334: 313: 255: 117: 3156: 1023: 574: 430:, 1958), which sold 60,000 copies in one day. The title of his book referred to the 3895: 3888: 3215: 2660: 2220: 2078: 1421: 1410: 1212: 1123: 1051: 983: 967: 937: 881: 853: 831: 745: 449: 275: 231: 164: 3942: 2804: 2786: 2761: 2736: 2704: 2552: 2453: 2316:

Human Rights Watch: le gouvernement français doit ordonner une enquête officielle.

1665: 1387: 987: 895: 436: 4346: 3794: 3646: 3354: 3315: 2781: 2756: 2731: 2713: 2688: 2628: 2603: 2575: 2547: 2495: 2476: 2448: 2390: 2362: 2322: 2276: 2257: 2215: 2190: 2171: 2143: 2113: 2106: 2090: 2085: 1803: 1754: 1730: 1703: 1643: 1627: 1609: 1574: 1551: 1492: 1485: 1455: 1220: 995: 787: 783: 719: 582: 223: 208: 203: 3330: 3201:

Branche, Raphaëlle. "Torture and the border of humanity" (in collaboration with

2383: 2355: 2208: 2164: 2136: 1199:, declaring that, despite past amnesties, such crimes, which may also have been 975: 4314: 3984: 3608: 3591: 3188:

The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957

2870: 1902: 1243: 1188: 1135: 1027: 1003: 979: 955: 919: 909: 587: 542: 266: 227: 3265: 2239:"la torture n'était pas indispensable et l'on aurait très bien pu s'en passer" 4408: 4139: 3355:

COLONIALISM THROUGH THE SCHOOL BOOKS – The hidden history of the Algerian war

3280: 3260: 3134: 2989:, 453 pages. La Découverte (15 September 2004). Collection: Cahiers libres. ( 2952: 2866: 2656: 2650:"J'ai croisé Le Pen à la villa Sésini" (I crossed Le Pen in the Sesini Villa) 2037: 1886: 1711: 1486:

COLONIALISM THROUGH THE SCHOOL BOOKS – The hidden history of the Algerian war

1401: 1377: 1307: 1247: 1083: 1039: 1007: 991: 971: 664: 605: 573:", the repression in Algeria has used the same methods. Following 9 May 1945 530: 495: 483: 478:, torture by electric shock, and rape. It was described by "Verité Liberté": 475: 399: 359: 355: 297: 259: 170:

Although the use of torture quickly became well-known and was opposed by the

755:, which gave blanket amnesty to all acts committed during the Algerian war. 4324: 3666: 3548: 3517: 3391: 3130: 3126: 1578: 1269: 1067: 1059: 1055: 899: 812: 645: 367: 312:") after the surname of a notorious paratroop helicopter commander. French 305: 235: 70: 46: 2851: 1796: 4103: 3659: 3634: 3293: 3095: 2826: 2204: 2032:. 342–343 (1st semester 2004). Société française d'histoire d'outre-mer. 933: 865: 860: 516: 445: 431: 409: 403: 292:

The civilian authorities relinquished control to the military during the

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L'accablante confession du général Aussaresses sur la torture en Algérie

2120:, 1996, Confluences Méditerranée N°19, Autumn 1996 (re-published by the 1117: 849: 3325: 3219: 2931:

Les égorgeurs : Guerre d'Algérie, chronique d'un appelé, 1959–1960

2430: 2414:

GUERRE D'ALGÉRIE : le général Bigeard et la pratique de la torture

2356:

condamnation du général Aussaresses pour "apologie de crimes de guerre"

1311: 1196: 1151: 1131: 839: 778: 499: 247: 193: 132:, commander-in-chief of the French forces in Algeria, had developed in 121: 3001:, 539 pages. Sudamericana; Édition : Translatio (October 2005). ( 4319: 3693: 3387: 3283:, Torture and Democracy, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007. 3048:

Apprendre et enseigner la guerre d'Algérie et le Maghreb contemporain

1628:

Des guerres d’Indochine et d’Algérie aux dictatures d’Amérique latine

1425: 1167:

Concerning the use of torture, it was tolerated, if not recommended.

959: 904: 767: 653: 554: 171: 3719: 3155:"La lutte contre le terrorisme urbain" in Jean-Charles Jauffret et 2633: 2608: 2580: 2569:

Le chef du FN oppose un "démenti formel" aux accusations de torture

2522: 2500: 2418: 2281: 1614: 1302: 570: 375: 214: 125: 3237:

on "Soldier Testimony and Human Rights", Jerusalem, February 2004.

2597:

Le Pen et la torture, l'enquete du "Monde" validée par le tribunal

448:, etc. Beside torturing actual suspects, the French military also 1984:

Jean-Luc Einaudi: "La bataille de Paris: 17 October 1961", 1991,

816: 601: 351: 101: 42: 2800:"Torture: Le Pen perd son procès en diffamation contre Le Monde" 1134:'s government. He also acknowledged the assassination of lawyer 3348: 3345:

THE FRENCH ARMY AND TORTURE DURING THE ALGERIAN WAR (1954–1962)

2915: 2541:

Louisette Ighilahriz: " Massu ne pouvait plus nier l’évidence "

1555: 1545:

THE FRENCH ARMY AND TORTURE DURING THE ALGERIAN WAR (1954–1962)

1323: 1285:

had been assassinated, and his death disguised as a "suicide".

566: 546: 174:

opposition, the French state repeatedly denied its employment,

4354:

Centre d'instruction à la pacification et à la contre-guérilla

3247:"The violations of the law during the French-Algerian War" in 1797:

TORTURE IN ALGERIA: PAST ACTS THAT HAUNT FRANCE – False memory

250:. In general, the SFIO supported the colonial wars during the 4173: 3497:, Adam Shatz, The New York Review of Books – 21 November 2002 3255:, Zed Books, 2004, p. 134–145 (also available in German) 3146:

Branche, Raphaëlle. "Des viols pendant la guerre d'Algérie",

2833: 2830:

Mémoire algérienne : Souvenirs de luttes et d'espérances

1833: 1830:

Chroniques d'un massacre. 8 May 1945. Sétif, Guelma, Kherrata

1697:

Breaking the silence: the Catholic Church and the "dirty war"

705: 545:" policy and the use of torture, which were legitimized by a 226:

circles. Although many left-wing activists, including famous

3370:

Torture in Algeria. The report that was to change everything

2663:(who had argued in favor of the use of torture in Algeria), 1875:

La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie, 1954–1962

1724:

Torture in Algeria. The report that was to change everything

3114: 347: 4015: 3500:

Branche, Raphaëlle. 7 March 2002, Audio Conference at the

525:

Torture was a procedure in use since the beginning of the

440:, an electricity generator initially used for telephones, 316:

quieted the troubled military's consciences. One of them,

2107:

La guerre d’Algérie – bilan d’un engagement: un entretien

2006:

Les silences de la police – 16 July 1942, 17 October 1961

1975:

Jean-Luc Einaudi and Maurice Rajsfus, 2001, op.cit., p.75

1101:

Two days after the visit to France of Algerian president

3468:

Torture: The Role of Ideology in the French–Algerian War

1263:

Church of the Augsburg Confession of Alsace and Lorraine

486:

is done in accordance with the provisional guide of the

370:), was actively involved in repression (Branche, 2004). 182:

alone) which dealt with the subject and 586 in Algeria.

3334:(translated in many languages; censored during the war) 2912:

Coloniser, Exterminer: Sur la guerre et l'État colonial

1795:

Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire,

1661:"Prise de tête Marcel Bigeard, un soldat propre ?" 1409:, Italian film which describes very well, according to 85:

as a war, as that would recognize the other party (the

2510: 918:

newspaper. Other famous opponents of torture included

656:, in some instances by means of beatings and torture. 422:(PCA), who himself had been tortured, denounced it in 3938:

1961 French referendum on Algerian self-determination

2622:

L'affaire du poignard du lieutenant Le Pen en Algérie

1118:

General Aussaresses' 2000 confession and condemnation

954:, published after the 1960 Barricades Week, included 49:(1954–1962), creating an ongoing public controversy. 2937:(21e éd. ed.). Paris: Éd. du Monde libertaire. 1268:

In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in

2875:

La Guerre d'Algérie, 1954–2004. La fin de l'amnésie

2861:"La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie" 1959:Guy Chambarlac, "Tueurs et porteurs de valise", in 1934:

La 7e wilaya: La guerre du FLN en France, 1954–1962

604:in Algeria?" Torture had also been used during the 492:

Guide provisoire de l'officier de renseignement, OR

394: 3465: 3320:Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency 2079:France Faces Its Demons For Algerian War Brutality 740:The first amnesty was passed in 1962 by President 362:(who died in 2007 after having been convicted for 3457:History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria 3214:"Campaign against torture" and "Algerian War" in 3034: 594:wrote an article published on 6 December 1951 in 4406: 3152:, n°75, juillet-septembre 2002, p. 123–132. 2999:Los Escuadrones De La Muerte/ the Death Squadron 1824:Bancel, Blanchard and Lemaire (op.cit.) quote ** 1791: 1789: 1300:party and a lieutenant during the war, attacked 758:The OAS members were given amnesty by president 3269:, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007 ( 3161:Militaires et guérilla dans la guerre d'Algérie 2224:on 8 September 2005 (complete interview on the 2102: 2100: 782:People fasting against torture in Paris, 1957 ( 354:chose to avoid the issue, whereas the IGAME of 2003: 1638:(LDH, Human Rights League), 10 January 2007. 1514: 1512: 1510: 1086:defended the use of torture in his 1972 book, 751:The second amnesty was enacted in 1968 by the 178:more than 250 books, newspapers and films (in 4236: 3607: 3533: 2700:"Quand Le Pen travaillait 20 heures par jour" 1928: 1926: 1924: 1786: 773: 254:(1947–54), starting with the crushing of the 3547: 3244:, Stockholm, August 2002 (published in 2006) 3105:"Faire l'histoire de la violence d'État" in 2442:Torture Bigeard: " La presse en parle trop " 2349: 2097: 2004:Einaudi, Jean-Luc; Rajsfus, Maurice (2001), 1603:Henri Pouillot, mon combat contre la torture 659:After being involved in early repression in 296:from January to October 1957. Thus, General 244:French Section of the Workers' International 2371:(LDH, Human Rights League), February 2002. 2218:, first half of the interview published by 2074: 2072: 1507: 541:, the invasion of Algeria was marked by a " 471:violation of the 1949 Geneva Conventions." 4243: 4229: 3540: 3526: 3075:"La torture, l'armée et la République" in 2820: 2775:Jean Dufour: "Le Pen vient d'être débouté" 1921: 4169:Defectors from the French army to the ALN 3439:A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962 3211:, n°174, December 2002, p. 539–548. 2854:de édité par Rahma co-édition Rahma-Anep. 2750:"Le Pen attaque un élu du PCF en justice" 2251:French veteran fined for excusing torture 1540: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1530: 922:, who published on counsel of his friend 632: 320:, wrote a text distributed to all units: 3384:Archived from the original on 6 Oct 2022 3072:, Limoges, PULIM, 2004, p. 299–310. 2852:"Torturés par Le Pen" sur Rebellyon.info 2244: 2069: 2050: 2008:, Paris: L'esprit frappeur, p. 75, 1848:, coll. 'Textes à l'appui', Paris, 1994 1655: 1653: 1651: 848: 777: 398: 158: 106:International Committee of the Red Cross 60: 28: 3417: 3174:, n°62, avril-juin 1999, p. 14–29. 2987:Escadrons de la mort, l'école française 2933:. Collection Pages libres (in French). 2725:"New Revelations on Le Pen, tortionary" 2165:France confronts Algeria torture claims 1518: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1475: 1473: 258:in 1947 by the socialist government of 14: 4407: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2209:Colonisation: A Crime Against Humanity 1907:La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie 1775: 1773: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1527: 1413:himself, the use of torture in Algeria 1361:Torture during the First Indochina War 1077: 4224: 4055:Memorial to the Liberation of Algeria 3521: 3513:La torture, l’armée et la République" 3463: 3300:, Lausanne: E. La Cité, 1958; Paris: 3287: 2590: 2184:Manifeste des 121, transl. in English 2158: 1648: 1237: 1109:activist, published her testimony in 798:called against the use of torture in 341:. General Salan refused to apply the 4205: 3226:, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons. 3208:International Social Science Journal 1470: 1288: 1154:'s government. He notably declared: 1128:Services spéciaux, Algérie 1955–1957 466:, Information and Action Center) of 140:" that included the use of torture. 3347:, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de 2928: 2304: 1855:Aux origines de la guerre d'Algérie 1770: 1736: 1554:, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de 838:(PCF), the government, then led by 464:Centre de renseignement et d'action 24: 3410: 3266:Torture and the Twilight of Empire 3253:Genocide, War Crimes, and the West 3180: 3172:Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire 3149:Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire 3039: 2708:(freely accessible), 2 May 2002. 73:was an armed conflict between the 25: 4461: 3751:Massacre of 14 July 1953 in Paris 3488: 3190:. (New York: Enigma Books, 2010) 2397:, 11 December 2004 (mirroring an 2137:le général Jacques de Bollardière 2027: 1673:from the original on 25 June 2005 1296:, former leader of the far-right 1105:, Louisette Ighilahriz, a former 766:), and a general amnesty for all 4252: 4204: 4194: 4193: 3224:Encyclopedy of Europe, 1914–2004 3167:, 2001, 561 p., p. 469–487. 3065:, 2005, 366 p., p. 237–246. 2094:, Thursday 10 May 2001; Page A26 1763:, 21 November 2002 (mirrored by 1257:, archbishop of Strasbourg, and 1138:and head of FLN in Algiers, and 808:("Above all, do not torture."). 623:University of Paris I – Sorbonne 561:) of the Darha caves in 1844 by 395:Other testimony and descriptions 373:On 5 January 1960 the newspaper 274:French state. In 2001, General 4415:Torture during the Algerian War 4259:Torture during the Algerian War 3092:La guerre d'Algérie (1954–1962) 3070:Contrôler les agents du pouvoir 3059:La justice en Algérie 1830–1962 2815: 2793: 2768: 2743: 2718: 2693: 2670: 2643: 2615: 2562: 2534: 2482: 2463: 2435: 2407: 2377: 2335: 2291: 2263: 2231: 2196: 2177: 2130: 2044: 2021: 1997: 1978: 1969: 1953: 1911: 1896: 1880: 1864: 1818: 1717: 1691:Quoted by Argentine journalist 946:against torture, wrote a book, 621:in contemporary history at the 600:, which was titled "Is there a 18:Torture during the Algerian war 4287:Centre clandestin de détention 3789:Declaration of 1 November 1954 3502:Université de tous les savoirs 3380:Video Ina - Archives pour tous 3235:Hebrew University of Jerusalem 3077:Université de tous les savoirs 3035:Abstracts and collective works 2055:. Paris: Perrin. p. 471. 1685: 1621: 1596: 1561: 1444: 510: 13: 1: 4425:Human rights abuses in France 3911:Proposed partition of Algeria 3460:. Cambridge University Press. 3451:. Cambridge University Press. 1857:, La Découverte, Paris, 2001. 1706:, 28 July 2005, extract from 1437: 1276:'s revelations, published in 1107:Armée de Libération Nationale 962:survivor and writer, writers 529:, which was initiated by the 383:It was found much later that 138:counter-revolutionary warfare 128:suspected of aiding the FLN. 4440:French war crimes in Algeria 4002:Effects in Algerian politics 3242:Södertörn University College 2908:Le Cour Grandmaison, Olivier 2030:Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire 1760:The New York Review of Books 1261:, president of the Lutheran 1203:, may not be amnestied. The 1195:) to indict Aussaresses for 1126:admitted in his 2001 book, " 1038:, author and founder of the 735: 675:and another in front of the 580:Three years before the 1954 565:to the 1945 riots in Sétif, 104:, Common Article 3 gave the 7: 3617:Algerian popular resistance 3186:Aussaresses, General Paul. 3137:... Des procès pour mémoire 2863:, Gallimard septembre 2001. 2368:Ligue des droits de l'homme 2260:, BBC News, 25 January 2002 2226:Ligue des droits de l'homme 2149:Ligue des droits de l'homme 1963:, volume 15 (Winter 1996). 1669:(in French). 24 June 2000. 1636:Ligue des droits de l'homme 1519:Branche, Raphaëlle (2017). 1349: 1209:Tribunal de grande instance 1205:Ligue des droits de l'homme 1187:sent a letter to President 669:head of the Parisian police 539:Governor-General of Algeria 288:Battle of Algiers (1956–57) 143:The ICRC was authorized by 56: 10: 4466: 4272:Internment camps in France 4153:Organisation armée secrète 4094:Algerian National Movement 3816:Hijacking of the FLN plane 3575:French conquest of Algeria 3454:McDougall, James. (2006). 3445:McDougall, James. (2017). 3400:Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc 3338: 3063:La Documentation Française 1587:Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc 1336:Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur 1306:and former Prime minister 1088:The True Battle of Algiers 774:Controversy during the war 710: 685:Force de police auxiliaire 650:Algerian National Movement 514: 285: 4300: 4265: 4191: 4161: 4112: 4082:National Liberation Front 4074: 4067: 4024:1 November 1954 Stadiums 3963: 3930: 3881: 3863:Killing of Saadia Mebarek 3846: 3770: 3763: 3712: 3700:Sétif and Guelma massacre 3563: 3556: 3472:. New York, NY: Praeger. 3436:Horne, Alistair. (1977). 3418:Collard, Melanie (2018). 2755:29 September 2007 at the 2389:30 September 2007 at the 2361:30 September 2007 at the 2321:15 September 2003 at the 2142:27 September 2007 at the 2112:30 September 2007 at the 2051:Le Goyet, Pierre (1989). 1877:, Paris, Gallimard, 2001. 1642:30 September 2007 at the 1382:La vraie bataille d'Alger 1356:Sétif and Guelma massacre 1322:produced in May 2003 the 1092:La vraie bataille d'Alger 677:cartoucherie de Vincennes 87:National Liberation Front 79:National Liberation Front 4450:Controversies in Algeria 4376:Caserne des bérets bleus 4099:Algerian Communist Party 4087:National Liberation Army 3868:Charonne subway massacre 3725:Decolonisation of Africa 3143:, 2002, p. 136–143. 3098:, 2004, p. 87–108 ( 2627:13 November 2009 at the 2275:4 September 2015 at the 2256:1 September 2007 at the 2189:20 November 2019 at the 2088:, by Keith B. Richburg, 2084:20 December 2019 at the 1802:26 December 2019 at the 1702:22 November 2006 at the 1573:28 November 2008 at the 1094:). He later declared to 806:Surtout, ne pas torturer 618:maîtresse de conférences 420:Algerian Communist Party 154:pris les armes à la main 4148:Front Algérie Française 3801:Battle of Philippeville 3365:(in English and French) 2821:French-language studies 2687:4 November 2007 at the 2574:5 November 2007 at the 2494:5 November 2007 at the 2475:9 February 2007 at the 1961:Enquêtes sur l'Histoire 1853:Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer, 1814:(in English and French) 1608:20 October 2007 at the 1550:20 October 2007 at the 1503:(in English and French) 1342:) for the same reason. 1201:crimes against humanity 537:, who became the first 527:colonization of Algeria 364:crimes against humanity 302:10th Parachute Division 4268:Ministry of Mujahideen 3733:Brazzaville Conference 3495:The Torture of Algiers 3231:University of Maryland 3117:éditions, 2003, 288 p. 1748:The torture of Algiers 1733:, ICRC, 19 August 2005 1710:transl. in English by 1432:Human rights in France 1417:French colonial empire 1373:Paris massacre of 1961 1340:French Communist Party 1211:court of Paris, while 1173: 1161: 926:an article in 1956 in 857: 836:French Communist Party 825:General de Bollardière 821:extrajudicial killings 791: 733: 713:Paris massacre of 1961 681:Auxiliary Police Force 637:The war also affected 633:In metropolitan France 557:." From the smokings ( 521:French Colonial Empire 504: 406: 327: 220:French Communist Party 167: 66: 34: 3978:French Fifth Republic 3955:Algerian independence 3360:Le Monde diplomatique 2929:Rey, Benoist (1999). 2889:. Re-edition Pluriel 2780:22 April 2019 at the 2730:22 April 2019 at the 2214:19 March 2007 at the 2174:, BBC, 9 January 2001 2124:Human Rights League) 1809:Le Monde diplomatique 1498:Le Monde diplomatique 1491:22 April 2019 at the 1407:The Battle of Algiers 1229:freedom of expression 1165: 1156: 887:The Battle of Algiers 852: 804:in an article titled 781: 724: 711:Further information: 533:in 1830. Directed by 515:Further information: 480: 418:newspaper and of the 402: 322: 286:Further information: 271:A Savage War of Peace 162: 64: 32: 4391:Camp de Beni Messous 4276:Camp de regroupement 3995:1962 Algerian crisis 3990:Aftermath in Algeria 3906:Manifesto of the 121 3890:Communauté française 3622:Algerian nationalism 3464:Maran, Rita (1989). 3448:A History of Algeria 3016:Vidal-Naquet, Pierre 2983:Robin, Marie-Monique 2935:preface by Mato-Topé 2655:4 September 2012 at 2602:3 March 2016 at the 2556:, 23 November 2000. 2546:25 June 2005 at the 2530:on 19 February 2010. 2447:24 June 2005 at the 2429:19 February 2010 at 2399:Agence France-Presse 2152:(LDH) October 2001. 1729:25 June 2009 at the 1458:on 22 September 2008 1274:Louisette Ighilahriz 1103:Abdelaziz Bouteflika 661:Constantine, Algeria 149:Pierre Mendès France 4435:Algerian war crimes 4131:Commandos de Chasse 4125:French Armed Forces 3739:First Indochina War 3580:Invasion of Algiers 2712:15 May 2006 at the 2170:25 May 2020 at the 2118:Pierre Vidal-Naquet 2053:La guerre d'Algérie 1891:La guerre d'Algérie 1842:Massacres coloniaux 1753:15 May 2018 at the 1632:Marie-Monique Robin 1344:Pierre Vidal-Naquet 1223:in April 2003. The 1177:Pierre Vidal-Naquet 1175:However, historian 1169:François Mitterrand 1078:2000s controversies 1064:Jean-Pierre Vernant 1036:Alain Robbe-Grillet 1032:Jean-François Revel 924:Pierre Vidal-Naquet 869:, which along with 760:François Mitterrand 673:13th arrondissement 639:metropolitan France 627:metropolitan France 455:Benoist Rey's book 366:for his role under 337:made his speech on 300:, commander of the 240:Pierre Vidal-Naquet 180:metropolitan France 75:French Armed Forces 51:Pierre Vidal-Naquet 39:French Armed Forces 4420:Torture in Algeria 4310:Camp de Rivesaltes 3826:Week of barricades 3806:Soummam conference 3626:Attempted reforms 3351:, 18 November 2004 3302:Éditions de Minuit 3288:Contemporary works 2858:Branche, Raphaëlle 2677:"Un lourd silence" 2327:Human Rights Watch 1779:Text published in 1618:, 1 November 2004. 1558:, 18 November 2004 1238:Bigeard's attitude 1225:Court of Cassation 1185:Human Rights Watch 1022:, another editor, 1018:publishing house, 964:Simone de Beauvoir 936:review founded by 892:censored in France 863:, denounced it in 858: 792: 488:intelligence agent 412:, director of the 407: 343:Geneva Conventions 339:self-determination 331:state of emergency 314:military chaplains 168: 118:summary executions 98:Geneva Conventions 67: 37:Elements from the 35: 4430:Military scandals 4399: 4398: 4218: 4217: 4187: 4186: 4113:Anti-independence 4063: 4062: 4050:Martyrs' Memorial 3926: 3925: 3901:FLN football team 3821:Operation Corsica 3811:Battle of Algiers 3759: 3758: 3745:Malagasy Uprising 3708: 3707: 3479:978-0-130-80785-4 3429:978-1-315-45611-9 3275:978-0-691-13135-1 3196:978-1-929631-30-8 3107:Sébastien Laurent 3052:Available on-line 2968:External link in 2924:978-2-213-62316-0 2902:978-2-01-279279-1 2848:Bousselham, Hamid 2836:, 2005, 407 pp., 2790:, 26 July 1995. 2765:, 4 April 1995. 2659:, interview with 2062:978-2-262-00723-2 1946:978-2-02-009231-9 1871:Raphaëlle Branche 1693:Horacio Verbitsky 1630:, interview with 1328:Cour de cassation 1294:Jean-Marie Le Pen 1289:Jean-Marie Le Pen 1048:Nathalie Sarraute 952:Manifeste des 121 943:Manifeste des 121 879:Italian Communist 823:. The other was 753:National Assembly 742:Charles de Gaulle 613:Raphaëlle Branche 442:sleep deprivation 415:Alger Républicain 335:Charles de Gaulle 310:crevettes Bigeard 294:Battle of Algiers 256:Madagascar revolt 145:Radical-Socialist 83:colonial conflict 77:and the Algerian 16:(Redirected from 4457: 4445:Racism in France 4362: 4350: 4338: 4295: 4284: 4257: 4256: 4255: 4245: 4238: 4231: 4222: 4221: 4208: 4207: 4197: 4196: 4075:Pro-independence 4072: 4071: 4013: 4012: 3919: 3896:Constantine Plan 3834: 3780: 3768: 3767: 3687: 3605: 3604: 3561: 3560: 3542: 3535: 3528: 3519: 3518: 3510: 3483: 3471: 3433: 3396:Jacques Duquesne 3376:, 19 August 2005 3366: 3316:Trinquier, Roger 3203:Françoise Sironi 3100:Audio Conference 3085: 2979: 2973: 2972: 2966: 2964: 2956: 2809: 2797: 2791: 2772: 2766: 2747: 2741: 2740:, 4 June 2002. 2722: 2716: 2697: 2691: 2674: 2668: 2661:Paul Aussaresses 2647: 2641: 2640: 2619: 2613: 2594: 2588: 2587: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2526:. Archived from 2514: 2508: 2507: 2504:, 15 July 2000. 2486: 2480: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2439: 2433: 2425: 2411: 2405: 2404: 2381: 2375: 2374: 2353: 2347: 2339: 2333: 2332: 2313: 2302: 2295: 2289: 2288: 2267: 2261: 2248: 2242: 2235: 2229: 2200: 2194: 2181: 2175: 2162: 2156: 2155: 2134: 2128: 2127: 2104: 2095: 2076: 2067: 2066: 2048: 2042: 2041: 2025: 2019: 2018: 2001: 1995: 1994: 1982: 1976: 1973: 1967: 1966: 1957: 1951: 1950: 1930: 1919: 1915: 1909: 1900: 1894: 1884: 1878: 1868: 1862: 1836:, Paris, 1995 ** 1822: 1816: 1815: 1793: 1784: 1777: 1768: 1745: 1734: 1721: 1715: 1689: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1657: 1646: 1625: 1619: 1600: 1594: 1583:Jacques Duquesne 1565: 1559: 1542: 1525: 1524: 1516: 1505: 1504: 1483: 1468: 1467: 1465: 1463: 1454:. Archived from 1448: 1422:Operation Condor 1411:Paul Aussaresses 1369: 1283:Larbi Ben M’Hidi 1140:Larbi Ben M'Hidi 1124:Paul Aussaresses 1052:Jean-Paul Sartre 1020:François Maspero 1014:, editor of the 1000:Robert Lapoujade 984:Marguerite Duras 968:Maurice Blanchot 938:Emmanuel Mounier 882:Gillo Pontecorvo 854:Djamila Boupacha 832:anti-colonialist 796:François Mauriac 746:Paul Aussaresses 276:Paul Aussaresses 238:, and historian 232:Jean-Paul Sartre 222:(PCF) and other 165:electric torture 94:Common Article 3 41:used deliberate 21: 4465: 4464: 4460: 4459: 4458: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4400: 4395: 4386:Villa des Roses 4356: 4344: 4332: 4296: 4289: 4278: 4261: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4219: 4214: 4183: 4157: 4108: 4059: 4017: 4011: 3973:May 1958 crisis 3965: 3959: 3922: 3913: 3877: 3850: 3848: 3842: 3828: 3795:Toussaint Rouge 3781: 3774: 3755: 3729: 3704: 3681: 3654:Crémieux Decree 3647:Divide and rule 3603: 3566: 3552: 3546: 3504: 3491: 3486: 3480: 3442:. Viking Press. 3430: 3413: 3411:Further reading 3406:archive website 3364: 3341: 3290: 3183: 3181:Other languages 3079: 3042: 3040:French-language 3037: 3020:L'Affaire Audin 2970: 2969: 2967: 2958: 2957: 2945: 2918:, p. 161. 2871:Stora, Benjamin 2823: 2818: 2813: 2812: 2808:, 27 June 2003. 2798: 2794: 2782:Wayback Machine 2773: 2769: 2757:Wayback Machine 2748: 2744: 2732:Wayback Machine 2723: 2719: 2714:Wayback Machine 2698: 2694: 2689:Wayback Machine 2675: 2671: 2648: 2644: 2638: 2637:, 17 May 2003. 2629:Wayback Machine 2620: 2616: 2612:, 28 June 2003. 2604:Wayback Machine 2595: 2591: 2585: 2584:, 9 June 2002. 2576:Wayback Machine 2567: 2563: 2557: 2548:Wayback Machine 2539: 2535: 2516: 2515: 2511: 2505: 2496:Wayback Machine 2487: 2483: 2477:Wayback Machine 2468: 2464: 2458: 2457:, 12 May 2000. 2449:Wayback Machine 2440: 2436: 2423: 2422:, 4 July 2000. 2412: 2408: 2402: 2391:Wayback Machine 2382: 2378: 2372: 2363:Wayback Machine 2354: 2350: 2340: 2336: 2330: 2323:Wayback Machine 2314: 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also wrote: 1144:Legion of honor 1120: 1080: 1044:Françoise Sagan 996:Claude Lanzmann 948:L'Affaire Audin 788:Louis Massignon 784:Lanza del Vasto 776: 738: 715: 635: 583:Toussaint Rouge 575:Sétif massacres 535:Marshal Bugeaud 523: 513: 484:interrogatories 397: 385:Gaston Gosselin 290: 284: 252:Fourth Republic 228:existentialists 224:anti-militarist 209:Le Petit Soldat 204:Jean-Luc Godard 147:prime minister 59: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4463: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4381:Villa Mireille 4378: 4373: 4371:Ferme Sabatier 4368: 4363: 4351: 4339: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4315:Ferme Gauthier 4312: 4306: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4266: 4263: 4262: 4248: 4247: 4240: 4233: 4225: 4216: 4215: 4192: 4189: 4188: 4185: 4184: 4182: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4165: 4163: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4144: 4143: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4116: 4114: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4090: 4089: 4078: 4076: 4069: 4065: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4057: 4052: 4047: 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prétoriens 1392:Les centurions 1385: 1375: 1370: 1358: 1351: 1348: 1310:on charges of 1298:National Front 1290: 1287: 1244:Marcel Bigeard 1239: 1236: 1189:Jacques Chirac 1136:Ali Boumendjel 1119: 1116: 1079: 1076: 1028:Maurice Nadeau 1024:Théodore Monod 1004:Henri Lefebvre 980:Hubert Damisch 956:Robert Antelme 920:Robert Bonnaud 910:existentialist 875:Bachir Boumaza 775: 772: 737: 734: 634: 631: 588:Claude Bourdet 586:insurrection, 553:phenomena of " 543:scorched earth 512: 509: 396: 393: 283: 280: 267:Alistair Horne 186:'s 1958 book, 58: 55: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4462: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4412: 4410: 4403: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4288: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4246: 4241: 4239: 4234: 4232: 4227: 4226: 4223: 4213: 4212: 4203: / 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Torture during the Algerian War

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