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249:
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1211:(EPB) originates on the ulna distal to the abductor pollicis longus, from the interosseus membrane, and from the dorsal side of the radius. Passing through the first tendon compartment together with the abductor pollicis longus, it is attached to the base of the proximal phalanx of the thumb. It extends the thumb and, because of its close relationship to the long abductor, also abducts the thumb. It is innervated by the
809:
48:
3449:
1435:
36:
1468:, who proposed organizing the movements of the hand by their anatomical basis as opposed to work done earlier that had only used arbitrary classification. Most of this early work on hand grips had a pragmatic basis as it was intended to narrowly define compensable injuries to the hand, which required an understanding of the anatomical basis of hand movement. Napier proposed two primary
1113:
1245:
1236:
1553:(CMC) may have occurred in dinosaurs. A real differentiation appeared an estimated 70 mya in early primates, while the shape of the human thumb CMC finally appears about 5 mya. The result of this evolutionary process is a human CMC joint positioned at 80° of pronation, 40 of abduction, and 50° of flexion in relation to an axis passing through the second and third CMC joints.
1580:, an adaptation to a terrestrial lifestyle has led to reduced finger length and thus hand proportions similar to those of humans. Consequently, these primates have dexterous hands and are able to grasp objects using a pad-to-pad grip. It can thus be difficult to identify hand adaptations to manipulation-related tasks based solely on thumb proportions.
1085:
supporting a flagpole; tension from these muscular guy-wires must be provided in all directions to maintain stability in the articulated column formed by the bones of the thumb. Because this stability is actively maintained by muscles rather than by articular constraints, most muscles attached to the
1612:
Modern humans are unique in the musculature of their forearm and hand. Yet, they remain autapomorphic, meaning each muscle is found in one or more non-human primates. The extensor pollicis brevis and flexor pollicis longus allow modern humans to have great manipulative skills and strong flexion in
1529:
In humans, the distal pads are wider than in other primates because the soft tissues of the finger tip are attached to a horseshoe-shaped edge on the underlying bone, and, in the grasping hand, the distal pads can therefore conform to uneven surfaces while pressure is distributed more evenly in the
1331:
also has two heads. The transversal head originates along the entire third metacarpal bone, while the oblique head originates on the carpal bones proximal to the third metacarpal. The muscle is inserted onto the ulnar sesamoid bone of the metacarpophalangeal joint. It adducts the thumb, and assists
863:
have five toes on their fore and hind feet with sharp curved claws except for the first toe of the hind foot. The first and second toes of the forefeet are opposable to the other three, which enables the koala to grip smaller branches and search for fresh leaves in the outer canopy. Similar to the
1537:
have a long and strong opposable thumb. Like human hands, the thumb of a robotic hand also plays a key role in gripping an object. One inspiring approach of robotic grip planning is to mimic human thumb placement. In a sense, human thumb placement indicates which surface or part of the object is
924:
may have had mutually opposable first and third fingers and a forelimb manoeuvrability that would allow the hand to reach its mouth. Its forelimb morphology and range of motion enabled two-handed prehension, one-handed clutching of objects to the chest, and use of the hand as a
1622:
preceded walking, with the specialized adaptation of the spine, pelvis, and lower extremities preceding a more advanced hand. And, it is logical that a conservative, highly functional adaptation be followed by a series of more complex ones that complement it. With
1185:. A part of the tendon reaches the trapezium, while another fuses with the tendons of the extensor pollicis brevis and the abductor pollicis brevis. Except for abducting the hand, it flexes the hand towards the palm and abducts it radially. It is innervated by the
1196:(EPL) originates on the dorsal side of the ulna and the interosseous membrane. Passing through the third tendon compartment, it is inserted onto the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb. It uses the dorsal tubercle on the lower extremity of the radius as a
2559:
In some countries and cultures, the thumb is considered a finger. Elsewhere, it is considered a 'digit' due to the few features it has in difference with the other four digits, such as the larger gap, missing phalanx and horizontal curling
1089:
The muscles acting on the thumb can be divided into two groups: The extrinsic hand muscles, with their muscle bellies located in the forearm, and the intrinsic hand muscles, with their muscle bellies located in the hand proper.
1633:, possibly implying, assuming a co-opted evolutionary relationship exists, that the latter resulted from the former as obligate bipedalism was yet to follow. Walking may have been a by-product of busy hands and not vice versa.
1301:. The muscle is inserted onto the radial sesamoid bone of the metacarpophalangeal joint. It acts to flex, adduct, and abduct the thumb, and is therefore also able to oppose the thumb. The superficial head is innervated by the
540:
defined opposition as: "A movement by which the pulp surface of the thumb is placed squarely in contact with – or diametrically opposite to – the terminal pads of one or all of the remaining fingers." For this
2402:
853:, the first and second toes of the forefoot are opposable to the other three. In the hind foot, the first toe is clawless but opposable and provides firm grip on branches. The second and third toes are partly
1730:
Haeri, Seyed
Mohammad Jafar, et al. "Human thumb consists of three phalanges and lacks metacarpal? A morphometric study on the long bones of the hand." Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy 44.8 (2022): 1101-1109.
1316:
originates on the tubercle of the trapezium and the flexor retinaculum. It is inserted onto the radial side of the first metacarpal. It opposes the thumb and assists in adduction. It is innervated by the
901:
are organized into a medial bundle of toes 1, 2 and 3, and a lateral bundle of toes 4 and 5, and the hind feet are organized into a medial bundle of toes 1 and 2, and a lateral bundle of toes 3, 4 and 5.
1530:
finger tips. The distal pad of the human thumb is divided into a proximal and a distal compartment, the former more deformable than the latter, which allows the thumb pad to mold around an object.
366:, even in the context of appendages of a single typical human hand: 1) Any of the five terminal members of the hand. 2) Any of the four terminal members of the hand, other than the thumb
1572:, has resulted in elongated hands while the thumb has remained short. As a result, these primates are unable to perform the pad-to-pad grip associated with opposability. However, in
1402:
carriers having an angle close to 90°. However this theory has been disputed, since the variation in thumb angle is known to fall on a continuum and shows little evidence of the
1488:
is when the fingers (and sometimes palm) clamp down on an object with the thumb making counter pressure. Examples of the power grip are gripping a hammer, opening a jar using
2718:
2477:: " the pollex is well developed and fully opposable and the hand is capable not only of a power grip but of, at least, a simple and usually well developed precision grip."
2401:
Bodranghien, Florian; Mahé, Helene; Baude, Benjamin; Manto, Mario U.; Busegnies, Yves; Camut, Stéphane; Habas, Christophe; Marien, Peter; de Marco, Giovanni (2017-05-10).
1499:
is when the intermediate and distal phalanges ("fingertips") and the thumb press against each other. Examples of a precision grip are writing with a pencil, opening a jar
2487:
Diogo, R.; Richmond, B. G.; Wood, B. (2012). "Evolution and homologies of primate and modern human hand and forearm muscles, with notes on thumb movements and tool use".
915:
had a partially opposable finger. It is possible that this adaptation was used to better manipulate ground objects or moving undergrowth branches when searching for prey.
1515:
Opposability of the thumb should not be confused with a precision grip as some animals possess semi-opposable thumbs yet are known to have extensive precision grips (
2893:
Diogo, R; Richmond, BG; Wood, B (2012). "Evolution and homologies of primate and modern human hand and forearm muscles, with notes on thumb movements and tool use".
1155:, after which it lies between the heads of the flexor pollicis brevis. It finally attaches onto the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb. It is innervated by the
177:
2851:
870:
are New World marsupials with opposable thumbs in the hind feet giving these animals their characteristic grasping capability (with the exception of the
655:, the thumb can be rotated around its axis, but the extensive area of contact between the pulps of the thumb and index finger is a human characteristic.
1343:, one of the central muscles of the hand, extends from the base of the thumb metacarpal to the radial side of the proximal phalanx of the index finger.
506:
Other researchers use another definition, referring to opposition-apposition as the transition between flexion-abduction and extension-adduction; the
1808:
The "fishing rod" a chimp strips of leaves and pokes into a termite nest to bring up a snack is as far as he'll ever get toward orbiting the planets.
1519:
for example). Nevertheless, precision grips are usually only found in higher apes, and only in degrees significantly more restricted than in humans.
3495:
2075:
Zhou, X.; Pêgas, R. V.; Ma, W.; Han, G.; Jin, X.; Leal, M. E. C.; Bonde, N.; Kobayashi, Y.; Lautenschlager, S.; Wei, X.; Shen, C.; Ji, S. (2021).
438:
rather than three. However, recently there have been reports that the thumb, like other fingers, has three phalanges, but lacks a metacarpal bone.
1222:(an indentation on the lateral aspect of the thumb at its base) The radial artery can be palpated anteriorly at the wrist (not in the snuffbox).
857:, united by skin at the top joint while the two separate nails serve as hair combs. The fourth and fifth toes are the largest of the hind foot.
491:
to when the thumb is approximated to the fifth finger (little finger) and refer to other approximations between the thumb and other fingers as
2687:
647:
The spider monkey compensates for being virtually thumbless by using the hairless part of its long, prehensile tail for grabbing objects. In
153:
941:
In addition to these, some other dinosaurs may have had partially or completely opposed toes in order to manipulate food and/or grasp prey.
96:
1541:
The function of the thumb declines physiologically with aging. This can be demonstrated by assessing the motor sequencing of the thumb.
1289:(FPB) has two heads. The superficial head arises on the flexor retinaculum, while the deep head originates on three carpal bones: the
1181:
and the radius, and from the interosseous membrane. Passing through the first tendon compartment, it inserts to the base of the first
1668:
1997:
Anderson, Christopher V. & Higham, Timothy E. (2014). "Chameleon anatomy". In Tolley, Krystal A. & Herrel, Anthony (eds.).
1522:
The pad-to-pad pinch between the thumb and index finger is made possible because of the human ability to passively hyperextend the
2765:
998:
bore an opposable first toe on each wing. The presence of opposable thumbs in this taxon is thought to be an arboreal adaptation.
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good for grip. Then the robot places its thumb to the same location and plans the other fingers based on the thumb placement.
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2707:
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1933:
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92:
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One of the earlier significant contributors to the study of hand grips was orthopedic primatologist and paleoanthropologist
887:, is not closely related to opossums but has paws similar to these animals, each having opposable toes adapted for gripping.
3488:
1040:
1647:"that may have contributed to the evolution of the uniquely opposable human thumb, and possibly also modifications in the
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of the index finger. Most non-human primates have to flex their long fingers in order for the small thumb to reach them.
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2667:
1616:
However, a more likely scenario may be that the specialized precision gripping hand (equipped with opposable thumb) of
217:(where the palm is facing to the front), the thumb is the outermost digit. The Medical Latin English noun for thumb is
2647:
Austin, Noelle M. (2005). "Chapter 9: The Wrist and Hand
Complex". In Levangie, Pamela K.; Norkin, Cynthia C. (eds.).
3292:
3074:
2577:"Early Origin for Human-Like Precision Grasping: A Comparative Study of Pollical Distal Phalanges in Fossil Hominins"
2006:
1791:
340:
321:
278:
1144:
2933:
Franzen, JL; Gingerich, PD; Habersetzer, J; Hurum, JH; von
Koenigswald, W; et al. (2009). Hawks, John (ed.).
2533:
510:
of the distal thumb phalanx thus approximated to the palm or the hand's radial side (side of index finger) during
293:
3481:
1267:
1212:
1208:
1201:
1193:
1186:
1174:
881:
were a group of South
American marsupials most closely related to Australian marsupials. The only extant member,
2870:
1275:
470:
is Proto-Indo-European for 'swelling' (cf 'tumor' and 'thigh') since the thumb is the stoutest of the fingers.
405:-family words (tens of them defined in English dictionaries) that involve, or stem from, concepts of fiveness.
274:
3323:
1923:
764:), an arboreal, porcupine-like rodent, has four fingers on its hands and feet and a partially opposable thumb.
1340:
1286:
1132:
500:
300:
172:
80:
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641:, Aotidae: night or owl monkeys, Pitheciidae: titis, sakis and uakaris, Atelidae: howler and woolly monkeys)
2719:"Complex Leaf-Gathering Skills of Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla g. beringei): Variability and Standardization"
1379:
There is a variation of the human thumb where the angle between the first and second (proximal and distal)
384:
495:. To anatomists, this makes sense as two intrinsic hand muscles are named for this specific movement (the
3092:
2810:
1659:
on two legs". Evidence to date shows that of the 110,000 gene enhancer sequences identified in the human
1507:
1465:
1156:
533:
108:
2403:"The Click Test: A Novel Tool to Quantify the Age-Related Decline of Fast Motor Sequencing of the Thumb"
1278:. It inserts to the radial sesamoid bone and the proximal phalanx of the thumb. It is innervated by the
525:
Moving a limb back to its neutral position is called reposition and a rotary movement is referred to as
799:
307:
3368:
3030:
2064:
The left manus shows that the flexed digit I had the potential to partially oppose digits II and III.
1922:
Grzimek, Bernhard (2003). Hutchins, Michael; Kleiman, Devra G.; Geist, Valerius; et al. (eds.).
1640:
1052:
518:
or "palmar" side of the distal thumb phalanx approximated to either the palm or other fingers during
2935:"Complete Primate Skeleton from the Middle Eocene of Messel in Germany: Morphology and Paleobiology"
1200:
to extend the thumb and also dorsiflexes and abducts the hand at the wrist. It is innervated by the
1328:
1313:
1218:
The tendons of the extensor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis form what is known as the
496:
259:
136:
68:
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289:
3453:
526:
402:
263:
3367:
van Nierop, Onno A.; van der Helm, Aadjan; Overbeeke, Kees J.; Djajadiningrat, Tom J.P. (2008).
3173:"Evidence of hominid-like precision grip capability in the hand of the Miocene ape Oreopithecus"
270:
184:
160:
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20:
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with a long, three-fingered hand which included a partially opposable thumb (a "killer claw").
3263:
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1884:
1550:
1395:
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546:
545:, pulp-to-pulp opposition to be possible, the thumb must rotate about its long axis (at the
3187:
3111:
2946:
2588:
1480:. The precision and power grip are defined by the position of the thumb and fingers where:
1410:
1403:
1356:
1219:
1076:
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phalangerids, the second and third toes of the hind foot are fused but have separate claws.
818:
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beside the true first finger that, though not a true finger, works like an opposable thumb.
692:
537:
2120:"Pedal luring in the leaf-frog Phyllomedusa burmeisteri (Anura, Hylidae, Phyllomedusinae)"
679:, had hands and feet with highly flexible digits featuring opposable thumbs and halluces.
483:
Anatomists and other researchers focused on human anatomy have hundreds of definitions of
8:
2366:
Lin, Yun; Sun, Yu (2015). "Robot grasp planning based on demonstrated grasp strategies".
1644:
1414:
1360:
668:
419:
Having a dorsal surface that features hair and a nail, and a hairless palmar aspect with
214:
3191:
3115:
2950:
2592:
549:). Arguably, this definition was chosen to underline what is unique to the human thumb.
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3327:
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2969:
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2421:
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1458:"bent finger grip", an unusual pad-to-side precision grip designed to confuse batsmen.
3428:
3414:
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3250:
3215:
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3127:
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3003:
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2703:
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2504:
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2002:
1929:
1890:
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1140:
652:
634:
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595:
3331:
3139:
2842:
2801:
2780:(30 November 2004). "How Precisely do Bonobos (Pan paniscus) Grasp Small Objects?".
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2387:
427:
The thumb contrasts with each of the other four fingers by being the only one that:
3933:
3695:
3626:
3418:
3410:
3383:
3319:
3240:
3205:
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2090:
1523:
1380:
1290:
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883:
838:
617:
363:
314:
3162:)". In Hutchins, Michael; Kleiman, Devra G.; Geist, Valerius; et al. (eds.).
1103:
3644:
3148:
2959:
2906:
2777:
2601:
2500:
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989:
771:
141:
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de Klerk, W.J.; Forster, C.A.; Sampson, S.D.; Chinsamy, A.; Ross, C.F. (2000).
1418:
1294:
994:
974:, though these are seldom called "thumbs". They are more often known simply as
878:
369:
Linguistically, it appears that the original sense was the first of these two:
3388:
2793:
2095:
2076:
2023:
960:
416:, joined by hinge-like joints that provide flexion toward the palm of the hand
3927:
3836:
3826:
3366:
3054:
2745:
2666:
Brown, David P.; Freeman, Eric D.; Cuccurullo, Sara; Freeman, Ted L. (2004).
2429:
2379:
1745:
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230:
165:
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2914:
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1690:
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1534:
1516:
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1318:
1302:
1279:
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1160:
1036:
1009:
929:
912:
723:
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210:
3219:
3200:
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1996:
971:
3906:
3831:
3732:
3594:
3579:
3473:
2852:"A new coelurosaurian dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of South Africa"
1364:
1333:
1306:
934:
920:
843:
831:
750:
740:
735:
729:
688:
420:
3460:
2077:"A new darwinopteran pterosaur reveals arborealism and an opposed thumb"
1121:
Flexor pollicis longus (left) and deep muscles of dorsal forearm (right)
786:) may become opposable, allowing the cat to perform more complex tasks.
218:
3876:
3749:
3700:
3574:
3526:
3518:
3512:
1861:
1630:
1602:
1573:
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1503:, and gripping a ball (only if the ball is not tight against the palm).
1469:
1417:(which is a thumb which has 3 phalanges instead of the usual two), and
1399:
1182:
898:
453:
3150:
Disability evaluation: principles of treatment of compensable injuries
3031:"Effect of Gender, Flexibility and Thumb Type on Thumb Tip Generation"
1583:
The evolution of the fully opposable thumb is usually associated with
1332:
in opposition and flexion. It is innervated by the deep branch of the
3848:
3727:
3564:
3171:
Moyà-Solà, Salvador; Köhler, Meike; Rook, Lorenzo (January 5, 1999).
3123:
1700:
1384:
834:
757:
717:
672:
659:
621:
435:
413:
1443:
1369:
711:, the hallux ("big toe") is clawless and fully opposable, including
565:"fishing" for termites, an example of incomplete/"untrue" opposition
408:
The thumb shares the following with each of the other four fingers:
248:
190:
3856:
3776:
3611:
3544:
2811:"Prehension in Cebus and Saimiri: I. Grip type and hand preference"
1629:, an advanced grasping-capable hand was accompanied by facultative
1082:
1032:
712:
702:
have a partly opposable toe on each front paw, letting them grasp.
591:
446:
2925:
The families and genera of living rodents. Vol. II. Family
Muridae
2628:
Ankel-Simons, Friderun (2007). "Chapter 8: Postcranial
Skeleton".
3791:
3737:
3683:
3673:
3559:
1557:
1128:
867:
854:
745:
707:
699:
638:
606:
587:
581:
570:
19:
This article is about the digit of the hand. For other uses, see
3399:"Evolution of the human hand: the role of throwing and clubbing"
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1848:
1769:
975:
949:
808:
224:
47:
3806:
3781:
3722:
3715:
3710:
3705:
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3569:
3448:
1928:(2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. p. 293.
1660:
1636:
1606:
1577:
1421:(which is a combination of radial polydactyly and syndactyly).
1413:(which is a thumb with a congenitally short distal phalanx), a
1044:
849:
676:
664:
627:
562:
442:
63:
3302:
Senter, Phil (2006). "Comparison of forelimb function between
3164:
Grzimek's animal life encyclopedia: Volumes 12–16, Mammals I–V
2849:
2668:"Upper Extremities—Hand Region: Range of Motion of the Digits"
2059:
1721:
at The
Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman (Georgetown University)
3886:
3866:
3796:
3786:
3742:
3688:
3678:
3664:
3621:
3549:
2988:"Fossils, feet and the evolution of human bipedal locomotion"
2665:
2534:"HACNS1: Gene enhancer in evolution of human opposable thumb"
1757:
1648:
1452:
Left: In a power grip the object is in contact with the palm.
1434:
1197:
860:
120:
103:
87:
35:
3891:
3881:
3871:
3801:
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3636:
3554:
3539:
3534:
3028:
2871:
10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0324:ancdft]2.0.co;2
2001:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 7–55.
1656:
1652:
1595:. This, however, is the suggested result of evolution from
1511:
Thumb and index finger during pad-to-pad precision grasping
1178:
967:
229:
for big toe), and the corresponding adjective for thumb is
206:
75:
1978:
1244:
1235:
1112:
3896:
3861:
3768:
3606:
3601:
3584:
3324:
10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[897:COFFBD]2.0.CO;2
2809:
Costello, Michael B.; Fragaszy, Dorothy M. (March 1988).
2400:
1839:, Evolutionary Development and Anatomy of the Hand, p. 12
1832:
1830:
1828:
1390:
It has been suggested that the variation is an autosomal
648:
1383:
varies between 0° and almost 90° when the thumb is in a
911:
Dinosaurs belonging to the family of bird-like dinosaur
1609:
stages, and is therefore a much more complicated link.
3285:
Color Atlas of Human
Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System
3029:
Hsu, Ar-Tyan; Meng-Tsu Hu; Fong Ching Su (July 2008).
2649:
Joint
Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis
1825:
1770:"Primates FAQ: Do any primates have opposable thumbs?"
2775:
2574:
2349:
2322:
1925:
2985:
2521:
590:(which are found in the islands of Southeast Asia),
3170:
2651:(4th ed.). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.
2462:
1966:
1842:
1253:
Thenar (left) and dorsal interossei (right) muscles
1086:thumb tend to be active during most thumb motions.
3083:
3062:
2474:
1663:, HACNS1 has undergone the most change during the
1167:muscles that pulled the fingers or toes together.
874:, the webbed feet of which restrict opposability).
3166:(2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group.
2892:
2672:Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Board Review
2575:Almécija, S.; Moyà-Solà, S.; Alba, D. M. (2010).
2486:
2243:
2241:
2024:"Reconstruction of the small Cretaceous theropod
1954:
1177:(APL) originates on the dorsal sides of both the
1163:(C7-C8) It is a persistence of one of the former
823:Right: Opposable thumb on rear foot of an opossum
3925:
3097:"A New Species of Genus Homo from Olduvai Gorge"
2808:
2333:
1741:
1739:
970:have at least one opposable toe on the foot, in
2986:Harcourt-Smith, W E H; Aiello, L C (May 2004).
1170:Three dorsal forearm muscles act on the thumb:
691: — five clawed fingers plus an extra-long
2696:"Stability in the first carpometacarpal joint"
2456:
2368:The International Journal of Robotics Research
2249:"Myth's of Human Genetics: Hitchhiker's Thumb"
2238:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2074:
1813:
3489:
3053:
2632:(3rd ed.). Academic Press. p. 345.
2021:
1889:. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 62–63, 71–73.
1836:
1751:
1736:
1135:(FPL) originates on the anterior side of the
464:
395:
388:
377:
370:
3229:"The prehensile movements of the human hand"
2627:
2111:
2068:
1819:
1772:. Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center
1081:The muscles of the thumb can be compared to
473:
97:proper palmar digital nerves of median nerve
3338:
2928:. London: British Museum (Natural History).
2698:. In Brüser, Peter; Gilbert, Alain (eds.).
2294:
2226:
2207:
2190:
2178:
2015:
1762:
1564:. The climbing and suspensory behaviour in
1305:, while the deep head is innervated by the
1013:, a genus of frogs native to South America.
277:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
213:. When a person is standing in the medical
3503:
3496:
3482:
2716:
2444:
2353:
1942:
1732:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00276-022-02986-9
1027:The skeleton of the thumb consists of the
682:
626:Opposable with comparatively long thumbs:
620:(Circopithecidae) except colobus, and all
609:(capuchin and squirrel monkeys, which are
532:Primatologists and hand research pioneers
46:
34:
3422:
3387:
3244:
3209:
3199:
3011:
2968:
2958:
2776:Christel, Marianne I.; Kitzel, Stefanie;
2610:
2600:
2316:
2135:
2117:
2094:
456:(which produces most of the opposability)
341:Learn how and when to remove this message
2921:
2693:
2450:
1909:
1549:A primitive autonomization of the first
1506:
1406:seen in other recessive genetic traits.
1368:
1055:. This latter bone articulates with the
948:
556:
459:Curls horizontally instead of vertically
3282:
3265:Walker's mammals of the world, Volume 2
3146:
2298:
2232:
2220:
2201:
2184:
1921:
1882:
52:Bones of the thumb, visible at far left
3926:
3301:
3227:Napier, John Russell (November 1956).
3226:
3157:
2646:
2365:
2310:
2150:
2048:
1984:
1972:
1960:
1409:Other variations of the thumb include
431:Is opposable to the other four fingers
3477:
3396:
3261:
2345:
2270:"Thumb, Distal Hyperextensibility of"
2118:Bertoluci, Jaime (18 December 2002).
1948:
1876:
1669:chimpanzee–human last common ancestor
463:and hence the etymology of the word:
93:Dorsal digital nerves of radial nerve
3341:"Disability Evaluation for the Hand"
3158:McDade, Melissa C. (2003). "Koalas (
2782:International Journal of Primatology
2124:Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology
1556:Opposable thumbs are shared by some
353:
275:adding citations to reliable sources
242:
2717:Byrne, R.W.; Byrne, J.M.E. (1993).
2350:Christel, Kitzel & Niemitz 2004
2323:Almécija, Moyà-Solà & Alba 2010
2022:Russell, D. A.; Séguin, R. (1982).
13:
3397:Young, Richard W. (January 2003).
3339:Slocum, D.B.; Pratt, D.R. (1946).
3312:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
2859:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
2536:. Science Codex. September 4, 2008
2137:10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v1i2p93-95
1544:
1067:at the metacarpophalangeal joint.
14:
3945:
3441:
3348:Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery
2463:Moyà-Solà, Köhler & Rook 1999
2422:10.2174/1874609810666170511100318
605:(lemurs, pottos and lorises) and
552:
3459:
3447:
3415:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00144.x
3004:10.1111/j.0021-8782.2004.00296.x
2522:Harcourt-Smith & Aiello 2004
2475:Leakey, Tobias & Napier 1964
1442:
1433:
1243:
1234:
1111:
1102:
1017:
807:
798:
401:), which has given rise to many
247:
3310:(Theropoda: Dromaeosauridae)".
2815:American Journal of Primatology
2726:American Journal of Primatology
2526:
2515:
2480:
2468:
2394:
2359:
2339:
2327:
2304:
2288:
2262:
2156:
2144:
2053:
2042:
2028:and a hypothetical dinosauroid"
1990:
1915:
1903:
1854:
1605:) via a series of intermediate
1213:deep branch of the radial nerve
1202:deep branch of the radial nerve
1187:deep branch of the radial nerve
3069:. Oxford University Press US.
2922:Ellerman, John Reeves (1941).
2700:Finger bone and joint injuries
2694:Brunelli, Giovanni R. (1999).
2553:
1784:
1724:
1712:
1063:. Additionally, there are two
1:
3464:The dictionary definition of
3147:McBride, Earl Duwain (1942).
3047:10.1016/S0021-9290(08)70148-9
2670:. In Cuccurullo, Sara (ed.).
2567:
1346:
1002:
982:
918:The small predatory dinosaur
789:
601:Pseudo-opposable thumbs: all
573:fall into one of six groups:
452:Is attached to such a mobile
238:
81:Dorsal venous network of hand
3369:"A natural human hand model"
2960:10.1371/journal.pone.0005723
2907:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.04.001
2674:. Demos Medical Publishing.
2602:10.1371/journal.pone.0011727
2501:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.04.001
2334:Costello & Fragaszy 1988
1324:Other muscles involved are:
1225:
1093:
905:
817:Left: Opposable toes of the
633:Yet to be classified: other
385:Proto-Indo-European language
7:
3268:(6th ed.). JHU Press.
1674:
1157:anterior interosseus branch
1022:
961:Dactyly § Anisodactyly
891:
487:. Some anatomists restrict
441:Has greater breadth in the
109:Infraclavicular lymph nodes
10:
3950:
3246:10.1302/0301-620X.38B4.902
3153:. Lippincott. p. 631.
2895:Journal of Human Evolution
2489:Journal of Human Evolution
2026:Stenonychosaurus inequalis
1490:both your palm and fingers
1350:
1074:
1070:
958:
743:, bipedal species such as
205:is the first digit of the
18:
3847:
3767:
3758:
3663:
3635:
3525:
3511:
3389:10.1007/s00371-007-0176-x
3262:Nowak, Ronald M. (1999).
2096:10.1016/j.cub.2021.03.030
1999:The Biology of Chameleons
1883:Stefoff, Rebecca (2008).
1837:Jones & Lederman 2006
1501:with the fingertips alone
1053:metacarpophalangeal joint
478:
474:Opposition and apposition
183:
171:
159:
147:
135:
119:
114:
102:
86:
74:
62:
57:
45:
33:
28:
3287:(5th ed.). Thieme.
3283:Platzer, Werner (2004).
2702:. Taylor & Francis.
2380:10.1177/0278364914555544
1706:
1641:Human Accelerated Region
1533:In robotics, almost all
1424:
1270:(APB) originates on the
1268:abductor pollicis brevis
1209:extensor pollicis brevis
1194:extensor pollicis longus
1175:abductor pollicis longus
1147:. It passes through the
944:
69:Princeps pollicis artery
3035:Journal of Biomechanics
2794:10.1023/A:1020319313219
2295:Slocum & Pratt 1946
1792:"The Thumb is the Hero"
953:Four types of bird feet
683:Other placental mammals
466:
397:
390:
383:) was, in the inferred
379:
372:
16:First digit of the hand
3505:Human regional anatomy
3041:(Supplement 1): S148.
2827:10.1002/ajp.1350150306
2771:on September 20, 2009.
2738:10.1002/ajp.1350310402
2354:Byrne & Byrne 1993
2164:"Muscles of the thumb"
1746:van Nierop et al. 2008
1719:clinicalconsiderations
1512:
1376:
1287:flexor pollicis brevis
1133:flexor pollicis longus
972:various configurations
956:
770:Additionally, in many
566:
501:opponens digiti minimi
185:Anatomical terminology
21:Thumb (disambiguation)
3201:10.1073/pnas.96.1.313
2410:Current Aging Science
1655:that allow humans to
1551:carpometacarpal joint
1510:
1492:, and during pullups.
1372:
1351:Further information:
1145:interosseous membrane
1061:interphalangeal joint
1041:carpometacarpal joint
1029:first metacarpal bone
955:(right foot diagrams)
952:
586:Nonopposable thumbs:
560:
547:carpometacarpal joint
412:Having a skeleton of
387:, a suffixed form of
3456:at Wikimedia Commons
3233:J Bone Joint Surg Br
2352:, pp. 165–194,
2348:, pp. 165–174,
2089:(11): 2429–2436.e7.
2060:de Klerk et al. 2000
1411:brachydactyly type D
1357:brachydactyly type D
1220:anatomical snuff box
1131:forearm muscle, the
1077:Muscles of the thumb
884:Dromiciops gliroides
819:Sulawesi bear cuscus
445:phalanx than in the
271:improve this section
130:digitus primus manus
3192:1999PNAS...96..313M
3116:1964Natur.202....7L
3065:Human hand function
2951:2009PLoSO...4.5723F
2593:2010PLoSO...511727A
1862:"The Panda's Thumb"
1849:Franzen et al. 2009
1415:triphalangeal thumb
1361:triphalangeal thumb
1341:dorsal interosseous
669:transitional fossil
215:anatomical position
3403:Journal of Anatomy
3059:Lederman, Susan J.
2992:Journal of Anatomy
2336:, pp. 235–245
2313:, pp. 902–913
1798:. January 11, 1981
1796:The New York Times
1589:, a forerunner of
1513:
1396:hitchhiker's thumb
1377:
1374:Hitchhiker's thumb
1353:Hitchhiker's thumb
1276:flexor retinaculum
1031:which articulates
957:
897:The front feet of
749:and possibly some
660:Darwinius masillae
616:Opposable thumbs:
567:
376:(also rendered as
3921:
3920:
3917:
3916:
3452:Media related to
3275:978-0-8018-5789-8
3055:Jones, Lynette A.
2709:978-1-85317-690-6
2681:978-1-888799-45-3
2658:978-0-8036-1191-7
2639:978-0-12-372576-9
1935:978-0-7876-7750-3
1896:978-0-7614-3073-5
1820:Ankel-Simons 2007
1758:Brown et al. 2004
1560:, including most
1454:Right: Cricketer
1329:adductor pollicis
1314:opponens pollicis
1272:scaphoid tubercle
1141:radial tuberosity
841:) except species
762:Lophiomys imhausi
756:The East African
653:Old World monkeys
635:New World monkeys
618:Old World monkeys
611:New World monkeys
596:New World monkeys
497:opponens pollicis
358:The English word
354:Thumb and fingers
351:
350:
343:
325:
199:
198:
194:
3941:
3765:
3764:
3696:Vertebral column
3498:
3491:
3484:
3475:
3474:
3463:
3451:
3436:
3426:
3393:
3391:
3373:
3363:
3345:
3335:
3298:
3279:
3258:
3248:
3223:
3213:
3203:
3177:
3167:
3154:
3143:
3124:10.1038/202007a0
3101:
3080:
3068:
3050:
3025:
3015:
2982:
2972:
2962:
2929:
2918:
2889:
2887:
2881:. Archived from
2856:
2846:
2805:
2778:Niemitz, Carsten
2772:
2770:
2764:. Archived from
2723:
2713:
2685:
2662:
2643:
2624:
2614:
2604:
2561:
2557:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2530:
2524:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2484:
2478:
2472:
2466:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2407:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2363:
2357:
2343:
2337:
2331:
2325:
2320:
2314:
2308:
2302:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2245:
2236:
2230:
2224:
2218:
2205:
2199:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2160:
2154:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2098:
2072:
2066:
2057:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1994:
1988:
1987:, vol 12, p. 274
1982:
1976:
1975:, vol 12, p. 250
1970:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1886:The Rodent Order
1880:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1858:
1852:
1851:, pp. 15–18
1846:
1840:
1834:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1805:
1803:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1766:
1760:
1755:
1749:
1743:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1576:monkeys such as
1517:Tufted Capuchins
1446:
1437:
1259:There are three
1247:
1238:
1115:
1106:
1049:proximal phalanx
811:
802:
715:species such as
630:(or lesser apes)
469:
400:
393:
382:
375:
346:
339:
335:
332:
326:
324:
283:
251:
243:
191:edit on Wikidata
188:
50:
38:
26:
25:
3949:
3948:
3944:
3943:
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3938:
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3843:
3754:
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3444:
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3371:
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3295:
3276:
3175:
3099:
3077:
2885:
2854:
2768:
2721:
2710:
2682:
2659:
2640:
2630:Primate Anatomy
2570:
2565:
2564:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2520:
2516:
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2183:
2179:
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2162:
2161:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2116:
2112:
2082:Current Biology
2073:
2069:
2062:, p. 327.
2058:
2054:
2047:
2043:
2020:
2016:
2009:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1963:, vol 13, p. 44
1959:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1920:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1897:
1881:
1877:
1867:
1865:
1860:
1859:
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1847:
1843:
1835:
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1799:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1775:
1773:
1768:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1752:
1744:
1737:
1729:
1725:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1696:Thumb twiddling
1677:
1665:human evolution
1639:(also known as
1547:
1545:Human evolution
1462:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1439:
1438:
1427:
1392:recessive trait
1367:
1349:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1240:
1239:
1228:
1183:metacarpal bone
1125:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1108:
1107:
1096:
1079:
1073:
1025:
1020:
1005:
985:
963:
954:
947:
908:
894:
877:The mouse-like
827:
826:
825:
824:
822:
814:
813:
812:
804:
803:
792:
772:polydactyl cats
685:
555:
538:Prudence Napier
503:respectively).
481:
476:
356:
347:
336:
330:
327:
284:
282:
268:
252:
241:
195:
129:
128:digitus I manus
127:
53:
41:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3947:
3937:
3936:
3919:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3911:
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3641:
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3509:
3508:
3501:
3500:
3493:
3486:
3478:
3472:
3471:
3457:
3443:
3442:External links
3440:
3438:
3437:
3409:(1): 165–174.
3394:
3364:
3336:
3318:(4): 897–906.
3299:
3293:
3280:
3274:
3259:
3239:(4): 902–913.
3224:
3186:(1): 313–317.
3168:
3160:Phascolartidae
3155:
3144:
3095:(April 1964).
3081:
3075:
3051:
3026:
2983:
2930:
2919:
2890:
2888:on 2012-01-30.
2865:(2): 324–332.
2847:
2821:(3): 235–245.
2806:
2788:(1): 165–194.
2773:
2732:(4): 241–261.
2714:
2708:
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2680:
2663:
2657:
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2625:
2571:
2569:
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2562:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2525:
2514:
2479:
2467:
2455:
2443:
2416:(4): 305–318.
2393:
2358:
2338:
2326:
2315:
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2287:
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2189:
2177:
2155:
2143:
2110:
2067:
2052:
2041:
2014:
2007:
1989:
1977:
1965:
1953:
1941:
1934:
1914:
1902:
1895:
1875:
1853:
1841:
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1812:
1783:
1761:
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1723:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1676:
1673:
1568:apes, such as
1546:
1543:
1524:distal phalanx
1505:
1504:
1497:precision grip
1493:
1474:precision grip
1456:Jack Iverson's
1451:
1450:
1441:
1440:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1419:polysyndactyly
1348:
1345:
1261:thenar muscles
1252:
1251:
1242:
1241:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1151:in a separate
1139:distal to the
1120:
1119:
1110:
1109:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1075:Main article:
1072:
1069:
1065:sesamoid bones
1057:distal phalanx
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3470:at Wiktionary
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3076:9780195173154
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2510:
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2490:
2483:
2476:
2471:
2464:
2459:
2453:, p. 167
2452:
2451:Brunelli 1999
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2415:
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2356:, p. 241
2355:
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2307:
2301:, p. 631
2300:
2296:
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2275:
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2244:
2242:
2235:, p. 174
2234:
2229:
2223:, p. 176
2222:
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2204:, p. 168
2203:
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2187:, p. 162
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2153:, p. 339
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2029:
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2018:
2010:
2008:9780520276055
2004:
2000:
1993:
1986:
1981:
1974:
1969:
1962:
1957:
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1945:
1937:
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1911:
1910:Ellerman 1941
1906:
1898:
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1879:
1864:. Athro. 2000
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1822:, p. 345
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1681:Pollicization
1679:
1678:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
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1645:gene enhancer
1642:
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1535:robotic hands
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1153:tendon sheath
1150:
1149:carpal tunnel
1146:
1143:and from the
1142:
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1038:
1034:
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1018:Human anatomy
1012:
1011:
1007:
1006:
997:
996:
991:
990:wukongopterid
987:
986:
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969:
965:
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896:
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873:
872:water opossum
869:
866:
862:
859:
856:
852:
851:
846:
845:
840:
837:(a family of
836:
833:
829:
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820:
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787:
785:
781:
780:outermost toe
777:
776:innermost toe
773:
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719:
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694:
693:sesamoid bone
690:
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579:
578:spider monkey
575:
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527:circumduction
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403:Indo-European
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345:
342:
334:
323:
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306:
302:
299:
295:
292: –
291:
287:
286:Find sources:
280:
276:
272:
266:
265:
261:
256:This section
254:
250:
245:
244:
236:
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233:
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192:
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79:
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73:
70:
67:
65:
61:
56:
49:
44:
40:A human thumb
37:
32:
27:
22:
3816:
3645:Adam's apple
3466:
3406:
3402:
3382:(1): 31–44.
3379:
3375:
3354:(3): 491–5.
3351:
3347:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3284:
3264:
3236:
3232:
3183:
3179:
3163:
3159:
3149:
3107:
3103:
3064:
3038:
3034:
2995:
2991:
2945:(5): e5723.
2942:
2938:
2924:
2901:(1): 64–78.
2898:
2894:
2883:the original
2862:
2858:
2818:
2814:
2785:
2781:
2766:the original
2729:
2725:
2699:
2671:
2648:
2629:
2584:
2580:
2555:
2540:December 16,
2538:. Retrieved
2528:
2517:
2495:(1): 64–78.
2492:
2488:
2482:
2470:
2458:
2446:
2413:
2409:
2396:
2371:
2367:
2361:
2341:
2329:
2318:
2306:
2299:McBride 1942
2290:
2278:. Retrieved
2273:
2264:
2252:. Retrieved
2233:Platzer 2004
2228:
2221:Platzer 2004
2202:Platzer 2004
2185:Platzer 2004
2180:
2168:. Retrieved
2166:. Eaton hand
2158:
2146:
2127:
2123:
2113:
2086:
2080:
2070:
2063:
2055:
2044:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2017:
1998:
1992:
1980:
1968:
1956:
1951:, p. 89
1944:
1924:
1917:
1905:
1885:
1878:
1866:. Retrieved
1856:
1844:
1815:
1807:
1800:. Retrieved
1795:
1786:
1774:. Retrieved
1764:
1753:
1748:, p. 34
1726:
1714:
1691:Thumb signal
1686:Prehensility
1635:
1626:Homo habilis
1624:
1619:Homo habilis
1617:
1615:
1611:
1598:Homo erectus
1596:
1592:Homo sapiens
1590:
1586:Homo habilis
1584:
1582:
1555:
1548:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1514:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1485:
1477:
1473:
1463:
1408:
1389:
1378:
1338:
1326:
1323:
1319:median nerve
1311:
1303:median nerve
1284:
1280:median nerve
1265:
1258:
1217:
1206:
1191:
1172:
1169:
1165:contrahentes
1161:median nerve
1126:
1088:
1080:
1026:
1010:Phyllomedusa
1008:
993:
940:
930:Nqwebasaurus
928:
919:
913:Troodontidae
882:
855:syndactylous
848:
842:
769:
761:
744:
734:
728:
724:Chiropodomys
722:
716:
706:
689:Giant pandas
658:
657:
646:
542:
531:
524:
519:
515:
511:
507:
505:
492:
488:
484:
482:
462:
426:
407:
368:
359:
357:
337:
328:
318:
311:
304:
297:
285:
269:Please help
257:
231:
225:
219:
211:index finger
202:
200:
154:A01.1.00.053
125:
3308:Bambiraptor
3304:Deinonychus
3085:Leakey, LSB
2465:, pp. 315–6
2311:Napier 1956
2151:Austin 2005
2049:Senter 2006
1985:McDade 2003
1973:McDade 2003
1961:McDade 2003
1912:, p. 2
1868:21 November
1802:20 November
1776:20 November
1613:the thumb.
1570:chimpanzees
1562:catarrhines
1472:grips: the
1466:John Napier
1404:bi-modality
1394:, called a
1365:polydactyly
1334:ulnar nerve
1307:ulnar nerve
935:coelurosaur
921:Bambiraptor
844:Trichosurus
832:phalangerid
774:, both the
751:Gerbillinae
741:saltatorial
736:Chiromyscus
730:Vandeleuria
594:(which are
576:Thumbless:
421:fingerprint
115:Identifiers
3812:Fingernail
3093:Napier, JR
3089:Tobias, PV
2568:References
2346:Young 2003
2280:5 February
2254:7 November
1949:Nowak 1999
1667:since the
1631:bipedalism
1607:anthropoid
1601:(around 1
1574:pronograde
1566:orthograde
1486:power grip
1478:power grip
1470:prehensile
1400:homozygous
1347:Variations
1339:The first
1033:proximally
1003:Amphibians
992:pterosaur
983:Pterosaurs
959:See also:
933: — a
899:chameleons
835:marsupials
790:Marsupials
622:great apes
520:opposition
512:apposition
493:apposition
489:opposition
485:opposition
454:metacarpus
373:penkwe-ros
331:April 2024
301:newspapers
239:Definition
3728:Genitalia
2879:128622530
2746:0275-2565
2560:movement.
2430:1874-6128
2374:: 26–42.
2130:(2): 93.
2032:Syllogeus
1701:Thumb war
1387:gesture.
1385:thumbs-up
1381:phalanges
1336:(C8-T1).
1309:(C8-T1).
1295:trapezoid
1291:trapezium
1282:(C8-T1).
1226:Intrinsic
1215:(C7-T1).
1204:(C7-C8).
1189:(C7-C8).
1094:Extrinsic
1083:guy-wires
1047:with the
1035:with the
906:Dinosaurs
758:maned rat
718:Hapalomys
673:prosimian
592:marmosets
436:phalanges
414:phalanges
258:does not
223:(compare
3928:Category
3857:Buttocks
3777:Shoulder
3612:Mandible
3545:Forehead
3433:12587931
3360:20992193
3332:85919882
3255:13376678
3140:12836722
3132:14166722
3061:(2006).
3022:15198703
2979:19492084
2939:PLOS ONE
2915:22640954
2843:86556774
2835:31968893
2802:23567551
2762:84429453
2754:31936992
2621:20661444
2581:PLOS ONE
2509:22640954
2438:28494715
2388:10178250
2105:33848460
1675:See also
1643:2) is a
1558:primates
1476:and the
1299:capitate
1274:and the
1045:distally
1023:Skeleton
976:halluxes
892:Reptiles
868:Opossums
830:In most
821:forelimb
713:arboreal
705:In some
671:between
667:primate
639:tamarins
588:tarsiers
571:Primates
514:and the
447:proximal
434:Has two
362:has two
232:pollical
3934:Fingers
3902:Toenail
3792:Forearm
3738:Scrotum
3684:Midriff
3674:Abdomen
3667:(Trunk)
3617:Occiput
3560:Eyebrow
3424:1571064
3220:9874815
3188:Bibcode
3112:Bibcode
3013:1571304
2970:2683573
2947:Bibcode
2612:2908684
2589:Bibcode
2038:: 1–43.
1578:baboons
1398:, with
1198:fulcrum
1159:of the
1129:ventral
1071:Muscles
1059:at the
1051:at the
1039:at the
839:possums
746:Notomys
700:rodents
628:gibbons
607:Cebidae
582:colobus
449:phalanx
380:penqrós
315:scholar
290:"Thumb"
279:removed
264:sources
142:D013933
58:Details
3837:Little
3827:Middle
3807:Finger
3782:Axilla
3723:Pelvis
3716:Nipple
3711:Breast
3706:Thorax
3650:Throat
3627:Temple
3590:Tongue
3570:Eyelid
3454:Thumbs
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1363:, and
1297:, and
1137:radius
1037:carpus
861:Koalas
850:Wyulda
739:; and
733:, and
677:simian
665:Eocene
563:bonobo
479:Humans
443:distal
423:ridges
391:penkwe
364:senses
360:finger
317:
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288:
226:hallux
220:pollex
126:pollex
64:Artery
3887:Ankle
3867:Thigh
3822:Index
3817:Thumb
3797:Wrist
3787:Elbow
3760:Limbs
3743:Vulva
3733:Penis
3689:Navel
3679:Waist
3665:Torso
3622:Scalp
3595:Tooth
3580:Mouth
3550:Cheek
3467:thumb
3372:(PDF)
3344:(PDF)
3328:S2CID
3211:15136
3176:(PDF)
3136:S2CID
3100:(PDF)
2886:(PDF)
2875:S2CID
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2839:S2CID
2798:S2CID
2769:(PDF)
2758:S2CID
2722:(PDF)
2406:(PDF)
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1707:Notes
1649:ankle
1425:Grips
968:birds
966:Most
945:Birds
925:hook.
784:pinky
698:Most
663:, an
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104:Lymph
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29:Thumb
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3892:Heel
3882:Foot
3877:Calf
3872:Knee
3832:Ring
3802:Hand
3750:Anus
3701:Back
3655:Nape
3637:Neck
3575:Nose
3555:Chin
3540:Face
3535:Hair
3527:Head
3519:Skin
3513:Body
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3356:PMID
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3270:ISBN
3251:PMID
3216:PMID
3180:PNAS
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2634:ISBN
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2542:2009
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2434:PMID
2426:ISSN
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2256:2012
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2003:ISBN
1930:ISBN
1891:ISBN
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1778:2010
1657:walk
1653:foot
1495:The
1484:The
1327:The
1312:The
1285:The
1266:The
1207:The
1192:The
1179:ulna
1173:The
1043:and
988:The
847:and
778:and
708:mice
675:and
651:and
649:apes
580:and
543:true
536:and
534:John
516:pulp
508:side
499:and
394:(or
294:news
262:any
260:cite
207:hand
201:The
149:TA98
137:MeSH
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3897:Toe
3862:Hip
3849:Leg
3769:Arm
3607:Jaw
3602:Ear
3585:Lip
3565:Eye
3419:PMC
3411:doi
3407:202
3384:doi
3320:doi
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3206:PMC
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