570:
230:
sourcesdependent on weather conditions. The operation of thermal power stations contributes to the local economy by creating jobs in construction, maintenance, and fuel extraction industries. On the other hand, burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases (contributing to climate change) and air pollutants such as sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides (leading to acid rain and respiratory diseases). Advances in carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology could mitigate some of the environmental impacts of fossil-fuel-based thermal power stations. Government regulations and international agreements are being enforced to reduce harmful emissions and promote cleaner power generation.
51:
2285:(or "turning gear") is the mechanism provided to rotate the turbine generator shaft at a very low speed after unit stoppages. Once the unit is "tripped" (i.e., the steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine coasts down towards standstill. When it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too long. This is because the heat inside the turbine casing tends to concentrate in the top half of the casing, making the top half portion of the shaft hotter than the bottom half. The shaft therefore could warp or bend by millionths of inches.
76:
226:, in addition to generating electrical power. Emerging technologies such as supercritical and ultra-supercritical thermal power stations operate at higher temperatures and pressures for increased efficiency and reduced emissions. Cogeneration or CHP (Combined Heat and Power) technology, the simultaneous production of electricity and useful heat from the same fuel source, improves the overall efficiency by using waste heat for heating purposes. Older, less efficient thermal power stations are being decommissioned or adapted to use cleaner and renewable energy sources.
2236:
31:
39:
65:
2023:. This cleaning up of flue gases, however, only occurs in plants that are fitted with the appropriate technology. Still, the majority of coal-fired power stations in the world do not have these facilities. Legislation in Europe has been efficient to reduce flue gas pollution. Japan has been using flue gas cleaning technology for over 30 years and the US has been doing the same for over 25 years. China is now beginning to grapple with the pollution caused by coal-fired power stations.
1684:
90:
1078:
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2092:
1873:
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981:
866:
619:
473:
244:
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1708:(4.1 MPa; 41 atm) and to 600 °F (320 °C) in temperature through the stage. It exits via 24–26-inch-diameter (610–660 mm) cold reheat lines and passes back into the boiler, where the steam is reheated in special reheat pendant tubes back to 1,000 °F (540 °C). The hot reheat steam is conducted to the intermediate-pressure turbine, where it falls in both
2215:
consists of cation, anion, and mixed bed exchangers. Any ions in the final water from this process consist essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions, which recombine to form pure water. Very pure DM water becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its very high affinity for oxygen.
2344:
to avoid outside air ingress, and up to about two atmospheres pressure to improve heat transfer capacity. The hydrogen must be sealed against outward leakage where the shaft emerges from the casing. Mechanical seals around the shaft are installed with a very small annular gap to avoid rubbing between
1513:
The cooling water used to condense the steam in the condenser returns to its source without having been changed other than having been warmed. If the water returns to a local water body (rather than a circulating cooling tower), it is often tempered with cool 'raw' water to prevent thermal shock when
1450:
The limiting factor is the temperature of the cooling water and that, in turn, is limited by the prevailing average climatic conditions at the power station's location (it may be possible to lower the temperature beyond the turbine limits during winter, causing excessive condensation in the turbine).
597:
in 1884 provided larger and more efficient machine designs for central generating stations. By 1892 the turbine was considered a better alternative to reciprocating engines; turbines offered higher speeds, more compact machinery, and stable speed regulation allowing for parallel synchronous operation
2406:
units is provided to supply emergency electric power, when needed, to essential items such as the power station's control systems, communication systems, generator hydrogen seal system, turbine lube oil pumps, and emergency lighting. This is essential for a safe, damage-free shutdown of the units in
2288:
This small shaft deflection, only detectable by eccentricity meters, would be enough to cause damaging vibrations to the entire steam turbine generator unit when it is restarted. The shaft is therefore automatically turned at low speed (about one percent rated speed) by the barring gear until it has
1235:
The water is usually pressurized in two stages, and typically flows through a series of six or seven intermediate feed water heaters, heated up at each point with steam extracted from an appropriate extraction connection on the turbines and gaining temperature at each stage. Typically, in the middle
229:
Thermal power stations produce 70% of the world's electricity. They often provide reliable, stable, and continuous baseload power supply essential for economic growth. They ensure energy security by maintaining grid stability, especially in regions where they complement intermittent renewable energy
182:
The majority of the world's thermal power stations are driven by steam turbines, gas turbines, or a combination of the two. The efficiency of a thermal power station is determined by how effectively it converts heat energy into electrical energy, specifically the ratio of saleable electricity to the
2368:
in larger units. The generator high-voltage leads are normally large aluminium channels because of their high current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines. They are enclosed in well-grounded aluminium bus ducts and are supported on suitable insulators. The generator high-voltage leads
1550:
External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The
Primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warms the air in the air preheater for better economy. Primary air then passes through the coal pulverizers, and carries the coal dust to the burners for injection into the
962:
The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal power station is the result of cost of fuel, capital cost for the plant, operator labour, maintenance, and such factors as ash handling and disposal. Indirect social or environmental costs, such as the economic value of environmental impacts,
716:
2297:
An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet steam stop valve, the governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other
2214:
to the water. Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water, and that is done by a water demineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally
1707:
For a typical late 20th-century power station, superheated steam from the boiler is delivered through 14–16-inch-diameter (360–410 mm) piping at 2,400 psi (17 MPa; 160 atm) and 1,000 °F (540 °C) to the high-pressure turbine, where it falls in pressure to 600 psi
1525:
and fan. Exhaust heat from the low-pressure section of a steam turbine runs through the condensing tubes, the tubes are usually finned and ambient air is pushed through the fins with the help of a large fan. The steam condenses to water to be reused in the water-steam cycle. Air-cooled condensers
1326:
and from there it goes through downcomers to inlet headers at the bottom of the water walls. From these headers the water rises through the water walls of the furnace where some of it is turned into steam and the mixture of water and steam then re-enters the steam drum. This process may be driven
1850:
have auxiliary systems enabling them to work satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator, being rotating equipment, generally has a heavy, large-diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also has to be kept in position while running. To minimize the frictional
436:
or electricity to their facilities, especially if steam is created anyway for other purposes. Steam-driven power stations have been used to drive most ships in most of the 20th century. Shipboard power stations usually directly couple the turbine to the ship's propellers through gearboxes. Power
783:
Currently most nuclear power stations must operate below the temperatures and pressures that coal-fired plants do, in order to provide more conservative safety margins within the systems that remove heat from the nuclear fuel. This, in turn, limits their thermodynamic efficiency to 30–32%. Some
2218:
The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw water input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance. For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously withdrawn for boiler make-up. The
1369:
section in the steam generating furnace. The steam passes through drying equipment inside the steam drum on to the superheater, a set of tubes in the furnace. Here the steam picks up more energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing, and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation
1691:
There is usually a high-pressure turbine at one end, followed by an intermediate-pressure turbine, and finally one, two, or three low-pressure turbines, and the shaft that connects to the generator. As steam moves through the system and loses pressure and thermal energy, it expands in volume,
2393:
Most of the power station operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors and alarm systems that alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are seriously deviating from their normal range.
963:
or environmental and health effects of the complete fuel cycle and plant decommissioning, are not usually assigned to generation costs for thermal stations in utility practice, but may form part of an environmental impact assessment. Those indirect costs belong to the broader concept of
2054:
may by this time have dropped to about 50 °C (120 °F). A typical flue-gas stack may be 150–180 metres (490–590 ft) tall to disperse the remaining flue gas components in the atmosphere. The tallest flue-gas stack in the world is 419.7 metres (1,377 ft) tall at the
1541:
Power station furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high-pressure turbine is passed through these heated tubes to collect more energy before driving the intermediate and then low-pressure turbines.
1485:
The heat absorbed by the circulating cooling water in the condenser tubes must also be removed to maintain the ability of the water to cool as it circulates. This is done by pumping the warm water from the condenser through either natural draft, forced draft or induced draft
1119:(HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process, most commonly utilizing hot exhaust from a gas turbine. The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator.
2384:
and metering devices are included for the high-voltage leads. Thus, the steam turbine generator and the transformer form one unit. Smaller units may share a common generator step-up transformer with individual circuit breakers to connect the generators to a common bus.
2223:. The piping and valves are generally of stainless steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut float is provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with air. DM water make-up is generally added at the steam space of the
1692:
requiring increasing diameter and longer blades at each succeeding stage to extract the remaining energy. The entire rotating mass may be over 200 metric tons and 100 feet (30 m) long. It is so heavy that it must be kept turning slowly even when shut down (at 3
1418:
For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 °C where the
1216:
per centimeter. The makeup water in a 500 MWe plant amounts to perhaps 120 US gallons per minute (7.6 L/s) to replace water drawn off from the boiler drums for water purity management, and to also offset the small losses from steam leaks in the system.
1402:
in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low-pressure turbine enters the shell, where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use
183:
heating value of the fuel used. Different thermodynamic cycles have varying efficiencies, with the
Rankine cycle generally being more efficient than the Otto or Diesel cycles. In the Rankine cycle, the low-pressure exhaust from the turbine enters a
2421:
To dissipate the thermal load of main turbine exhaust steam, condensate from gland steam condenser, and condensate from Low
Pressure Heater by providing a continuous supply of cooling water to the main condenser thereby leading to condensation.
1373:
Nuclear-powered steam plants do not have such sections but produce steam at essentially saturated conditions. Experimental nuclear plants were equipped with fossil-fired superheaters in an attempt to improve overall plant operating cost.
743:
achieves energy conversion efficiencies from 20 to 35%. Typical coal-based power plants operating at steam pressures of 170 bar and 570 °C run at efficiency of 35 to 38%, with state-of-the-art fossil fuel plants at 46% efficiency.
2273:
as their main fuel. Other power stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel in the event that their main fuel supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such cases, separate gas burners are provided on the boiler furnaces.
2201:
and leakages have to be made up to maintain a desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added to the boiler water system. Impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of
1505:
or other alloys to resist corrosion from either side. Nevertheless, they may become internally fouled during operation by bacteria or algae in the cooling water or by mineral scaling, all of which inhibit heat transfer and reduce
1446:
of about −95 kPa (−28 inHg) relative to atmospheric pressure. The large decrease in volume that occurs when water vapor condenses to liquid creates the vacuum that generally increases the efficiency of the turbines.
2078:" (GEP) stack height. In the case of existing flue gas stacks that exceed the GEP stack height, any air pollution dispersion modeling studies for such stacks must use the GEP stack height rather than the actual stack height.
1331:(because the water is the downcomers is denser than the water/steam mixture in the water walls) or assisted by pumps. In the steam drum, the water is returned to the downcomers and the steam is passed through a series of
1554:
The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining slightly below atmospheric pressure in the furnace to avoid leakage of combustion products from the boiler casing.
1382:
The condenser condenses the steam from the exhaust of the turbine into liquid to allow it to be pumped. If the condenser can be made cooler, the pressure of the exhaust steam is reduced and efficiency of the
763:
designs have efficiencies in the low to mid 40% range, with new "ultra critical" designs using pressures above 4,400 psi (30 MPa) and multiple stage reheat reaching 45–48% efficiency. Above the
2266:) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from congealing and becoming unpumpable. The oil is usually heated to about 100 °C before being pumped through the furnace fuel oil spray nozzles.
2227:(i.e., the vacuum side). This arrangement not only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases being removed by a de-aerator through an ejector attached to the condenser.
1291:
of the fireball heats the water that circulates through the boiler tubes near the boiler perimeter. The water circulation rate in the boiler is three to four times the throughput. As the water in the
1478:
1526:
typically operate at a higher temperature than water-cooled versions. While saving water, the efficiency of the cycle is reduced (resulting in more carbon dioxide per megawatt-hour of electricity).
1451:
Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for
1696:) so that the shaft will not bow even slightly and become unbalanced. This is so important that it is one of only six functions of blackout emergency power batteries on site. (The other five being
1551:
furnace. The
Secondary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warms the air in the air preheater for better economy. Secondary air is mixed with the coal/primary air flow in the burners.
1287:
is air-blown into the furnace through burners located at the four corners, or along one wall, or two opposite walls, and it is ignited to rapidly burn, forming a large fireball at the center. The
1466:(OTC) water from a river, lake or ocean. In the United States, about two-thirds of power plants use OTC systems, which often have significant adverse environmental impacts. The impacts include
3044:
Michelle T. H. van Vliet, David Wiberg, Sylvain Leduc & Keywan Riahi (4 January 2016). "Power-generation system vulnerability and adaptation to changes in climate and water resources".
2243:
In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next
1299:
pendant tubes that hang in the hottest part of the combustion gases as they exit the furnace. Here the steam is superheated to 1,000 °F (540 °C) to prepare it for the turbine.
1125:
do not need boilers because they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids.
1391:
155:
to produce high-pressure steam. This high pressure-steam is then directed to a turbine, where it rotates the turbine's blades. The rotating turbine is mechanically connected to an
1983:
exits the boiler it is routed through a rotating flat basket of metal mesh which picks up heat and returns it to incoming fresh air as the basket rotates. This is called the
759:
dictates that higher efficiencies can be attained by increasing the temperature of the steam. Sub-critical pressure fossil fuel power stations can achieve 36–40% efficiency.
1510:. Many plants include an automatic cleaning system that circulates sponge rubber balls through the tubes to scrub them clean without the need to take the system off-line.
2352:, an insulating barrier such as Teflon is used to interconnect the water line and the generator high-voltage windings. Demineralized water of low conductivity is used.
2684:
1306:(HRSG). The exhaust heat from the gas turbines is used to make superheated steam that is then used in a conventional water-steam generation cycle, as described in the
1280:
about 50 feet (15 m) on a side and 130 feet (40 m) tall. Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about 2.3 inches (58 mm) in diameter.
459:
plants, often called combined heat and power (CHP) facilities, produce both electric power and heat for process heat or space heating, such as steam and hot water.
1295:
circulates it absorbs heat and changes into steam. It is separated from the water inside a drum at the top of the furnace. The saturated steam is introduced into
605:. Each of seventeen units weighed about 500 tons and was rated 6000 kilowatts; a contemporary turbine set of similar rating would have weighed about 20% as much.
2345:
the shaft and the seals on smaller turbines, with labyrinth type seals on larger machines.. Seal oil is used to prevent the hydrogen gas leakage to atmosphere.
1518:
2643:
2425:
The consumption of cooling water by inland power stations is estimated to reduce power availability for the majority of thermal power stations by 2040–2069.
2924:
1224:
after traveling through the steam turbines. The condensate flow rate at full load in a 500 MW plant is about 6,000 US gallons per minute (400 L/s).
1350:
due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal.
2813:
3079:
2800:
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1490:(as seen in the adjacent image) that reduce the temperature of the water by evaporation, by about 11 to 17 °C (52 to 63 °F)—expelling
1970:
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1240:
that removes dissolved air from the water, further purifying and reducing its corrosiveness. The water may be dosed following this point with
598:
of generators on a common bus. After about 1905, turbines entirely replaced reciprocating engines in almost all large central power stations.
2309:
While small generators may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet, larger units generally require special cooling arrangements.
2301:
At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine main shaft takes over the functions of the auxiliary system.
3019:
Guideline for
Determination of Good Engineering Practice Stack Height (Technical Support Document for the Stack Height Regulations), Revised
2671:
402:-fueled thermal power stations have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power stations, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use
2953:
2866:
2825:
1236:
of this series of feedwater heaters, and before the second stage of pressurization, the condensate plus the makeup water flows through a
838:
in the United States are about 90 percent efficient in converting the energy of falling water into electricity while the efficiency of a
799:
The energy of a thermal power station not utilized in power production must leave the plant in the form of heat to the environment. This
417:
power stations are usually constructed on a large scale and designed for continuous operation. Virtually all electric power stations use
2927:(Report). Cooling Water Intakes. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). May 2014. pp. 1–3. EPA-821-R-14-001.
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1859:. Oil lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat generated.
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Typically the cooling water causes the steam to condense at a temperature of about 25 °C (77 °F) and that creates an
998:
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636:
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temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves before the high-pressure turbine.
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3000:
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2726:
2135:
1916:
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1024:
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796:, would operate at temperatures and pressures similar to current coal plants, producing comparable thermodynamic efficiency.
662:
516:
287:
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2704:
17:
1836:. The desired frequency affects the design of large turbines, since they are highly optimized for one particular speed.
1307:
1106:(PWR) to thermally connect the primary (reactor plant) and secondary (steam plant) systems, which generates steam. In a
2142:
1923:
1619:
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losses. This system requires special handling during start-up, with air in the generator enclosure first displaced by
3158:
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1956:
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702:
556:
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Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration section and horizontal water storage section).
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1730:
The generator, typically about 30 feet (9 m) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter, contains a stationary
2124:
1905:
1601:
1013:
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651:
505:
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regulations. The United States also requires the height of a flue-gas stack to comply with what is known as the "
2067:
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765:
437:
stations in such ships also provide steam to smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply electricity.
151:, etc.). The most common cycle involves a working fluid (often water) heated and boiled under high pressure in a
2440:
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1346:, water lancing, and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace
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boiler is a means of transferring heat energy from the burning fuel to the mechanical energy of the spinning
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381:
380:
from a gas turbine, in the form of hot exhaust gas, can be used to raise steam by passing this gas through a
748:
can reach higher values. As with all heat engines, their efficiency is limited, and governed by the laws of
139:. The heat from the source is converted into mechanical energy using a thermodynamic power cycle (such as a
3021:, 1985, EPA Publication No. EPA–450/4–80–023R, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (NTIS No. PB 85–225241)
1335:
and dryers that remove water droplets from the steam. The dry steam then flows into the superheater coils.
3034:, 1983, EPA Publication No. EPA–600/3–83–024. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (NTIS No. PB 83–207407)
581:
has been used to produce mechanical power since the 18th century, with notable improvements being made by
1785:
losses. This system requires special handling during startup, with air in the chamber first displaced by
793:
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3142:
3132:
2016:
1157:
602:
176:
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585:. When the first commercially developed central electrical power stations were established in 1882 at
2893:(Eleventh edition (Two volumes) ed.). John Wiley & Sons (Wiley Engineering Handbook Series).
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218:. Certain thermal power stations are also designed to produce heat for industrial purposes, provide
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1930:
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of a conventional thermal power station is defined as saleable energy produced as a percent of the
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Determination of Good
Engineering Practice Stack Height: A Demonstration Study for a Power Plant
2348:
The generator also uses water cooling. Since the generator coils are at a potential of about 22
1716:
and exits directly to the long-bladed low-pressure turbines and finally exits to the condenser.
1196:
at high temperatures and pressures, the makeup water is highly purified before use. A system of
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831:, and in these plants freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products.
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1855:. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates, are lined with a low-friction material like
1302:
Plants that use gas turbines to heat the water for conversion into steam use boilers known as
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2377:(usually in the range of 115 kV to 765 kV) for further transmission by the local power grid.
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studies are required to determine the flue-gas stack height needed to comply with the local
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The design of thermal power stations depends on the intended energy source. In addition to
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storage tank for DM water is made from materials not affected by corrosive water, such as
1213:
601:
The largest reciprocating engine-generator sets ever built were completed in 1901 for the
8:
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1411:-driven exhausts for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain
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are located at suitable points to protect against excessive boiler pressure. The air and
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In some industrial settings, there can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called
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which is recycled to the heating process to generate even more high pressure steam.
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of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under
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2019:. Once removed, the fly ash byproduct can sometimes be used in the manufacturing of
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Other types of power stations are subject to different efficiency limitations. Most
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ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which powers an
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demineralizes produces water so pure that it coincidentally becomes an electrical
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wet slurry to remove those pollutants from the exit stack gas. Other devices use
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facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies of
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1704:, station alarms, generator hydrogen seal system, and turbogenerator lube oil.)
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The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the
1110:(BWR), no separate steam generator is used and water boils in the reactor core.
38:
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gas cooling, in an oil-sealed casing, is used because it has the highest known
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of 705 °F (374 °C) and 3,212 psi (22.15 MPa), there is no
432:. Large companies or institutions may have their own power stations to supply
64:
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2624:
The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who
Invented Modern America
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1427:. Thus leaks of non-condensible air into the closed loop must be prevented.
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The hydrogen pressure inside the casing is maintained slightly higher than
2239:
Conveyor system for moving coal (visible at far left) into a power station.
2194:
1498:
unit is about 14.2 m/s (500 ft/s or 225,000 US gal/min) at full load.
1494:
to the atmosphere. The circulation flow rate of the cooling water in a 500
1408:
1201:
1141:
839:
824:
820:
578:
573:
Interior of the Toledo Edison Steam Plant, Toledo, Ohio, approximately 1900
456:
403:
357:
223:
207:
188:
164:
140:
58:
3116:
2360:
The generator voltage for modern utility-connected generators ranges from
1357:
coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial start up.
1220:
The feed water cycle begins with condensate water being pumped out of the
441:
is, with few exceptions, used only in naval vessels. There have been many
3065:
2719:
Modern Power
Station Practice: incorporating modern power system practice
2485:
2460:
2370:
2244:
1840:
1747:
1709:
1683:
1471:
1366:
1354:
1343:
1296:
828:
740:
593:
in London, reciprocating steam engines were used. The development of the
418:
369:
361:
195:
160:
128:
120:
89:
2397:
3106:
2979:
EPA Workshop on
Cooling Water Intake Technologies, Arlington, Virginia.
2925:
Economic
Analysis for the Final Section 316(b) Existing Facilities Rule
2263:
2193:
Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of
2116: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2060:
1897: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1766:
1593: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1491:
1323:
1319:
1261:
1133:
1129:
1005: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
890: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
800:
643: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
582:
497: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
377:
268: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2885:
823:. An important class of thermal power station is that associated with
2510:
2330:
2318:
2248:
2207:
2035:
2027:
1790:
1778:
1458:
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a
1347:
1284:
1241:
1237:
1193:
1077:
388:
plant that improves overall efficiency. Power stations burning coal,
97:
2091:
1872:
1568:
1390:
980:
865:
715:
618:
472:
243:
2349:
2310:
2259:
2188:
2039:
2020:
2012:
1992:
1980:
1770:
1713:
1533:
recycle the condensed steam (water) back to the water/steam cycle.
1522:
1495:
1404:
1145:
389:
2859:
2857:
2775:
Thomas C. Elliott, Kao Chen, Robert Swanekamp (coauthors) (1997).
1156:(AP), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (
846:, to about 59.3%, and actual wind turbines show lower efficiency.
171:), skipping the steam generation step. These plants can be of the
2716:
2535:
2322:
2203:
1988:
1817:
1782:
1666:
1257:
1140:
with its steam generating tubes and superheater coils. Necessary
777:
433:
399:
211:
83:
43:
3007:
1991:, which are tiny spherical ash particles. The flue gas contains
1669:
interconnected to each other and a generator on a common shaft.
2854:
2435:
2334:
1833:
1813:
1794:
1751:
1743:
1739:
1731:
1470:
and killing large numbers of fish and other aquatic species at
1443:
1424:
1412:
1292:
1245:
1227:
373:
2050:
compounds from the flue-gas stream. The gas travelling up the
1829:
1825:
1805:
1177:
429:
384:(HRSG). The steam is then used to drive a steam turbine in a
159:
which converts rotary motion into electricity. Fuels such as
101:
1192:. Because the metallic materials it contacts are subject to
2329:
before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that the highly
1821:
1755:
1339:
1265:
124:
1843:
increase the voltage for transmission to its destination.
2004:
1789:
before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that a highly
360:, as well as all natural gas power stations are thermal.
2746:
1687:
Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power station
1665:
A steam turbine generator consists of a series of steam
424:
to produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a
3145:
video lectures by S. Banerjee on "Thermal Power Plants"
2588:. Boston University Institute for Global Sustainability
1253:
27:
Power plant that generates electricity from heat energy
2066:
In the United States and a number of other countries,
1851:
resistance to the rotation, the shaft has a number of
608:
2398:
Battery-supplied emergency lighting and communication
2026:
Where required by law, the sulfur and nitrogen oxide
42:
Nantong Power Station, a coal-fired power station in
2851:
from website of the Air Pollution Training Institute
2644:"DOE – Fossil Energy: How Turbine Power Plants Work"
2531:
2262:
rather than coal. The oil must kept warm (above its
1761:(504 MWe) as it spins at either 3,000 or 3,600
1394:
Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface condenser.
784:
advanced reactor designs being studied, such as the
776:
from water to steam, but only a gradual decrease in
1839:The electricity flows to a distribution yard where
2988:
2721:(3rd Edition (12 volume set) ed.). Pergamon.
1769:. The rotor spins in a sealed chamber cooled with
2672:The Efficiency of Power Plants of Different Types
2565:Manoj Kumar Gupta (2012), "Thermal Power Plant",
2564:
3150:
2951:
2689:Energy efficiency technologies: overview report,
2579:
2355:
2247:into a very fine powder. The pulverizers may be
2189:Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage
1338:The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes
1313:
1184:. The total feed water consists of recirculated
82:, the world's largest biomass power station, in
2289:cooled sufficiently to permit a complete stop.
1773:gas, selected because it has the highest known
1481:A Marley mechanical induced draft cooling tower
2674:, Brighthub Engineering. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
2388:
1971:Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
96:, concentrated solar thermal power station in
2952:Maulbetsch, John; Zammit, Kent (2003-05-06).
1862:
34:Diagram of a coal-fired thermal power station
3078:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2799:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2609:the early days of the power station industry
2441:Biochar processing in thermal power stations
3030:Lawson, Jr., R. E. and W. H. Snyder, 1983.
2777:Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering
2410:
1987:. The gas exiting the boiler is laden with
1742:conductor. There is generally no permanent
1529:From the bottom of the condenser, powerful
1462:to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or
123:generated from various fuel sources (e.g.,
2844:
2842:
2779:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional.
2770:
2768:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2717:British Electricity International (1991).
2666:
2664:
2230:
1558:
1148:path equipment include: forced draft (FD)
1128:A fossil fuel steam generator includes an
233:
2685:5. Efficiency in Thermal Power Generation
2636:
2176:Learn how and when to remove this message
1957:Learn how and when to remove this message
1750:. In operation it generates up to 21,000
1653:Learn how and when to remove this message
1517:Another form of condensing system is the
1065:Learn how and when to remove this message
970:
950:Learn how and when to remove this message
703:Learn how and when to remove this message
557:Learn how and when to remove this message
328:Learn how and when to remove this message
3122:Steam jet ejector performance guidelines
2849:Air Pollution Control Orientation Course
2560:
2558:
2234:
1682:
1476:
1389:
1365:Fossil fuel power stations often have a
1244:, a chemical that removes the remaining
1226:
1076:
815:. If the waste heat is instead used for
714:
568:
88:
74:
63:
49:
37:
29:
2839:
2765:
2735:
2661:
2402:A central battery system consisting of
1501:The condenser tubes are typically made
1322:. From the economizer it passes to the
14:
3151:
2874:Figure 3a, Layout of surface condenser
2807:
2496:List of thermal power station failures
2481:Integrated gasification combined cycle
1832:are notable exceptions), and parts of
1521:. The process is similar to that of a
2891:Kents' Mechanical Engineers' Handbook
2555:
1171:
739:of the fuel consumed. A simple cycle
163:or oil can also be burnt directly in
2992:Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion
2569:, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., p. 13
2304:
2114:adding citations to reliable sources
2085:
2081:
1895:adding citations to reliable sources
1866:
1591:adding citations to reliable sources
1562:
1514:discharged into that body of water.
1003:adding citations to reliable sources
974:
888:adding citations to reliable sources
859:
641:adding citations to reliable sources
612:
495:adding citations to reliable sources
466:
266:adding citations to reliable sources
237:
3102:Conventional coal-fired power plant
2876:(scroll to page 11 of 34 pdf pages)
2705:Pew Center on Global Climate Change
2691:1 March 2014. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
2646:. Fossil.energy.gov. Archived from
2582:"Power plant efficiency since 1900"
2269:Boilers in some power stations use
1434:in the condenser of about 2–7
1377:
1271:
1098:refers to a specific type of large
849:
609:Thermal power generation efficiency
24:
3097:Thermal Power Plant:Indian Context
2995:(4th ed.). author-published.
1719:
1176:The boiler feed water used in the
392:, or natural gas are often called
187:where it is cooled to produce hot
25:
3190:
3090:
2747:Babcock & Wilcox Co. (2005).
2580:Cutler Cleveland (24 July 2023).
2373:for connecting to a high-voltage
1738:, each containing miles of heavy
1308:gas turbine combined-cycle plants
2626:Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2009
2534:
2090:
1871:
1672:
1567:
979:
864:
617:
471:
242:
3037:
3024:
3012:
2982:
2954:"Cooling System Retrofit Costs"
2945:
2931:
2917:
2879:
2864:Energy savings in steam systems
2818:
2506:Ocean thermal energy conversion
2277:
2101:needs additional citations for
2068:atmospheric dispersion modeling
1995:along with combustion products
1882:needs additional citations for
1848:steam turbine-driven generators
1578:needs additional citations for
1353:The steam drum (as well as the
1342:feed nozzles and igniter guns,
990:needs additional citations for
875:needs additional citations for
727:and a single feed water heater.
628:needs additional citations for
482:needs additional citations for
253:needs additional citations for
2710:
2694:
2677:
2616:
2600:
2573:
2491:List of largest power stations
2255:, or other types of grinders.
2057:Ekibastuz GRES-2 Power Station
1360:
1304:heat recovery steam generators
1116:heat recovery steam generators
13:
1:
2749:Steam: Its Generation and Use
2548:
2456:Cost of electricity by source
2356:Generator high-voltage system
2292:
2197:to the boiler, losses due to
1400:shell and tube heat exchanger
1314:Boiler furnace and steam drum
1252:(ppb). It is also dosed with
856:Cost of electricity by source
786:very-high-temperature reactor
591:Holborn Viaduct power station
406:are sometimes referred to as
382:heat recovery steam generator
3169:Chemical process engineering
2701:Climate TechBook, Hydropower
2007:. The fly ash is removed by
1797:environment is not created.
1276:The boiler is a rectangular
1268:low and thus non-corrosive.
7:
3112:Power Plant Reference Books
2989:Beychok, Milton R. (2005).
2826:"Evoqua Water Technologies"
2428:
2389:Monitoring and alarm system
2333:hydrogen does not mix with
2317:of any gas and for its low
2017:electrostatic precipitators
1777:of any gas and for its low
1545:
1536:
1398:The surface condenser is a
794:supercritical water reactor
790:Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor
408:conventional power stations
10:
3195:
2889:(Editor in Chief) (1936).
2414:
1968:
1863:Stack gas path and cleanup
1723:
1676:
1158:electrostatic precipitator
853:
603:Manhattan Elevated Railway
579:reciprocating steam engine
462:
395:fossil fuel power stations
2471:Fossil fuel power station
2369:are connected to step-up
2315:heat transfer coefficient
2258:Some power stations burn
2076:good engineering practice
1775:heat transfer coefficient
1104:pressurized water reactor
1082:Pressurized water reactor
439:Nuclear marine propulsion
358:waste incineration plants
342:coal-fired power stations
3159:Power station technology
2411:Circulating water system
2407:an emergency situation.
1975:Flue-gas desulfurization
1508:thermodynamic efficiency
1248:in the water to below 5
1212:in the range of 0.3–1.0
807:and be disposed of with
135:, etc.) is converted to
69:Geothermal power station
2939:"Cooling Water Intakes"
2567:Power Plant Engineering
2417:Circulating water plant
2231:Fuel preparation system
2125:"Thermal power station"
2034:which use a pulverized
1906:"Thermal power station"
1602:"Thermal power station"
1559:Steam turbine generator
1256:control agents such as
1014:"Thermal power station"
899:"Thermal power station"
652:"Thermal power station"
506:"Thermal power station"
277:"Thermal power station"
234:Types of thermal energy
3008:www.air-dispersion.com
2814:Pressurized deaerators
2683:Global CCS Institute,
2240:
1765:, synchronized to the
1688:
1482:
1395:
1232:
1085:
971:Boiler and steam cycle
746:Combined-cycle systems
728:
574:
354:solar thermal electric
175:or the more efficient
104:
94:PS10 solar power plant
86:
72:
61:
47:
35:
3107:Power station diagram
3046:Nature Climate Change
2963:. EPA. Archived from
2961:Cooling Water Intakes
2375:electrical substation
2271:processed natural gas
2238:
1686:
1480:
1472:cooling water intakes
1393:
1264:to keep the residual
1230:
1108:boiling water reactor
1080:
718:
572:
422:electrical generators
109:thermal power station
92:
78:
67:
55:Rooiwal Power Station
53:
41:
33:
3179:Thermal power plants
3066:10.1038/nclimate2903
2887:Robert Thurston Kent
2612:. CUP Archive. 1940.
2364:in smaller units to
2342:atmospheric pressure
2110:improve this article
1891:improve this article
1802:power grid frequency
1587:improve this article
1519:air-cooled condenser
1464:once-through cooling
1084:simplified schematic
999:improve this article
884:improve this article
637:improve this article
587:Pearl Street Station
491:improve this article
428:of 50 Hz or 60
262:improve this article
202:, some stations use
3058:2016NatCC...6..375V
2210:salts which impart
2032:stack gas scrubbers
1329:natural circulation
1188:water and purified
836:hydropower stations
169:internal combustion
113:thermal power plant
18:Thermal power plant
3117:Steam jet ejectors
2941:. EPA. 2017-08-30.
2909:has generic name (
2869:2007-09-27 at the
2586:Visualizing Energy
2241:
2009:fabric bag filters
1979:As the combustion
1812:and 50 Hz in
1746:, thus preventing
1698:emergency lighting
1689:
1483:
1396:
1233:
1172:Feed water heating
1086:
729:
575:
216:waste incineration
157:electric generator
111:, also known as a
105:
87:
80:Drax Power Station
73:
62:
48:
36:
3164:Energy conversion
3002:978-0-9644588-0-2
2786:978-0-07-019435-9
2758:978-0-9634570-0-4
2751:(41st ed.).
2728:978-0-08-040510-0
2526:Water-tube boiler
2521:Surface condenser
2305:Generator cooling
2225:surface condenser
2186:
2185:
2178:
2160:
2082:Auxiliary systems
1967:
1966:
1959:
1941:
1663:
1662:
1655:
1637:
1468:thermal pollution
1432:absolute pressure
1289:thermal radiation
1250:parts per billion
1123:Geothermal plants
1075:
1074:
1067:
1049:
960:
959:
952:
934:
803:can go through a
757:Carnot efficiency
733:energy efficiency
723:with a two-stage
713:
712:
705:
687:
567:
566:
559:
541:
338:
337:
330:
312:
137:electrical energy
16:(Redirected from
3186:
3139:
3129:
3084:
3083:
3077:
3069:
3041:
3035:
3028:
3022:
3016:
3010:
3006:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2970:on March 9, 2008
2969:
2958:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2908:
2904:
2902:
2894:
2883:
2877:
2861:
2852:
2846:
2837:
2836:
2833:www.usfilter.com
2830:
2822:
2816:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2798:
2790:
2772:
2763:
2762:
2744:
2733:
2732:
2714:
2708:
2698:
2692:
2681:
2675:
2668:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2640:
2634:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2562:
2544:
2539:
2538:
2476:Geothermal power
2367:
2363:
2251:, rotating drum
2181:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2118:
2094:
2086:
1962:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1942:
1940:
1899:
1875:
1867:
1781:, which reduces
1658:
1651:
1647:
1644:
1638:
1636:
1595:
1571:
1563:
1531:condensate pumps
1453:air conditioning
1438:(0.59–2.07
1378:Steam condensing
1333:steam separators
1272:Boiler operation
1070:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1050:
1048:
1007:
983:
975:
955:
948:
944:
941:
935:
933:
892:
868:
860:
850:Electricity cost
817:district heating
774:phase transition
708:
701:
697:
694:
688:
686:
645:
621:
613:
589:in New York and
562:
555:
551:
548:
542:
540:
499:
475:
467:
415:electric utility
333:
326:
322:
319:
313:
311:
270:
246:
238:
224:desalinate water
220:district heating
204:geothermal power
21:
3194:
3193:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3149:
3148:
3137:
3127:
3093:
3088:
3087:
3071:
3070:
3042:
3038:
3029:
3025:
3017:
3013:
3003:
2987:
2983:
2973:
2971:
2967:
2956:
2950:
2946:
2937:
2936:
2932:
2923:
2922:
2918:
2906:
2905:
2896:
2895:
2884:
2880:
2871:Wayback Machine
2862:
2855:
2847:
2840:
2828:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2808:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2773:
2766:
2759:
2745:
2736:
2729:
2715:
2711:
2699:
2695:
2682:
2678:
2670:John Zactruba,
2669:
2662:
2653:
2651:
2650:on May 27, 2010
2642:
2641:
2637:
2621:
2617:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2591:
2589:
2578:
2574:
2563:
2556:
2551:
2540:
2533:
2530:
2431:
2419:
2413:
2400:
2391:
2365:
2361:
2358:
2307:
2295:
2280:
2233:
2191:
2182:
2171:
2165:
2162:
2119:
2117:
2107:
2095:
2084:
2030:are removed by
2005:nitrogen oxides
1977:
1963:
1952:
1946:
1943:
1900:
1898:
1888:
1876:
1865:
1734:and a spinning
1728:
1726:Turbo generator
1722:
1720:Turbo generator
1681:
1675:
1659:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1596:
1594:
1584:
1572:
1561:
1548:
1539:
1503:stainless steel
1380:
1363:
1316:
1285:pulverized coal
1274:
1198:water softeners
1174:
1095:steam generator
1071:
1060:
1054:
1051:
1008:
1006:
996:
984:
973:
956:
945:
939:
936:
893:
891:
881:
869:
858:
852:
819:, it is called
709:
698:
692:
689:
646:
644:
634:
622:
611:
563:
552:
546:
543:
500:
498:
488:
476:
465:
334:
323:
317:
314:
271:
269:
259:
247:
236:
185:steam condenser
153:pressure vessel
115:, is a type of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3192:
3182:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3147:
3146:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3092:
3091:External links
3089:
3086:
3085:
3052:(4): 375–380.
3036:
3023:
3011:
3001:
2981:
2944:
2930:
2916:
2878:
2853:
2838:
2817:
2806:
2785:
2764:
2757:
2734:
2727:
2709:
2707:, October 2009
2693:
2676:
2660:
2635:
2615:
2599:
2572:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2466:Flue-gas stack
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2412:
2409:
2404:lead–acid cell
2399:
2396:
2390:
2387:
2380:The necessary
2357:
2354:
2327:carbon dioxide
2321:which reduces
2306:
2303:
2294:
2291:
2279:
2276:
2232:
2229:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2098:
2096:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2052:flue-gas stack
2001:sulfur dioxide
1997:carbon dioxide
1965:
1964:
1879:
1877:
1870:
1864:
1861:
1787:carbon dioxide
1724:Main article:
1721:
1718:
1677:Main article:
1674:
1671:
1661:
1660:
1575:
1573:
1566:
1560:
1557:
1547:
1544:
1538:
1535:
1488:cooling towers
1421:vapor pressure
1405:steam ejectors
1379:
1376:
1362:
1359:
1315:
1312:
1273:
1270:
1173:
1170:
1166:flue-gas stack
1100:heat exchanger
1073:
1072:
987:
985:
978:
972:
969:
958:
957:
872:
870:
863:
851:
848:
842:is limited by
813:cooling towers
766:critical point
750:thermodynamics
711:
710:
625:
623:
616:
610:
607:
565:
564:
479:
477:
470:
464:
461:
447:electric motor
443:turbo-electric
386:combined cycle
364:is frequently
336:
335:
250:
248:
241:
235:
232:
177:combined cycle
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3191:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3144:
3140:
3134:
3130:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3081:
3075:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3033:
3027:
3020:
3015:
3009:
3004:
2998:
2994:
2993:
2985:
2966:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2940:
2934:
2926:
2920:
2912:
2907:|author=
2900:
2892:
2888:
2882:
2875:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2860:
2858:
2850:
2845:
2843:
2834:
2827:
2821:
2815:
2810:
2802:
2796:
2788:
2782:
2778:
2771:
2769:
2760:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2730:
2724:
2720:
2713:
2706:
2702:
2697:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2673:
2667:
2665:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2633:
2632:1-59691-677-X
2629:
2625:
2622:Maury Klein,
2619:
2611:
2610:
2603:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2568:
2561:
2559:
2554:
2543:
2542:Energy portal
2537:
2532:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2516:Power station
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2501:Nuclear power
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2451:Cooling tower
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2426:
2423:
2418:
2408:
2405:
2395:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2353:
2351:
2346:
2343:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2302:
2299:
2290:
2286:
2284:
2275:
2272:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2237:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2216:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2180:
2177:
2169:
2158:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2127: –
2126:
2122:
2121:Find sources:
2115:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2099:This section
2097:
2093:
2088:
2087:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2072:air pollution
2069:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2048:nitrous oxide
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1985:air preheater
1982:
1976:
1972:
1961:
1958:
1950:
1939:
1936:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1908: –
1907:
1903:
1902:Find sources:
1896:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1880:This section
1878:
1874:
1869:
1868:
1860:
1858:
1857:Babbitt metal
1854:
1849:
1844:
1842:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1828:and parts of
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1810:North America
1807:
1803:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1703:
1702:communication
1699:
1695:
1685:
1680:
1679:Steam turbine
1673:Steam turbine
1670:
1668:
1657:
1654:
1646:
1635:
1632:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1604: –
1603:
1599:
1598:Find sources:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1576:This section
1574:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1543:
1534:
1532:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1479:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1460:cooling tower
1456:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1392:
1388:
1386:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1283:Fuel such as
1281:
1279:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1229:
1225:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1182:steam turbine
1179:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1154:air preheater
1151:
1147:
1143:
1142:safety valves
1139:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1090:nuclear plant
1083:
1079:
1069:
1066:
1058:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1016: –
1015:
1011:
1010:Find sources:
1004:
1000:
994:
993:
988:This section
986:
982:
977:
976:
968:
966:
965:externalities
954:
951:
943:
932:
929:
925:
922:
918:
915:
911:
908:
904:
901: –
900:
896:
895:Find sources:
889:
885:
879:
878:
873:This section
871:
867:
862:
861:
857:
847:
845:
841:
837:
832:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
809:cooling water
806:
802:
797:
795:
791:
787:
781:
779:
775:
771:
767:
762:
761:Supercritical
758:
753:
751:
747:
742:
738:
737:heating value
734:
726:
725:steam turbine
722:
721:Rankine cycle
717:
707:
704:
696:
685:
682:
678:
675:
671:
668:
664:
661:
657:
654: –
653:
649:
648:Find sources:
642:
638:
632:
631:
626:This section
624:
620:
615:
614:
606:
604:
599:
596:
595:steam turbine
592:
588:
584:
580:
571:
561:
558:
550:
539:
536:
532:
529:
525:
522:
518:
515:
511:
508: –
507:
503:
502:Find sources:
496:
492:
486:
485:
480:This section
478:
474:
469:
468:
460:
458:
454:
452:
448:
444:
440:
435:
431:
427:
423:
420:
416:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
396:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
344:, petroleum,
343:
332:
329:
321:
310:
307:
303:
300:
296:
293:
289:
286:
282:
279: –
278:
274:
273:Find sources:
267:
263:
257:
256:
251:This section
249:
245:
240:
239:
231:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
192:
190:
186:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
149:Brayton cycle
146:
145:Rankine cycle
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
119:in which the
118:
117:power station
114:
110:
103:
99:
95:
91:
85:
81:
77:
70:
66:
60:
56:
52:
45:
40:
32:
19:
3074:cite journal
3049:
3045:
3039:
3031:
3026:
3018:
3014:
2991:
2984:
2972:. Retrieved
2965:the original
2960:
2947:
2933:
2919:
2890:
2881:
2873:
2832:
2820:
2809:
2776:
2748:
2718:
2712:
2696:
2688:
2679:
2652:. Retrieved
2648:the original
2638:
2623:
2618:
2608:
2602:
2590:. Retrieved
2585:
2575:
2566:
2446:Cogeneration
2424:
2420:
2401:
2392:
2379:
2371:transformers
2359:
2347:
2339:
2337:in the air.
2308:
2300:
2298:mechanisms.
2296:
2287:
2283:Barring gear
2281:
2278:Barring gear
2268:
2257:
2242:
2217:
2192:
2172:
2163:
2153:
2146:
2139:
2132:
2120:
2108:Please help
2103:verification
2100:
2065:
2025:
1978:
1953:
1944:
1934:
1927:
1920:
1913:
1901:
1889:Please help
1884:verification
1881:
1845:
1841:transformers
1838:
1799:
1748:black starts
1729:
1706:
1690:
1664:
1649:
1640:
1630:
1623:
1616:
1609:
1597:
1585:Please help
1580:verification
1577:
1553:
1549:
1540:
1528:
1516:
1512:
1500:
1484:
1457:
1449:
1429:
1417:
1409:rotary motor
1397:
1381:
1372:
1364:
1352:
1344:soot blowers
1337:
1317:
1301:
1282:
1275:
1234:
1219:
1214:microsiemens
1210:conductivity
1202:ion exchange
1190:makeup water
1189:
1185:
1175:
1127:
1121:
1114:
1112:
1093:
1087:
1061:
1052:
1042:
1035:
1028:
1021:
1009:
997:Please help
992:verification
989:
961:
946:
937:
927:
920:
913:
906:
894:
882:Please help
877:verification
874:
840:wind turbine
833:
825:desalination
821:cogeneration
798:
782:
754:
730:
699:
690:
680:
673:
666:
659:
647:
635:Please help
630:verification
627:
600:
576:
553:
544:
534:
527:
520:
513:
501:
489:Please help
484:verification
481:
457:Cogeneration
455:
412:
407:
404:cogeneration
393:
370:gas turbines
339:
324:
315:
305:
298:
291:
284:
272:
260:Please help
255:verification
252:
228:
208:solar energy
200:nuclear fuel
193:
181:
165:gas turbines
141:Diesel cycle
133:nuclear fuel
112:
108:
106:
59:South Africa
3174:Steam power
2486:Iron powder
2461:Energy crop
1710:temperature
1387:increases.
1367:superheater
1361:Superheater
1355:superheater
1164:), and the
829:natural gas
741:gas turbine
419:three-phase
413:Commercial
372:as well as
362:Natural gas
340:Almost all
161:natural gas
129:natural gas
121:heat energy
3153:Categories
2974:2006-09-10
2654:2011-09-25
2549:References
2415:See also:
2382:protection
2293:Oil system
2264:pour point
2249:ball mills
2245:pulverized
2195:condensate
2136:newspapers
2061:Kazakhstan
2046:to remove
2028:pollutants
1969:See also:
1917:newspapers
1767:power grid
1754:at 24,000
1613:newspapers
1492:waste heat
1442:), i.e. a
1348:explosions
1327:purely by
1324:steam drum
1320:economizer
1262:morpholine
1186:condensate
1136:, and the
1134:steam drum
1130:economizer
1102:used in a
1025:newspapers
910:newspapers
854:See also:
844:Betz's law
801:waste heat
663:newspapers
583:James Watt
517:newspapers
451:propulsion
378:waste heat
350:geothermal
288:newspapers
189:condensate
173:open cycle
71:in Iceland
2899:cite book
2795:cite book
2592:23 August
2511:Powership
2331:flammable
2319:viscosity
2208:magnesium
2166:July 2023
2044:catalysts
2038:or other
2036:limestone
2013:baghouses
1947:July 2023
1793:hydrogen–
1791:explosive
1779:viscosity
1643:July 2023
1310:section.
1297:superheat
1242:hydrazine
1238:deaerator
1222:condenser
1206:insulator
1194:corrosion
1055:July 2023
940:July 2023
805:condenser
693:July 2023
547:July 2023
426:frequency
318:July 2023
98:Andalusia
2867:Archived
2429:See also
2311:Hydrogen
2260:fuel oil
2253:grinders
2212:hardness
2199:blowdown
2040:alkaline
2021:concrete
1993:nitrogen
1981:flue gas
1853:bearings
1771:hydrogen
1714:pressure
1667:turbines
1546:Air path
1537:Reheater
1523:radiator
1162:baghouse
1146:flue gas
390:fuel oil
212:biofuels
3143:YouTube
3133:YouTube
3054:Bibcode
2323:windage
2204:calcium
2150:scholar
1989:fly ash
1931:scholar
1818:Oceania
1808:across
1783:windage
1752:amperes
1627:scholar
1278:furnace
1266:acidity
1258:ammonia
1208:, with
1138:furnace
1092:field,
1088:In the
1039:scholar
924:scholar
778:density
677:scholar
531:scholar
463:History
434:heating
400:biomass
398:. Some
374:boilers
346:nuclear
302:scholar
84:England
46:, China
44:Nantong
3138:second
2999:
2783:
2755:
2725:
2630:
2436:Boiler
2335:oxygen
2152:
2145:
2138:
2131:
2123:
2003:, and
1933:
1926:
1919:
1912:
1904:
1834:Africa
1814:Europe
1804:is 60
1795:oxygen
1744:magnet
1740:copper
1732:stator
1629:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1600:
1444:vacuum
1425:vacuum
1413:vacuum
1293:boiler
1246:oxygen
1041:
1034:
1027:
1020:
1012:
926:
919:
912:
905:
897:
811:or in
792:, and
679:
672:
665:
658:
650:
533:
526:
519:
512:
504:
376:. The
366:burned
356:, and
304:
297:
290:
283:
275:
214:, and
196:fossil
179:type.
3128:First
2968:(PDF)
2957:(PDF)
2829:(PDF)
2366:30 kV
2362:11 kV
2157:JSTOR
2143:books
1938:JSTOR
1924:books
1830:Japan
1826:Korea
1756:volts
1736:rotor
1634:JSTOR
1620:books
1385:cycle
1178:steam
1046:JSTOR
1032:books
931:JSTOR
917:books
770:water
684:JSTOR
670:books
538:JSTOR
524:books
309:JSTOR
295:books
222:, or
102:Spain
3135:and
3080:link
2997:ISBN
2911:help
2801:link
2781:ISBN
2753:ISBN
2723:ISBN
2628:ISBN
2594:2023
2206:and
2129:news
1973:and
1910:news
1846:The
1822:Asia
1800:The
1712:and
1606:news
1440:inHg
1340:coal
1200:and
1132:, a
1018:news
903:news
768:for
755:The
731:The
656:news
577:The
510:news
449:for
281:news
198:and
125:coal
3141:on
3131:on
3062:doi
2221:PVC
2112:by
2059:in
2015:or
2011:in
1893:by
1763:rpm
1694:rpm
1589:by
1436:kPa
1407:or
1260:or
1160:or
1150:fan
1001:by
886:by
639:by
493:by
368:in
264:by
57:in
3155::
3076:}}
3072:{{
3060:.
3048:.
2959:.
2903::
2901:}}
2897:{{
2856:^
2841:^
2831:.
2797:}}
2793:{{
2767:^
2737:^
2703:,
2687:,
2663:^
2584:.
2557:^
2350:kV
2063:.
1999:,
1820:,
1816:,
1806:Hz
1759:AC
1700:,
1496:MW
1474:.
1455:.
1415:.
1254:pH
1168:.
1152:,
967:.
788:,
780:.
752:.
719:A
453:.
430:Hz
410:.
352:,
348:,
210:,
206:,
147:,
143:,
131:,
127:,
107:A
100:,
3082:)
3068:.
3064::
3056::
3050:6
3005:.
2977:.
2913:)
2835:.
2803:)
2789:.
2761:.
2731:.
2657:.
2596:.
2179:)
2173:(
2168:)
2164:(
2154:·
2147:·
2140:·
2133:·
2106:.
1960:)
1954:(
1949:)
1945:(
1935:·
1928:·
1921:·
1914:·
1887:.
1824:(
1656:)
1650:(
1645:)
1641:(
1631:·
1624:·
1617:·
1610:·
1583:.
1068:)
1062:(
1057:)
1053:(
1043:·
1036:·
1029:·
1022:·
995:.
953:)
947:(
942:)
938:(
928:·
921:·
914:·
907:·
880:.
706:)
700:(
695:)
691:(
681:·
674:·
667:·
660:·
633:.
560:)
554:(
549:)
545:(
535:·
528:·
521:·
514:·
487:.
331:)
325:(
320:)
316:(
306:·
299:·
292:·
285:·
258:.
167:(
20:)
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