154:
213:
193:
201:
to occur lower down, at the top of the thundercloud (10–20 km) where a local field can be stronger. This hypothesis is supported by two independent observations. First, the spectrum of the gamma-rays seen by RHESSI matches very well to the prediction of relativistic runaway at 15–20 km. Second, TGFs are strongly concentrated around Earth's equator when compared to lightning. (They may also be concentrated over water compared to lightning in general.)
238:
106:
141:) satellite observed TGFs with much higher energies than those recorded by BATSE. The RHESSI data led scientists to estimate that approximately 50 TGFs occur each day, more than previously thought but still only representing a very small fraction of the total lightning on Earth (3–4 million lightning events per day on average). A few years later, scientists using NASA's
35:
229:(ASIM), dedicated to measuring simultaneously optical signals of lightning and signals of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, revealed that TGFs are usually associated with optical flashes, strongly suggesting that relativistic electrons as precursors of TGFs are produced in the strong electric fields in the proximity of lightning channels.
253:
Calculations have shown that TGFs can liberate not only positrons, but also neutrons and protons. Neutrons have already been measured in electric discharges, whereas there is no experimental confirmation of discharge related protons (2016). Recent research has shown that the fluence of these neutrons
224:
Another hypothetical mechanism is that TGFs are produced within the thundercloud itself, either in the strong electric fields near the lightning channel or in the static fields that exist over large volumes of the cloud. These mechanisms rely on extreme activity of the lightning channel to start the
249:
It has been suggested that TGFs must also launch beams of highly relativistic electrons and positrons which escape the atmosphere, propagate along Earth's magnetic field and precipitate on the opposite hemisphere. A few cases of TGFs on RHESSI, BATSE, and Fermi-GBM have shown unusual patterns that
200:
The DC field model requires a very large thundercloud charge to create sufficient fields at high altitudes (e.g. 50–90 km, where sprites form). Unlike the case of sprites, these large charges do not seem to be associated with TGF-generating lightning. Thus the DC field model requires the TGF
161:
Though the details of the mechanism are uncertain, there is a consensus forming about the physical requirements. It is presumed that TGF photons are emitted by electrons traveling at speeds very close to the speed of light that collide with the nuclei of atoms in the air and release their energy in
336:
in Earth orbit observed intense burst of gamma rays corresponding to positron annihilations coming out of a storm formation. Scientists would not have been surprised to see a few positrons accompanying any intense gamma ray burst, but the lightning flash detected by Fermi appeared to have produced
325:
are generated. Subsequent evidence however, has suggested instead that TGFs may be produced by driving relativistic electron avalanches within or just above high thunderclouds. Though hindered by atmospheric absorption of the escaping gamma rays, these theories do not require the exceptionally
306:
have also been studying the link between certain lightning events and the mysterious gamma ray emissions that emanate from the Earth's own atmosphere, in light of newer observations of TGFs made by RHESSI. Their study suggests that this gamma radiation fountains upward from starting points at
220:
An alternative hypothesis, the EMP model, relaxes the requirement on thundercloud charge but instead requires a large current pulse moving at very high speed. The required current pulse speed is very restrictive, and there is not yet any direct observational support for this model.
1594:
Briggs, Michael S.; Connaughton, Valerie; Wilson-Hodge, Colleen; Preece, Robert D.; Fishman, Gerald J.; Kippen, R. Marc; Bhat, P. N.; Paciesas, William S.; Chaplin, Vandiver L.; Meegan, Charles A.; von
Kienlin, Andreas; Greiner, Jochen; Dwyer, Joseph R.; Smith, David M. (2011).
281:, these so-called terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs) were observed by accident, while he was documenting instances of extraterrestrial gamma ray bursts observed by the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO). TGFs are much shorter in duration, however, lasting only about 1 ms.
174:(RREA). The electric field is likely provided by lightning, as most TGFs have been shown to occur within a few milliseconds of a lightning event (Inan et al. 1996). Beyond this basic picture the details are uncertain. Recent research has shown that electron-electron (
40:
39:
36:
41:
189:(EMP) produced by a lightning discharge, often associated with elves. There is also some evidence that certain TGFs occur in the absence of lightning strikes, though in the vicinity of general lightning activity, which has evoked comparisons to blue jets.
38:
1406:
Agafonov, A. V.; Bagulya, A. V.; Dalkarov, O. D.; Negodaev, M. A.; Oginov, A. V.; Rusetskiy, A. S.; Ryabov, V. A.; Shpakov, K. V. (2013). "Observation of neutron bursts produced by laboratory high-voltage atmospheric discharge".
185:, which were discovered in the years immediately preceding the first TGF observations. For instance, that field may be due to the separation of charges in a thundercloud ("DC" field) often associated with sprites, or due to the
133:
strike occurring within a few milliseconds of the TGF. BATSE detected only a small number of TGF events in nine years (76), due to it having been constructed to study gamma ray bursts from outer space, which last much longer.
209:, and thus the gamma-rays from TGFs produced there have a better chance of escaping the atmosphere. The implication would then be that there are many lower-altitude TGFs not seen from space, particularly at higher latitudes.
1248:
Briggs, M. S.; Connaughton, V.; Wilson-Hodge, C.; Preece, R. D.; Fishman, G. J.; Kippen, R. M.; Bhat, P. N.; Paciesas, R. M.; Chaplin, V. L.; Meegan, C. A.; Von
Kienlin, A.; Greiner, J.; Dwyer, J. R.; Smith, D. M. (2011).
299:, has been observing TGFs at a much higher rate, indicating that these occur about 50 times per day globally (still a very small fraction of the total lightning on the planet). The energy levels recorded exceed 20 MeV.
934:
The importance of electron-electron
Bremsstrahlung for terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, electron beams and electron-positron beams J. Phys. D.: Appl. Phys. as Fast Track Communication (2014), vol. 47, 252001
990:
Williams, E.; Boldi, R.; Bór, J.; Sátori, G.; Price, C.; Greenberg, E.; Takahashi, Y.; Yamamoto, K.; Matsudo, Y.; Hobara, Y.; Hayakawa, M.; Chronis, T.; Anagnostou, E.; Smith, D. M.; Lopez, L. I. (2006).
462:
Fishman, G. J.; Bhat, P. N.; Mallozzi, R.; Horack, J. M.; Koshut, T.; Kouveliotou, C.; Pendleton, G. N.; Meegan, C. A.; Wilson, R. B.; Paciesas, W. S.; Goodman, S. J.; Christian, H. J. (May 27, 1994).
288:
linked a TGF to an individual lightning stroke occurring within 1.5 ms of the TGF event, proving for the first time that the TGF was of atmospheric origin and associated with lightning strikes.
254:
lies between 10 and 10 per ms and per m depending on the detection altitude. The energy of most of these neutrons, even with initial energies of 20 MeV, decreases down to the keV range within 1 ms.
1581:
37:
677:, Angular distribution of Bremsstrahlung photons and of positrons for calculations of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and positron beams, Atmos. Res. (2014), vol. 135-136, pp. 432-465
1469:
314:, said, "These are higher energy gamma rays than those coming from the Sun. And yet here they are coming from the kind of terrestrial thunderstorm that we see here all the time."
241:
A terrestrial gamma-ray flash event (magenta) with associated electron/positron beams (yellow/green) moving along a magnetic field line which can eventually bounce back on the
1685:
27:
292:
138:
463:
429:
546:
890:"Terrestrial gamma ray flashes observed aboard the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory/Burst and Transient Source Experiment and ELF/VLF radio atmospherics"
620:
1702:"Estimation of the fluence of high-energy electron bursts produced by thunderclouds and the resulting radiation doses received in aircraft"
1700:
Dwyer, Joseph R.; Smith, David M.; Uman, Martin A.; Saleh, Ziad; Grefenstette, Brian W.; Hazelton, Bryna J. C.; Rassoul, Hamid K. (2010).
262:
Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the discovery of the clear signatures of
1477:
1542:
688:
311:
1125:"The Emission of Terrestrial Gamma Ray Flashes From Encountering Streamer Coronae Associated to the Breakdown of Lightning Leaders"
318:
171:
349:
321:
at altitudes well above the cloud where the thin atmosphere allows gamma rays to easily escape into space, similar to the way
341:
226:
196:
Hypothetical TGF production near a thundercloud driven by electromagnetic waves radiated by a large lightning current pulse.
296:
269:
It has been discovered in the past 15 years that among the processes of lightning is some mechanism capable of generating
145:, which was designed to monitor gamma rays, estimated that about 500 TGFs occur daily worldwide, but most go undetected.
1754:"New satellite observations of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes reveal surprising features of mysterious blasts from Earth"
337:
about 100 trillion positrons. This was reported by news media in
January 2011, and had never been previously observed.
225:
process (Carlson et al. 2010) or on strong feedback to allow even small-scale random events to trigger production. The
178:) leads first to an enrichment of high-energy electrons and subsequently enlarges the number of high-energy photons.
1681:
1499:
1706:
1086:
997:
894:
333:
142:
46:
946:"A comparison between Monte Carlo simulations of runaway breakdown and terrestrial gamma-ray flash observations"
1674:
1350:"Production mechanisms of leptons, photons, and hadrons and their possible feedback close to lightning leaders"
520:
437:
595:
157:
Hypothetical TGF production above a thundercloud driven by decaying fields after a large lightning discharge.
118:
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953:
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797:
751:
181:
Some of standard theoretical frameworks have been borrowed from other lightning-associated discharges like
650:
345:
322:
182:
1039:"Production of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes by an electromagnetic pulse from a lightning return stroke"
1306:"Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons and protons associated with terrestrial gamma-ray flashes"
793:"Measurements and implications of the relationship between lightning and terrestrial gamma ray flashes"
329:
The role of TGFs and their relationship to lightning remains a subject of ongoing scientific study.
1168:"Spectral Observations of Optical Lightning Activity Associated with Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes"
628:
1354:
1500:"On the association of terrestrial gamma-ray bursts with lightning and implications for sprites"
109:
Energy plot of a typical TGF event, with artist's conception of a gamma-ray flash superimposed.
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273:, which escape the atmosphere and are observed by orbiting spacecraft. Brought to light by
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Early hypotheses of this pointed to lightning generating high electric fields and driving
8:
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126:
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Köhn, C.; Heumesser, M.; Chanrion, O.; Nishikawa, K.; Reglero, V.; Neubert, T. (2020).
824:
689:"Runaway electron mechanism of air breakdown and preconditioning during a thunderstorm"
587:
512:
45:
The red dots show some of the ~500 terrestrial gamma-ray flashes daily detected by the
1250:
1206:
1081:
1038:
993:"Lightning flashes conducive to the production and escape of gamma radiation to space"
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Cummer, S. A.; Zhai, Y.; Hu, W.; Smith, D. M.; Lopez, L. I.; Stanley, M. A. (2005).
591:
516:
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can be explained by such electron/positron beams, but such events are very unusual.
166:). Large populations of energetic electrons can form by avalanche growth driven by
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1597:"Electron-positron beams from terrestrial lightning observed with Fermi GBM"
1497:
1251:"Electron-positron beams from terrestrial lightning observed with Fermi GBM"
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499:
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1392:
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CGRO recorded only about 77 events in 10 years; however, more recently the
202:
86:
78:
69:
produced in Earth's atmosphere. TGFs have been recorded to last 0.2 to 3.5
1728:
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1151:
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intense lightning that high altitude theories of TGF generation rely on.
70:
1190:
545:
Smith, D. M.; Lopez, L. I.; Lin, R. P.; Barrington-Leigh, C. P. (2005).
192:
1535:
1034:
842:
366:
263:
137:
In the early 2000s, the Ramaty High Energy Solar
Spectroscopic Imager (
1526:
1301:
931:
674:
621:"Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning"
376:
270:
130:
66:
1584:. News.nationalgeographic.com (2011-01-11). Retrieved on 2012-06-23.
1593:
1247:
401:
371:
344:(ASIM), an experiment dedicated to study TGFs, was launched to the
94:
90:
1421:
430:"NASA's Fermi Catches Thunderstorms Hurling Antimatter Into Space"
1207:"High-energy electron beams launched into space by thunderstorms"
206:
1498:
U.S. Inan; S.C. Reising; G.J. Fishman & J.M. Horack (1996).
845:; Cohen, M. B.; Said, R. K.; Smith, D. M.; Lopez, L. I. (2006).
237:
1675:"Terrestrial Gamma-ray Flashes after CGRO: prospects for HESSI"
1405:
687:
Gurevich, A. V.; Milikh, G. M.; Roussel-Dupre, R. (June 1992).
113:
Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes were first discovered in 1994 by
74:
1305:
1122:
464:"Discovery of Intense Gamma-Ray Flashes of Atmospheric Origin"
544:
114:
30:
Artist's conception of gamma-ray flash and related phenomena.
105:
686:
433:
274:
122:
461:
397:"Antimatter Caught Streaming from Thunderstorms on Earth"
1205:
Dwyer, J. R.; Grefenstette, B. W.; Smith, D. M. (2008).
847:"Terrestrial gamma ray flashes and lightning discharges"
1204:
989:
26:
16:
Burst of gamma rays produced in the Earth's atmosphere
547:"Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes Observed up to 20 MeV"
1082:"Source mechanisms of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes"
428:
Perrotto, Trent; Anderson, Janet (10 January 2011).
293:
1699:
983:
295:(RHESSI) spacecraft, as reported by David Smith of
117:, or Burst and Transient Source Experiment, on the
81:. It is speculated that TGFs are caused by intense
841:
216:Hypothetical TGF production within a thundercloud.
1241:
790:
1766:
1347:
1198:
937:
887:
881:
427:
1582:Thunderstorms Shoot Antimatter Beams Into Space
1470:"Signature Of Antimatter Detected In Lightning"
888:Cohen, M. B.; Inan, U. S.; Fishman, G. (2006).
747:"A fundamental limit on electric fields in air"
538:
1343:
1341:
1159:
786:
784:
457:
455:
1348:Köhn, C.; Diniz, G.; Harakeh, Muhsin (2017).
618:
307:surprisingly low altitudes in thunderclouds.
1672:
1646:"Hunting mystery giant lightning from space"
1033:
680:
1643:
1338:
781:
452:
277:'s Gerald Fishman in 1994 in an article in
97:produced by terrestrial gamma-ray flashes.
19:For gamma-ray bursts of cosmic origin, see
1739:"Earth creates powerful gamma-ray flashes"
1637:
1116:
1073:
943:
924:
667:
89:. Scientists have also detected energetic
1727:
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1329:
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1179:
1165:
1150:
1107:
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1027:
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974:
915:
872:
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818:
772:
738:
651:"Fermi Catches Antimatter-Hurling Storms"
498:
1751:
236:
211:
191:
152:
104:
33:
25:
348:on 2 April 2018 and was mounted on the
319:relativistic runaway electron avalanche
172:relativistic runaway electron avalanche
1767:
648:
394:
310:Steven Cummer, from Duke University's
129:in 1996 linked a TGF to an individual
1736:
1467:
1079:
744:
342:Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor
227:Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor
125:spacecraft. A subsequent study from
423:
421:
419:
1752:Stephens, Tim (February 21, 2005).
1737:McKee, Maggie (February 17, 2005).
1166:Heumesser, M.; et al. (2020).
944:Dwyer, J. R.; Smith, D. M. (2005).
232:
13:
1666:
619:Administrator, NASA (2013-06-07).
350:Columbus External Payload Facility
14:
1791:
1682:University of California Berkeley
1673:Barrington-Leigh, Christopher P.
416:
395:Palmer, Jason (11 January 2011).
257:
1556:"Gamma Rays From Thunderstorms?"
1707:Journal of Geophysical Research
1587:
1575:
1548:
1491:
1468:Cowen, Ron (November 6, 2009).
1461:
1399:
1293:
1087:Journal of Geophysical Research
998:Journal of Geophysical Research
895:Journal of Geophysical Research
334:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
143:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
47:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
1439:10.1103/physrevlett.111.115003
642:
612:
388:
1:
491:10.1126/science.264.5163.1313
382:
183:sprites, blue jets, and elves
119:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
1686:Space Physics Research Group
1644:Mary Halton (6 April 2018).
1601:Geophysical Research Letters
1507:Geophysical Research Letters
1256:Geophysical Research Letters
1212:Geophysical Research Letters
1172:Geophysical Research Letters
1130:Geophysical Research Letters
1044:Geophysical Research Letters
954:Geophysical Research Letters
852:Geophysical Research Letters
798:Geophysical Research Letters
752:Geophysical Research Letters
718:10.1016/0375-9601(92)90348-P
148:
100:
7:
355:
346:International Space Station
312:Pratt School of Engineering
55:terrestrial gamma-ray flash
10:
1796:
1037:; Lehtinen, N. G. (2005).
649:Garner, Rob (2015-06-26).
18:
1181:10.1002/essoar.10504237.1
205:tops are higher near the
85:produced above or inside
284:Professor Umran Inan of
162:the form of gamma rays (
1355:J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.
576:10.1126/science.1107466
266:produced in lightning.
1310:J. Geophys. Res. Atmos
246:
217:
197:
170:, a phenomenon called
158:
110:
50:
31:
1545:Retrieved 2007-03-06.
1080:Dwyer, J. R. (2008).
745:Dwyer, J. R. (2003).
243:magnetic mirror point
240:
215:
195:
187:electromagnetic pulse
156:
108:
44:
29:
1729:10.1029/2009JD012039
1622:10.1029/2010GL046259
1375:10.1002/2016JD025445
1331:10.1002/2014JD022229
1278:10.1029/2010GL046259
1234:10.1029/2007GL032430
1152:10.1029/2020GL089749
1109:10.1029/2007JD009248
1066:10.1029/2005GL023702
1020:10.1029/2005JD006447
976:10.1029/2005GL023848
917:10.1029/2005JD006987
874:10.1029/2006GL027085
820:10.1029/2005GL022778
774:10.1029/2003GL017781
77:of up to 20 million
1780:Atmosphere of Earth
1720:2010JGRD..115.9206D
1613:2011GeoRL..38.2808B
1519:1996GeoRL..23.1017I
1431:2013PhRvL.111k5003A
1367:2017JGRD..122.1365K
1322:2015JGRD..120.1620K
1269:2011GeoRL..38.2808B
1225:2008GeoRL..35.2815D
1143:2020GeoRL..4789749K
1100:2008JGRD..11310103D
1057:2005GeoRL..3219818I
1011:2006JGRD..11116209W
967:2005GeoRL..3222804D
908:2006JGRD..11124109C
865:2006GeoRL..3318802I
811:2005GeoRL..32.8811C
765:2003GeoRL..30.2055D
710:1992PhLA..165..463G
568:2005Sci...307.1085S
562:(5712): 1085–1088.
483:1994STIN...9611316F
477:(5163): 1313–1316.
286:Stanford University
127:Stanford University
1572:(Duke Today Staff)
440:on 21 January 2019
352:on 13 April 2018.
247:
218:
198:
159:
111:
51:
32:
1543:elf.gi.alaska.edu
1527:10.1029/96GL00746
697:Physics Letters A
526:on March 10, 2012
432:(Press release).
61:), also known as
42:
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1485:
1476:. Archived from
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519:. Archived from
502:
500:2060/19960001309
468:
459:
450:
449:
447:
445:
436:. Archived from
425:
414:
413:
411:
409:
392:
362:Gamma-ray bursts
302:Scientists from
233:Conjugate events
65:, is a burst of
43:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1765:
1764:
1758:Currents Online
1690:
1688:
1677:
1669:
1667:Further reading
1664:
1654:
1652:
1642:
1638:
1592:
1588:
1580:
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1554:
1553:
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1541:. As quoted by
1502:
1496:
1492:
1483:
1481:
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1462:
1409:Phys. Rev. Lett
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1005:(D16): D16209.
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902:(D24): D24109.
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304:Duke University
260:
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168:electric fields
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83:electric fields
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1566:17 December
1536:10217/68065
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1035:Inan, U. S.
843:Inan, U. S.
673:Koehn, C.,
73:, and have
1775:Gamma rays
1769:Categories
1560:Duke Today
1484:2012-06-23
1300:Köhn, C.;
1263:(2): n/a.
731:2015-08-28
660:2018-05-23
635:2018-05-23
605:2015-08-28
530:August 28,
444:17 January
408:17 January
383:References
367:Red sprite
271:gamma rays
264:antimatter
67:gamma rays
1422:1304.2521
1302:Ebert, U.
675:Ebert, U.
377:Lightning
149:Mechanism
131:lightning
101:Discovery
95:electrons
91:positrons
1691:April 2,
1650:BBC News
1631:56402672
1447:24074098
1393:28357174
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356:See also
75:energies
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1389:PMID
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434:NASA
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