795:
555:
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159:, however, people generally use simpler and more universal terms. Orientational terms are often relative to the viewer, such that a person facing multiple objects from one vantage point may see one object as being on the right side of another, while a person facing those objects from a different vantage point may see the relationship differently. For some uses, where it is necessary to avoid confusion from differences in viewpoint, separate terminology is used to describe the sides of things. For example,
306:; it only has these characteristics in a contingent and temporary sense relative to the viewer. The ball, seen from above in the picture, could be described as having its "top" facing the viewer and its "bottom" obscured, or could be described as having its "top" and "bottom" as the uppermost and lowermost points visible to the viewer relative to the screen on which the object is being viewed.
104:, with the surface of the object tending to be closer to gravitational pull being the bottom, and the surface of the object tending to be farther from gravitational pull being the top. However, these distinction "do not distinguish between intrinsic tops and bottoms and absolute or environmental tops and bottoms", such as when an object has fallen over. For example, "a
263:
any direction through the center. There is no front or rear, no top or bottom, no right or left sides, no ends—at least no permanent ones". It is further observed that an animal lacking a distinct front and back has "a disadvantage in directed locomotion", meaning that this form is "most typical of free-floating organisms that do not move under their own power".
96:
top, bottom, front, back, left side, and right side, respectively. If the intrinsic orientation of the reference object is used to establish the reference frame, I am referring to the intrinsic use of the corresponding prepositions. Thus, in intrinsic use, two arguments are needed for a locative description: the primary object and the reference object.
484:, but are not clearly differentiated along other dimensions. A person viewing either kind of cone would be likely to provisionally identify the surface of the cone facing them as "the front", and would further identify an object between themselves and the cone as being "in front of" the fir cone. The mountain has a clearly discernible
91:
learn to understand the concept of things having a top, as demonstrated by the tendency to initially identify the uppermost surface of a set of shelves as the place to add a new object, ignoring lower shelves. The orientation assigned to an object can differ depending on the vantage point and intent of the observer:
245:
The reason why plants do not have their own front and back, Aristotle says, is that they lack sense-perception. Animals... have the dimension of depth, defined by the opposites front and back. Front and back are grounded in sense-perception, and since to be an animal is to have sense-perception, all
108:
has an intrinsic top and bottom, because its canonical position is upright with certain defining features at each end. Even when a candle has fallen over, we can still talk about its top and bottom". Where an object does not inherently have such characteristics , the assignment of a top, bottom, and
262:
lacking these characteristics. With respect to jellyfish, Aristotle denied that they were animals at all. With respect to the small set of spherical animals, such as sea urchins, it has been noted that "since all radii are alike, a spherical animal can be divided into two similar pieces by a cut in
138:
notes that "we usually use above, but not over, when there is no contact between the things referred to. Over or on top of have a more general meaning, and can be used when one thing touches or covers another". These universal terms are then easily translated to metaphorical concepts, such as being
554:
90:
notes that "many objects in the world around us have an inherent orientation that we usually take for granted". One of the first learning tasks that children are presented with is learning the difference between the top and bottom of things, and the front and back of things. Children tend to first
672:. Although the cat and mouse are "on top of the dog", they are not sitting on the part that would be considered the top of the dog. Rather, they are sitting on the side of the dog, which serves as a provisional "top" surface, even though it continues to be understood to be the side of the animal.
95:
The reference frame can be established in different ways. One way is to use the intrinsic orientation of the reference object. In this case, the regions that are above, below, in front of, behind, to the left of, and to the right of the reference objects are the regions which are adjacent to the
1034:"For figurative works, use the abbreviations PR (proper right) and PL (proper left) to indicate the right or left side of the statue from the perspective of the statue (i.e., your right or left side if you were positioned on the base facing in the same direction as the statue)" – p. 34,
594:
794:
109:
the like, is temporary and contingent. "If the reference object doesn't have an intrinsic orientation, or its intrinsic orientation isn't used for establishing the frame of reference, factors of the situational context determine the reference frame".
174:
is used to designate portions of the stage in an absolute sense, with stage right, stage left, upstage, and downstage being used to refer to the same direction relative to the stage, irrespective of the position of the viewer. Similarly,
714:
199:(front). Port and starboard unambiguously refer to the left and right side of the vessel, not the observer. That is, the port side of the vessel always refers to the same portion of the vessel's structure, and does not depend on
418:
750:
506:
383:
240:
reasoned that concepts of "front" and "back" were only relevant to animals with the ability to perceive these relative positions. An analysis of
Aristotle's writings on the subject summed it up as follows:
530:
312:
348:
232:
The existence of anatomical terms of location is a reflection of the tendency of living things, more than naturally occurring nonliving objects, to have an orientation, described by the concept of
678:
250:
Notably, Aristotle's assertion that "all animals have a front and a back" is not entirely accurate, with some uncharacteristic sea animals such as
167:
when describing an image or other object. The "proper right" hand of a figure is the hand that would be regarded by that figure as its right hand.
58:
as used in everyday language and interactions. Assigning these to objects then allows things to be described in relation to the object,
112:
Terms describing the orientation of objects extend to the positional relationships of those objects relative to other objects, such as
1059:
1161:(2016), p. 8: "Spheres have no top, bottom, or sides. No matter which way you turn them, their shape looks the same".
801:
180:
1177:
139:"on top of things", or of happiness being at the "top" of emotional states and sadness being at the "bottom".
958:", in Emile van der Zee and J. M. Slack, eds., Representing Direction in Language and Space (2003), p. 52-54.
1122:
843:
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195:, referring respectively to the left and right sides of the vessel, when aboard and facing the
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848:
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134:
1084:
576:, but is not clearly differentiated along other dimensions, though people may designate a
8:
605:
200:
100:
For objects having a clearly discernible top and bottom, these aspects are determined by
30:
are common linguistic descriptors used to indicate the spatial positioning of objects in
176:
164:
887:"Here's the "Top:" Nonlinguistic Strategies in the Acquisition of Orientational Terms"
151:(such as "anterior and posterior", "dorsal and ventral", or "proximal and distal") or
1182:
1065:
1055:
1049:
1010:"Up and Down, Front and Back: Movement and Meaning in the Vertical and Sagittal Axes"
1017:
934:
898:
685:
196:
171:
147:
Various specialized language is used in specific fields to identify, for example,
969:
Perspektiven auf
Sprache: Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zum Gedenken an Hans Hörmann
956:
Vectors across
Spatial Domains: From Place to Size, Orientation, Shape, and Parts
609:
1021:
319:
279:
1171:
838:
203:. The port side is the side to the left of an observer aboard the vessel and
156:
1083:
US Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
1069:
155:(such as "circumferential", "tangential", "parallel", and "orthogonal"). In
938:
652:, which is lying on its side; all three animals have a clearly discernible
601:
561:
537:
473:
425:
87:
1085:"Why do ships use 'port' and 'starboard' instead of 'left' and 'right?'"
513:
469:
389:
255:
206:
192:
184:
886:
251:
237:
902:
768:, which is lying on its side; each animal has a clearly discernible
724:
is a rare example of a natural formation with a clearly discernible
259:
215:
188:
1008:
Koch, Sabine C.; Glawe, Stefanie; Holt, Daniel V. (July 8, 2011).
620:(not shown), but because the card is horizontally reversible, the
286:, and is therefore a typical example of an object that has no set
211:
101:
1145:
Animals
Without Backbones: An Introduction to the Invertebrates
823:
354:
283:
218:. The starboard side is thus to the right of such an observer.
105:
967:
Wunderlich, D. 1986. "Raum und die
Struktur des Lexikons", in
761:
645:
565:
524:, but are not clearly differentiated along other dimensions.
721:
548:, but is not clearly differentiated along other dimensions.
448:, but its rotation makes it easy to provisionally assign a
412:; they may be provisionally assigned these characteristics.
765:
757:
649:
641:
1109:
Aristotle on How
Animals Move: The De incessu animalium
142:
1142:
Ralph
Buchsbaum, Mildred Buchsbaum, and John Pearse,
1082:
357:
found on the beach have irregular shapes, but no set
282:, like the orange one pictured below, is a uniform
971:, ed. H-G. Bosshardt, 212-231. Berlin: de Gruyter.
322:is a typical example of an object that has no set
163:are conceptual terms used to unambiguously convey
1169:
1123:"The Jellyfish Problem: Plant, animal or other?"
221:
1007:
884:
16:Linguistic descriptors of spatial positioning
1138:
1136:
1048:Novak, Elaine Adams; Novak, Deborah (1996).
920:
1047:
1036:Save Outdoor Sculpture! Volunteer Handbook
634:Objects with fully set orientation markers
1133:
462:Objects with some set orientation markers
1107:Andrea Falcon and Stasinos Stavrianeas,
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950:
948:
916:
914:
912:
923:"Various Views on Spatial Prepositions"
880:
878:
876:
874:
272:Objects with no set orientation markers
1170:
921:Retz-Schmidt, Gudula (June 15, 1988).
1054:. Cincinnati, Ohio: Betterway Books.
945:
909:
844:Position (geometry)#Relative position
468:In the images, both the cones of the
871:
143:Specialized terms in specific fields
1120:
804:, is built to appear as though its
13:
1157:Nancy Furstinger and John Willis,
14:
1194:
1121:Lee, Alexander (September 2020).
81:
802:Szymbark, Pomeranian Voivodeship
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246:animals have a front and a back.
201:which way the observer is facing
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540:also has a clearly discernible
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1028:
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1:
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660:, and a clearly discernible
640:In the third image below, a
222:Orientation in living things
210:, towards the direction the
161:proper right and proper left
149:anatomical terms of location
7:
817:
612:has a clearly discernible
516:have a clearly discernible
476:have a clearly discernible
153:geometric terms of location
10:
1199:
982:"Above or over? - Grammar"
800:An 'upside-down house' in
688:has a clearly discernible
568:has a clearly discernible
492:, but the assignment of a
225:
1022:10.1027/1864-9335/a000065
941:– via ojs.aaai.org.
854:Spatial reference system
648:are sitting on top of a
1051:Staging Musical Theatre
859:Vertical and horizontal
234:body relative direction
228:Body relative direction
34:, including notions of
32:three-dimensional space
1178:Orientation (geometry)
939:10.1609/aimag.v9i2.678
885:Clark, Eve V. (1980).
834:Orientation (geometry)
248:
98:
1089:oceanservice.noaa.gov
849:Sinistral and dextral
243:
93:
987:Cambridge Dictionary
829:Direction (geometry)
764:sitting on top of a
500:would be arbitrary.
135:Cambridge Dictionary
20:Terms of orientation
1159:Discovering Spheres
560:A mountain such as
905:– via JSTOR.
720:A single-entrance
177:port and starboard
165:relative direction
1061:978-1-55870-407-7
1014:Social Psychology
891:Child Development
812:, and vice versa.
472:and the man-made
424:An asteroid like
392:also have no set
24:terms of location
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628:are provisional.
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214:is heading when
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1148:(2013), p. 166.
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1111:(2021), p. 135.
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1092:. Retrieved
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991:. Retrieved
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933:(2): 95–95.
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927:AI Magazine
428:has no set
390:Sugar cubes
256:sea urchins
205:facing the
122:in front of
68:in front of
1172:Categories
1094:2020-03-09
865:References
514:Korean fir
470:Korean fir
193:spacecraft
185:watercraft
183:terms for
56:right side
993:April 24,
252:jellyfish
238:Aristotle
86:Linguist
52:left side
1183:Position
1070:34651521
818:See also
610:diamonds
260:starfish
216:underway
189:aircraft
181:nautical
172:blocking
355:Pebbles
212:vehicle
102:gravity
1068:
1058:
824:Deixis
806:bottom
784:, and
774:bottom
760:and a
740:, and
730:bottom
704:, and
694:bottom
668:, and
658:bottom
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626:bottom
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363:bottom
328:bottom
292:bottom
284:sphere
258:, and
132:. The
130:beside
128:, and
126:behind
106:candle
76:beside
72:behind
54:, and
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786:sides
778:front
762:mouse
742:sides
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586:sides
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446:sides
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438:front
410:sides
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375:sides
373:, or
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1066:OCLC
1056:ISBN
995:2024
782:back
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