758:
581:
168:
929:
348:
442:
156:
148:
750:) are formed by the action of hydroxide. This conversion occurs during the liming process, before introduction of the tanning agent (chromium salts). Later during pickling, collagen carboxyl groups are temporarily protonated for ready transport of chromium ions. During basification step of tanning, the carboxyl groups are ionized and coordinate as ligands to the chromium(III) centers of the oxo-hydroxide clusters.
74:
32:
860:, hides were tanned by soaking them in a bath containing the crushed leaves and bark of the Salam acacia (Acacia etbaica; A. nilotica kraussiana). Hides that have been stretched on frames are immersed for several weeks in vats of increasing concentrations of tannin. Vegetable-tanned hide is not very flexible. It is used for luggage, furniture, footwear, belts, and other clothing accessories.
669:
786:(a class of polyphenol astringent chemicals), which occur naturally in the bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to the collagen proteins in the hide and coat them, causing them to become less water-soluble and more resistant to bacterial attack. The process also causes the hide to become more flexible. The primary barks processed in
774:
Chromium's ability to form such stable bridged bonds explains why it is considered one of the most effective tanning compounds. Chromium-tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of chromium. This efficiency is characterized by its increased hydrothermal stability of the skin, and its resistance to shrinkage in heated water.
765:
Before the introduction of the basic chromium species in tanning, several steps are required to produce a tannable hide. The pH must be very acidic when the chromium is introduced to ensure that the chromium complexes are small enough to fit between the fibers and residues of the collagen. Once the
978:
and arsenic, which are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens. The waste from leather tanneries is detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies
773:
After application of the chromium agent, the bath is treated with sodium bicarbonate in the basification process to increase the pH to 3.8–4.0, inducing cross-linking between the chromium and the collagen. The pH increase is normally accompanied by a gradual temperature increase up to 40 °C.
291:
Formerly, tanning was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to the outskirts of town, among the poor. Tanning by ancient methods is so foul-smelling that tanneries are still isolated from those towns today where the old methods are used. Skins typically arrived at the tannery
372:
them with salt to prevent putrefaction of the collagen from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the hide to when it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in osmotic pressure. The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and
615:
Pickling is another term for tanning, or what is the modern equivalent of turning rawhide into leather by the use of modern chemical agents, if mineral tanning is preferred. Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated by first soaking them in a bath containing common salt (sodium
936:
The tanning process involves chemical and organic compounds that can have a detrimental effect on the environment. Agents such as chromium, vegetable tannins, and aldehydes are used in the tanning step of the process. Chemicals used in tanned leather production increase the levels of
647:, among other plants. The use of vegetable tanning is a process that takes longer than mineral tanning when converting rawhides into leather. Mineral tanned leather is used principally for shoes, car seats, and upholstery in homes (sofas, etc.). Vegetable tanned leather is used in
875:, aluminum, zirconium, titanium, or iron salts, or a combination thereof. Concerns with the toxicity and environmental impact of any chromium (VI) that may form during the tanning process have led to increased research into more efficient wet white methods.{{citation needed}}
355:
The tanning process begins with obtaining an animal skin. When an animal skin is to be tanned, the animal is killed and skinned before the body heat leaves the tissues. This can be done by the tanner, or by obtaining a skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader.
359:
Before tanning, the skins are often dehaired, then have fat, meat and connective tissue removed. They are then washed and soaked in water with various compounds, and prepared to receive a tanning agent. They are then soaked, stretched, dried, and sometimes smoked.
714:
of the collagen subunits. The chemistry of is more complex in the tanning bath rather than in water due to the presence of a variety of ligands. Some ligands include the sulfate anion, the collagen's carboxyl groups, amine groups from the side chains of the
766:
desired level of penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, the pH of the material is raised again to facilitate the process. This step is known as basification. In the raw state, chrome-tanned skins are greyish-blue, so are referred to as
907:
alum and salts solution, between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). The process increases the hide's pliability, stretchability, softness, and quality. Then, the hide is air dried (crusted) for several weeks, which allows it to stabilize.
320:
into the skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating was a fermentative process that relied on enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were those of dogs or pigeons.
982:
The UN Leather
Working Group (LWG) "provides an environmental audit protocol, designed to assess the facilities of leather manufacturers," for "traceability, energy conservation, responsible management of waste products."
727:, used to suppress formation of polychromium(III) chains. Masking agents allow the tanner to further increase the pH to increase collagen's reactivity without inhibiting the penetration of the chromium(III) complexes.
311:
mixture, or simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in a salt solution. After the hair was loosened, the tanners scraped it off with a knife. Once the hair was removed, the tanners would
911:
The use of alum alone for tanning rawhides is not recommended, as it shrinks the surface area of the skin, making it thicker and hard to the touch. If alum is applied to the fur, it makes the fur dull and harsh.
602:
The pH of the collagen is then reduced so the enzymes may act on it in a process known as deliming. Depending on the end use of the leather, hides may be treated with enzymes to soften them, a process called
998:
Smoke tanning is listed among the conventional methods like chrome tanning and vegetable tanning. Impregnation of the hide's cells with formaldehyde (from smoke) offers some microbial and water resistance.
753:
Tanning increases the spacing between protein chains in collagen from 10 to 17 Å. The difference is consistent with cross-linking by polychromium species, of the sort arising from olation and oxolation.
1516:
Lofrano, G., Meric, S., Balci, G., & Orhon, D. (2013). Chemical and biological treatment technologies for leather tannery chemicals and wastewaters: A review. Science of Total
Environment, 461-462,
871:
is a term used for leathers produced using alternative tanning methods that produce an off-white colored leather. Like wet blue, wet white is also a semifinished stage. Wet white can be produced using
122:
derived from the bark of certain trees, in the production of leather. An alternative method, developed in the 1800s, is chrome tanning, where chromium salts are used instead of natural tannins.
770:. Chrome tanning is faster than vegetable tanning (taking less than a day for this part of the process) and produces a stretchable leather which is excellent for use in handbags and garments.
292:
dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient tanners would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. Then they would pound and scour the skin to remove any remaining
1580:
1559:
706:, although the latter arises in inadequate waste treatment. Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give the hexaaquachromium(III) cation, , which at higher pH undergoes processes called
979:
plays a large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries.
1233:
959:(the nation's most common source of protein). Up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of hexavalent chromium, adding to the national health problem load.
742:, usually in the repeat -gly-pro-hypro-gly-. These residues give rise to collagen's helical structure. Collagen's high content of hydroxyproline allows cross-linking by
373:
osmotic pressure increased, to the point that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are heavily salted, then pressed into packs for about 30 days. In
405:
In soaking, the hides are soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and increase the moisture so that the hide or skin can be further treated.
377:-curing, the hides are agitated in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can also be accomplished by preserving the hides and skins at very low temperatures.
1097:
995:
if not periodically replenished with fat or oil, especially if it gets wet. Many Native
Americans of the arid western regions wore clothing made by this process.
702:) has long been regarded as the most efficient and effective tanning agent. Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are significantly less toxic than
607:. In modern tanning, these enzymes are purified agents, and the process no longer requires bacterial fermentation (as from dung-water soaking) to produce them.
1029:
There are several solid and waste water treatment methodologies currently being researched, such as anaerobic digestion of solid wastes and wastewater sludge.
563:(keratin typically makes up 90% of the dry weight of hair). The hydrogen atoms supplied by the sharpening agent weaken the cystine molecular link whereby the
53:
570:
links are ultimately ruptured, weakening the keratin. To some extent, sharpening also contributes to unhairing, as it tends to break down the hair proteins.
1680:
1160:
385:
The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are collectively referred to as beamhouse operations. They include, in order, soaking,
883:
The conditions present in bogs, including highly acidic water, low temperature, and a lack of oxygen, combine to preserve but severely tan the skin of
991:
Untanned hides can be dried and made pliable by rubbing and stretching the fibers with a hide stretcher, and fatting. However the hide will revert to
2445:
136:
Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to
900:
1602:
Blackman, Allen; Kildegaard, Arne (2010-09-18). "Clean technological change in developing-country industrial clusters: Mexican leather tanning".
1280:
339:
in a chromium (III) solution after 1840, it was discovered that this method could also be used with leather and thus was adopted by tanners.
1015:
in a vat of water and let them deteriorate for months. The mixture would then be placed over a fire to boil off the water to produce glue.
1588:
1225:
945:
in water when not disposed of responsibly. These processes also use large quantities of water and produce large amounts of pollutants.
40:
1768:
1253:
577:
of the collagen (a tissue-strengthening protein unrelated to keratin) in the hide is also shifted to around pH 4.7 due to liming.
2218:
1453:
1204:
332:, or tannin was applied to the skin as a tanning agent. As the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the agent.
588:
Any hairs remaining after liming are removed mechanically by scraping the skin with a dull knife, a process known as scudding.
1082:
Zeelieden, bedelaars en gevangenen op een eiland in de
Zuiderzee: Cultuurhistorie en archeologie van het Oostereiland in Hoorn
1778:
1492:
1319:
1136:
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Depending on the finish desired, the leather may be waxed, rolled, lubricated, injected with oil, split, shaved, or dyed.
1200:
955:, or chromium(VI). This hexavalent chromium runoff and scraps are then consumed by animals, in the case of Bangladesh,
903:, generally in conjunction with binders such as egg yolk, flour, or other salts. The hide is tawed by soaking in a warm
288:
The process of tanning was also used for boats and fishing vessels: ropes, nets, and sails were tanned using tree bark.
1715:
463:
1805:
1749:
1229:
966:, which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with the eyes and skin.
628:
is added. Small skins are left in this liquor for 2 days, while larger skins between 1 week and as much as 2 months.
489:
471:
631:
In vegetable tanning, the hides are made to soak in a bath solution containing vegetable tannins, such as found in
2159:
970:, which is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a
1152:
467:
2021:
1043:
2211:
2154:
2049:
2029:
512:(a basic agent) typically supplemented by "sharpening agents" (disulfide reducing agents) such as sodium
503:
420:
may also be added later in the process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth. After 1980, the use of
386:
1482:
1309:
948:
Boiling and sun drying can oxidize and convert the various chromium(III) compounds used in tanning into
2906:
369:
852:
were used in treating the flesh side of the leather, as a means of tawing, rather than of tanning. In
2175:
131:
1616:
1343:
Wilson, J.A. The
Chemistry of Leather Manufacture. The Chemical Catalog Company, Inc. New York 1923.
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452:
324:
Historically the actual tanning process used vegetable tanning. In some variations of the process,
20:
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45:
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172:
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551:
The weakening of hair is dependent on the breakdown of the disulfide link of the amino acid
2618:
2340:
2118:
1764:
1543:
1355:
Covington, A. "Modern
Tanning Chemistry" Chemical Society Review 1997, volume 26, 111–126.
1484:
Camping and
Woodcraft; A Handbook for Vacation Campers and for Travelers in the Wilderness
1311:
Camping and
Woodcraft; A Handbook for Vacation Campers and for Travelers in the Wilderness
8:
2859:
2669:
2644:
2322:
1655:
1392:
Gustavson, K.H. "The
Chemistry of Tanning Processes" Academic Press Inc., New York, 1956.
1080:
952:
845:
703:
1547:
1182:
351:
Tanned rabbit pelt. The fur has been left on, apart from small patches exposing leather.
2800:
2793:
2744:
2515:
2375:
2352:
2301:
2185:
2180:
2093:
1858:
1848:
1637:
1427:(in Hebrew), vol. 2, Kiryat-Ono: Mekhon mishnat ha-Rambam, p. 312 (note 17),
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1929:
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119:
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1981:
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167:
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2077:
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1986:
1966:
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220:
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2396:
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1956:
1908:
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1843:
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1833:
1532:"Toxic hazards of leather industry and technologies to combat threat: a review"
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811:
739:
567:
1625:
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2430:
2390:
2247:
1633:
1406:
1401:
Heidemann, E.; Leather. Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,2005.
1275:
1126:
1098:"From Gunpowder to Teeth Whitener: The Science Behind Historic Uses of Urine"
625:
408:
To prevent damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period,
137:
1432:
1022:
facility for sharpening knives and other sharp tools, but later could carry
2593:
2408:
1878:
1502:
1487:. Vol. 2 (18 ed.). New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 324.
1423:
1329:
1314:. Vol. 2 (18 ed.). New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 322.
975:
949:
509:
710:
to give polychromium(III) compounds that are active in tanning, being the
2254:
2067:
1868:
1418:
1360:
1012:
724:
93:
1681:"KEEN has launched its 'most durable, consciously-constructed' boot yet"
1530:
Das, Mukul; Dwivedi, Premendra D.; Yadav, Ashish; Dixit, Sumita (2015).
580:
207:(oak). These terms are related to the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European *
2265:
2113:
1779:
Muspratt's mid-19th century technical description of the whole process.
971:
967:
928:
716:
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2108:
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2006:
2001:
1903:
1023:
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827:
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347:
325:
236:
160:
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389:, removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing, scudding and fleshing),
223:
2820:
2693:
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2360:
2330:
2034:
1996:
1944:
1898:
1732:
The Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association: Volume 24
1038:
884:
872:
841:
823:
815:
795:
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632:
597:
564:
544:
534:
Removes some of the interfibrillary soluble proteins such as mucins
390:
305:
264:
260:
248:
192:
89:
155:
2439:
2123:
1863:
1814:
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Harlan, J.; Feairheller, S.; Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1977, 86A, 425.
956:
735:
731:
707:
652:
556:
552:
517:
513:
409:
279:
147:
101:
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Causes the fibers to swell up and split up to the desired extent
140:
and coloring. The place where hides are processed is known as a
31:
2565:
2228:
1939:
1883:
904:
819:
803:
799:
783:
644:
640:
621:
272:
256:
244:
240:
112:
97:
1734:. American Leather Chemists Association. 1929. pp. 35–36.
73:
2732:
2536:
2527:
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2463:
2383:
2273:
2098:
1976:
1949:
1934:
1913:
1380:
Heidemann, E.; J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 1982, 66, 21.
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853:
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317:
301:
293:
282:
268:
2781:
2707:
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2553:
1971:
1961:
1153:"A history of new ideas in tanning - Leather International"
896:
668:
560:
329:
252:
116:
1783:
1744:
The Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition, Volume VI,
1018:
A tannery may be associated with a grindery, originally a
746:
within the helical structure. Ionized carboxyl groups (RCO
547:
in the hide to a proper condition for satisfactory tannage
2365:
2011:
1991:
1765:"Home Tanning of Leather and Small fur Skins" (pub. 1962)
297:
216:
175:, during the 1840s, when it was the largest in the world
962:
Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases.
624:
of hot water. When the water cools, one fluid ounce of
259:. Tanning was being carried out by the inhabitants of
428:-based biocides and their derivatives was forbidden.
1529:
651:
and in making small leather items, such as wallets,
209:
179:
The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin
1421:(1985), "Hil. Tefillin, u'Mezuzzah weSefer Torah",
1007:Leftover leather would historically be turned into
263:in Pakistan between 7000 and 3300 BCE. Around
1601:
1226:"3. Tanneries, Description of the Tanning Process"
1079:Schrickx, Christianus Petrus; Duijn, D.M. (2010).
923:
559:class of proteins that gives strength to hair and
540:Removes the natural grease and fats to some extent
335:Following the adoption in medicine of soaking gut
16:Process of treating animal skin to produce leather
1069:, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.
2898:
1581:"Toxic poultry feed threatens Bangladesh's poor"
1697:
1446:"Etherington & Roberts. Dictionary--tawing"
730:Collagen is characterized by a high content of
584:Traditional hand scudding in Marrakech, Morocco
1300:
1298:
1131:. New York: Riverhead Books. pp. 4, 263.
1085:. Gemeente Hoorn, Bureau Erfgoed, Archeologie.
19:"Tannery" redirects here. For other uses, see
2212:
1799:
1078:
844:, the combined vegetable oils of Niger seed (
202:
531:Removes the hair and other keratinous matter
196:
108:is the place where the skins are processed.
1710:. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. p. 16.
1295:
470:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
186:
180:
111:Historically, vegetable based tanning used
2219:
2205:
1806:
1792:
1604:Environmental Economics and Policy Studies
1473:
1471:
508:After soaking, the hides are treated with
300:. Hair was removed by soaking the skin in
1615:
1388:
1386:
1351:
1349:
1268:
915:
761:Possible chromium(III) tanning mechanisms
719:, and masking agents. Masking agents are
672:A modern electric tanning drum in Germany
490:Learn how and when to remove this message
1679:Martinko, Katherine (December 6, 2019).
1678:
927:
863:
756:
667:
579:
346:
228:meaning 'fir', related to modern German
171:Peeling hemlock bark for the tannery in
166:
154:
146:
72:
56:of all important aspects of the article.
1477:
1468:
1304:
1121:
1002:
380:
235:Ancient civilizations used leather for
2899:
2226:
1703:
1383:
1346:
1055:
591:
52:Please consider expanding the lead to
2200:
1787:
1525:
1523:
1417:
1095:
555:, which is the characteristic of the
397:or puering, drenching, and pickling.
1197:"Etherington and Roberts Dictionary"
1115:
777:
468:adding citations to reliable sources
435:
316:" (soften) the material by pounding
219:tree'. (The same word is source for
25:
1769:UNT Government Documents Department
1201:American Institute for Conservation
1183:"What is Vegetable Tanned Leather?"
1163:from the original on 2 January 2017
239:, bags, harnesses and tack, boats,
13:
1520:
1283:from the original on 13 April 2016
1269:Covington, Tony (31 August 2002).
1262:
878:
416:, may be used. Fungicides such as
14:
2928:
1758:
1456:from the original on 29 June 2017
1254:"Hazardous Chemicals in Clothing"
1230:Food and Agriculture Organization
663:
643:trees, the outer green shells of
2094:Artificial leather / Leatherette
1185:. The Wallet Shoppe. 2018-03-07.
1026:' tools and materials for sale.
1011:. Tanners would place scraps of
440:
271:began using leather, affixed by
30:
2160:British Museum leather dressing
1738:
1724:
1672:
1648:
1595:
1573:
1562:from the original on 2016-03-24
1510:
1438:
1411:
1395:
1374:
1365:
1337:
1236:from the original on 2011-08-22
1207:from the original on 2011-02-25
1096:Kumar, Mohi (August 20, 2013).
1067:Oxford Companion to Archaeology
986:
924:Health and environmental impact
44:may be too short to adequately
1587:. 30 June 2014. Archived from
1247:
1218:
1189:
1175:
1145:
1089:
1072:
342:
54:provide an accessible overview
1:
1556:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.017
1536:Journal of Cleaner Production
1049:
895:Tawing is a method that uses
790:and used in modern times are
88:, is the process of treating
1061:Possehl, Gregory L. (1996).
1044:Leather production processes
201:(tanbark), from old-Cornish
7:
2155:Leather Archives and Museum
1813:
1032:
610:
504:Liming (leather processing)
10:
2933:
932:Tanned fish skin of salmon
658:
595:
501:
400:
368:Preparing hides begins by
210:
129:
125:
18:
2871:
2855:Tizra heartwood and root
2812:
2780:
2731:
2706:
2656:
2605:
2429:
2420:
2388:Tanner's sumach leaves -
2319:
2235:
2176:History of hide materials
2168:
2132:
2086:
2058:
2020:
1922:
1821:
1707:Animals and human society
1626:10.1007/s10018-010-0164-7
890:
431:
363:
132:History of hide materials
2297:Myrtan or black marlock
1450:cool.conservation-us.org
1407:10.1002/14356007.a15_259
1271:"Letters: Pure dog dung"
1259:. Retrieved 2018-11-13.
639:, the leaves of certain
21:Tannery (disambiguation)
2880:Anadenanthera colubrina
2145:Igualada Leather Museum
782:Vegetable tanning uses
224:
2582:Myracrodruon urundeuva
2150:Walsall Leather Museum
1774:Leather tanning guide.
1704:Scanes, Colin (2018).
943:total dissolved solids
939:chemical oxygen demand
933:
916:Post-tanning finishing
762:
673:
585:
352:
304:, painting it with an
203:
197:
187:
181:
176:
164:
152:
78:
2140:German Leather Museum
1660:Leather Working Group
964:Methylisothiazolinone
931:
864:Alternative chemicals
760:
677:Chromium(III) sulfate
671:
616:chloride), usually 1
583:
350:
173:Prattsville, New York
170:
158:
150:
130:Further information:
76:
2619:Bergenia crassifolia
2341:Anogeissus latifolia
2323:hydrolysable tannins
1361:10.1039/CS9972600111
1199:. Foundation of the
1003:Associated processes
464:improve this section
381:Beamhouse operations
2860:Searsia pentaphylla
2670:Rumex hymenosepalus
2645:Coriaria myrtifolia
2394:or Chinese gall on
1548:2015JCPro..87...39D
1507:(reprinted in 1957)
1334:(reprinted in 1957)
953:hexavalent chromium
846:Guizotia abyssinica
704:hexavalent chromium
592:Deliming and bating
2872:Undetermined organ
2824:sp. bark and wood
2801:Quercus infectoria
2794:Quercus lusitanica
2745:Libidibia coriaria
2516:Conocarpus erectus
2376:Quercus macrolepis
2353:Terminalia chebula
2302:Eucalyptus redunca
2181:Leather subculture
1585:www.gulf-times.com
1157:www.leathermag.com
934:
837:Terminalia chebula
763:
674:
586:
353:
177:
165:
153:
79:
2907:Tanning (leather)
2894:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2720:Senegalia catechu
2682:Quercus coccifera
2290:Acacia mollissima
2239:condensed tannins
2194:
2193:
1752:entry: "grindery"
1494:978-1-149-75236-4
1321:978-1-149-75236-4
1138:978-1-59448-269-4
778:Vegetable tanning
575:isoelectric point
500:
499:
492:
422:pentachlorophenol
120:chemical compound
71:
70:
2924:
2848:Notholithocarpus
2829:Prosopis humilis
2511:Button mangrove
2480:Senna auriculata
2457:Acacia decurrens
2451:Acacia pycnantha
2427:
2426:
2348:Myrobalan fruit
2221:
2214:
2207:
2198:
2197:
1808:
1801:
1794:
1785:
1784:
1753:
1742:
1736:
1735:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1619:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1527:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1506:
1475:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1415:
1409:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1381:
1378:
1372:
1369:
1363:
1353:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1333:
1302:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1266:
1260:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1241:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1212:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1076:
1070:
1059:
744:hydrogen bonding
721:carboxylic acids
701:
649:leather crafting
635:, the leaves of
495:
488:
484:
481:
475:
444:
436:
414:dithiocarbamates
227:
213:
212:
206:
200:
190:
185:, derivative of
184:
66:
63:
57:
34:
26:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2886:
2867:
2808:
2776:
2769:Moullava digyna
2757:Acacia nilotica
2727:
2702:
2652:
2601:
2492:Acacia nilotica
2442:
2438:General :
2422:
2416:
2321:
2315:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2195:
2190:
2164:
2133:Leather museums
2128:
2082:
2078:Leather carving
2073:Cuir de Cordoue
2054:
2016:
1923:Leather sources
1918:
1817:
1812:
1761:
1756:
1743:
1739:
1730:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1702:
1698:
1689:
1687:
1677:
1673:
1664:
1662:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1617:10.1.1.534.6195
1600:
1596:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1565:
1563:
1528:
1521:
1515:
1511:
1495:
1476:
1469:
1459:
1457:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1416:
1412:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1354:
1347:
1342:
1338:
1322:
1303:
1296:
1286:
1284:
1267:
1263:
1252:
1248:
1239:
1237:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1210:
1208:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1181:
1180:
1176:
1166:
1164:
1151:
1150:
1146:
1139:
1123:Johnson, Steven
1120:
1116:
1106:
1104:
1102:smithsonian.com
1094:
1090:
1077:
1073:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1035:
1005:
989:
926:
918:
901:aluminium salts
893:
881:
879:Natural tanning
866:
780:
749:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
666:
664:Chrome tanning
661:
613:
600:
594:
506:
496:
485:
479:
476:
461:
445:
434:
403:
383:
366:
345:
221:Old High German
195:), from French
134:
128:
67:
61:
58:
51:
39:This article's
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2930:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2892:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2884:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2836:Prosopis nigra
2832:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2797:
2786:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2740:Divi-divi pod
2737:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2712:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2662:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2633:Uncaria gambir
2624:
2623:
2622:
2611:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2551:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2485:
2484:
2483:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2461:
2448:(most notably
2443:
2435:
2433:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2397:Rhus chinensis
2381:
2380:
2379:
2369:
2363:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2334:
2327:
2325:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2295:
2294:
2293:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2279:Vitis vinifera
2271:
2270:
2269:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2243:
2241:
2233:
2232:
2224:
2223:
2216:
2209:
2201:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2090:
2088:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2064:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2026:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1937:
1932:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1909:Shell cordovan
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1811:
1810:
1803:
1796:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1767:hosted by the
1760:
1759:External links
1757:
1755:
1754:
1737:
1723:
1717:978-0128054383
1716:
1696:
1671:
1647:
1610:(3): 115–132.
1594:
1591:on 2014-09-07.
1572:
1519:
1509:
1493:
1467:
1437:
1410:
1394:
1382:
1373:
1364:
1345:
1336:
1320:
1294:
1261:
1257:GreenPeace.org
1246:
1217:
1203:. 2011-03-10.
1188:
1174:
1144:
1137:
1114:
1088:
1071:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1034:
1031:
1004:
1001:
988:
985:
925:
922:
917:
914:
892:
889:
880:
877:
865:
862:
834:spp., such as
779:
776:
747:
740:hydroxyproline
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
665:
662:
660:
657:
612:
609:
596:Main article:
593:
590:
568:disulfide bond
549:
548:
541:
538:
535:
532:
502:Main article:
498:
497:
448:
446:
439:
433:
430:
402:
399:
382:
379:
365:
362:
344:
341:
127:
124:
77:Tanned leather
69:
68:
48:the key points
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2929:
2918:
2917:Manufacturing
2915:
2913:
2912:Leathermaking
2910:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2811:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2771:
2770:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2758:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2690:
2689:Sea lavender
2688:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2671:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2647:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2625:
2621:
2620:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2596:
2595:
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2578:
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2572:
2569:
2568:
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2560:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2498:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2425:
2421:Other sources
2419:
2411:
2410:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2392:
2391:Rhus coriaria
2387:
2386:
2385:
2382:
2378:
2377:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2354:
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2349:
2347:
2343:
2342:
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2332:
2329:
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2318:
2311:
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2304:
2303:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2248:Areca catechu
2245:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2234:
2230:
2222:
2217:
2215:
2210:
2208:
2203:
2202:
2199:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
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1928:
1927:
1925:
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1915:
1912:
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1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
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1880:
1877:
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1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1809:
1804:
1802:
1797:
1795:
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1789:
1786:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1751:
1750:0-19-861218-4
1747:
1741:
1733:
1727:
1719:
1713:
1709:
1708:
1700:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1661:
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1500:
1496:
1490:
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1485:
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1474:
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1455:
1451:
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1430:
1426:
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1414:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1389:
1387:
1377:
1368:
1362:
1358:
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1350:
1340:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1276:New Scientist
1272:
1265:
1258:
1255:
1250:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1192:
1184:
1178:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1148:
1140:
1134:
1130:
1129:
1128:The Ghost Map
1124:
1118:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1084:
1083:
1075:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1054:
1045:
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1027:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1014:
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1000:
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994:
984:
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977:
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965:
960:
958:
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951:
946:
944:
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930:
921:
913:
909:
906:
902:
898:
888:
886:
876:
874:
870:
861:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
838:
833:
829:
825:
822:(acacia; see
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
775:
771:
769:
759:
755:
751:
745:
741:
737:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
713:
712:cross-linking
709:
705:
678:
670:
656:
655:and clothes.
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
626:sulfuric acid
623:
620:of salt to 1
619:
608:
606:
599:
589:
582:
578:
576:
571:
569:
566:
562:
558:
554:
546:
542:
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536:
533:
530:
529:
528:
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523:
519:
515:
511:
505:
494:
491:
483:
480:November 2020
473:
469:
465:
459:
458:
454:
449:This section
447:
443:
438:
437:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
406:
398:
396:
392:
388:
378:
376:
371:
361:
357:
349:
340:
338:
333:
331:
327:
322:
319:
315:
310:
307:
303:
299:
295:
289:
286:
284:
281:
277:
274:
270:
266:
265:2500 BCE
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
233:
231:
226:
222:
218:
214:
205:
199:
194:
189:
183:
174:
169:
162:
157:
151:Tanning, 1880
149:
145:
143:
139:
138:decomposition
133:
123:
121:
118:
114:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
75:
65:
55:
49:
47:
42:
37:
33:
28:
27:
22:
2878:
2858:
2846:
2834:
2827:
2819:
2799:
2792:
2767:
2755:
2743:
2718:
2692:
2680:
2668:
2643:
2631:
2617:
2594:Salix caprea
2592:
2580:
2570:
2558:
2541:
2526:
2514:
2504:
2490:
2478:
2468:
2455:
2449:
2409:Tara spinosa
2407:
2395:
2389:
2374:
2371:Valonia oak
2351:
2339:
2300:
2288:
2285:Mimosa bark
2278:
2264:
2255:arecatannins
2246:
2044:
1740:
1731:
1726:
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1424:Mishne Torah
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1107:December 16,
1105:. Retrieved
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1028:
1017:
1006:
997:
990:
987:Alternatives
981:
976:Formaldehyde
961:
950:carcinogenic
947:
935:
919:
910:
894:
882:
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835:
831:
781:
772:
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764:
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510:milk of lime
507:
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462:Please help
450:
412:, typically
407:
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384:
367:
358:
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234:
229:
208:
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110:
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86:hide tanning
85:
81:
80:
59:
43:
41:lead section
2813:Whole plant
2261:Broad bean
2227:Sources of
2087:Substitutes
2068:Bookbinding
1869:Law leather
1479:Kephart, H.
1306:Kephart, H.
725:acetic acid
717:amino acids
543:Brings the
343:Preparation
100:to produce
2901:Categories
2677:Garouille
2320:Sources of
2266:Vicia faba
2236:Sources of
2114:Ultrasuede
1859:Corinthian
1690:2019-12-08
1685:TreeHugger
1665:2019-12-08
1566:2015-11-07
1240:2011-10-14
1211:2011-10-14
1050:References
1024:shoemakers
972:carcinogen
968:Anthracene
899:and other
885:bog bodies
832:Terminalia
828:myrobalans
788:bark mills
723:, such as
237:waterskins
230:Tannenbaum
2789:Gall oak
2764:Teri pod
2752:Sant pod
2665:Canaigre
2505:Betula sp
2404:Tara pod
2310:Quebracho
2119:Alcantara
2109:Presstoff
2104:Naugahyde
2022:Processes
1957:Crocodile
1930:Alligator
1904:Shearling
1656:"UN SDGs"
1634:1432-847X
1612:CiteSeerX
1542:: 39–49.
1419:Qafih, Y.
1287:6 January
1020:whetstone
873:aldehydes
869:Wet white
850:flaxseeds
812:quebracho
681:[Cr(H
451:does not
326:cedar oil
269:Sumerians
249:scabbards
215:meaning '
161:Nuremberg
62:June 2024
46:summarize
2821:Prosopis
2694:Limonium
2577:Urunday
2571:Picea sp
2559:Pinus sp
2549:Mangrove
2542:Larix sp
2523:Hemlock
2469:Alnus sp
2423:by organ
2361:Oak bark
2331:Chestnut
2060:Crafting
2035:Deliming
1982:Kangaroo
1945:Calfskin
1899:Shagreen
1849:Buckskin
1642:19339002
1560:Archived
1517:265-281.
1481:(1916).
1460:27 April
1454:Archived
1433:19158717
1308:(1916).
1281:Archived
1234:Archived
1205:Archived
1167:27 April
1161:Archived
1125:(2006).
1063:Mehrgarh
1039:Tanwater
1033:See also
957:chickens
842:Ethiopia
824:catechol
816:mangrove
792:chestnut
768:wet blue
653:handbags
633:gallnuts
611:Pickling
598:Deliming
565:covalent
545:collagen
518:cyanides
410:biocides
391:deliming
306:alkaline
261:Mehrgarh
193:oak bark
159:Tanner,
2883:(vilca)
2843:Tanoak
2640:Redoul
2627:Gambier
2589:Willow
2475:Avaram
2446:Acacias
2440:Tanbark
2229:tannins
2186:Rawhide
2169:Related
2124:Clarino
2045:Tanning
1987:Ostrich
1874:Morocco
1864:Kidskin
1854:Chamois
1829:Aniline
1815:Leather
1544:Bibcode
1503:2191524
1330:2191524
993:rawhide
826:), and
808:hemlock
784:tannins
736:proline
732:glycine
708:olation
659:Process
645:walnuts
557:keratin
553:cystine
524:, etc.
514:sulfide
472:removed
457:sources
426:mercury
401:Soaking
337:sutures
280:chariot
257:sandals
245:quivers
182:tannāre
142:tannery
126:History
106:tannery
102:leather
98:animals
82:Tanning
2715:Cutch
2614:Badan
2607:Leaves
2566:Spruce
2487:Babul
2336:Dhawa
2050:Oiling
2040:Bating
2030:Liming
1940:Cattle
1894:Russia
1889:Patent
1884:Nubuck
1844:Bonded
1839:Boiled
1834:Bicast
1748:
1714:
1640:
1632:
1614:
1501:
1491:
1431:
1328:
1318:
1135:
905:potash
891:Tawing
848:) and
820:wattle
804:tanoak
800:redoul
738:, and
641:acacia
622:gallon
605:bating
527:This:
522:amines
432:Liming
395:bating
387:liming
370:curing
364:Curing
283:wheels
273:copper
267:, the
255:, and
241:armour
188:tannum
163:, 1609
117:acidic
113:tannin
2782:Galls
2733:Fruit
2708:Woods
2658:Roots
2537:Larch
2528:Tsuga
2500:Birch
2464:Alder
2431:Barks
2384:Sumac
2274:Grape
2251:seed
2099:Kirza
2007:Snake
2002:Sheep
1977:Horse
1950:Slunk
1935:Bison
1914:Suede
1822:Types
1638:S2CID
1013:hides
858:Egypt
854:Yemen
840:. In
830:from
637:sumac
618:quart
561:wools
418:TCMTB
375:brine
302:urine
294:flesh
278:, on
276:studs
253:boots
225:tanna
211:dʰonu
115:, an
94:hides
90:skins
84:, or
2554:Pine
2454:and
2368:wood
2333:wood
2312:wood
1997:Seal
1972:Goat
1962:Deer
1879:Napa
1746:ISBN
1712:ISBN
1630:ISSN
1499:OCLC
1489:ISBN
1462:2018
1429:OCLC
1326:OCLC
1316:ISBN
1289:2016
1169:2018
1133:ISBN
1109:2018
1009:glue
941:and
897:alum
856:and
573:The
455:any
453:cite
424:and
330:alum
318:dung
314:bate
309:lime
296:and
204:tann
104:. A
92:and
2366:Oak
2012:Yak
1992:Pig
1967:Eel
1622:doi
1552:doi
1403:doi
1357:doi
1065:in
796:oak
693:(SO
466:by
298:fat
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217:fir
198:tan
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