769:
592:
179:
940:
359:
453:
167:
159:
761:) are formed by the action of hydroxide. This conversion occurs during the liming process, before introduction of the tanning agent (chromium salts). Later during pickling, collagen carboxyl groups are temporarily protonated for ready transport of chromium ions. During basification step of tanning, the carboxyl groups are ionized and coordinate as ligands to the chromium(III) centers of the oxo-hydroxide clusters.
85:
43:
871:, hides were tanned by soaking them in a bath containing the crushed leaves and bark of the Salam acacia (Acacia etbaica; A. nilotica kraussiana). Hides that have been stretched on frames are immersed for several weeks in vats of increasing concentrations of tannin. Vegetable-tanned hide is not very flexible. It is used for luggage, furniture, footwear, belts, and other clothing accessories.
680:
797:(a class of polyphenol astringent chemicals), which occur naturally in the bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to the collagen proteins in the hide and coat them, causing them to become less water-soluble and more resistant to bacterial attack. The process also causes the hide to become more flexible. The primary barks processed in
785:
Chromium's ability to form such stable bridged bonds explains why it is considered one of the most effective tanning compounds. Chromium-tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of chromium. This efficiency is characterized by its increased hydrothermal stability of the skin, and its resistance to shrinkage in heated water.
776:
Before the introduction of the basic chromium species in tanning, several steps are required to produce a tannable hide. The pH must be very acidic when the chromium is introduced to ensure that the chromium complexes are small enough to fit between the fibers and residues of the collagen. Once the
989:
and arsenic, which are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens. The waste from leather tanneries is detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies
784:
After application of the chromium agent, the bath is treated with sodium bicarbonate in the basification process to increase the pH to 3.8–4.0, inducing cross-linking between the chromium and the collagen. The pH increase is normally accompanied by a gradual temperature increase up to 40 °C.
302:
Formerly, tanning was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to the outskirts of town, among the poor. Tanning by ancient methods is so foul-smelling that tanneries are still isolated from those towns today where the old methods are used. Skins typically arrived at the tannery
383:
them with salt to prevent putrefaction of the collagen from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the hide to when it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in osmotic pressure. The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and
626:
Pickling is another term for tanning, or what is the modern equivalent of turning rawhide into leather by the use of modern chemical agents, if mineral tanning is preferred. Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated by first soaking them in a bath containing common salt (sodium
947:
The tanning process involves chemical and organic compounds that can have a detrimental effect on the environment. Agents such as chromium, vegetable tannins, and aldehydes are used in the tanning step of the process. Chemicals used in tanned leather production increase the levels of
658:, among other plants. The use of vegetable tanning is a process that takes longer than mineral tanning when converting rawhides into leather. Mineral tanned leather is used principally for shoes, car seats, and upholstery in homes (sofas, etc.). Vegetable tanned leather is used in
886:, aluminum, zirconium, titanium, or iron salts, or a combination thereof. Concerns with the toxicity and environmental impact of any chromium (VI) that may form during the tanning process have led to increased research into more efficient wet white methods.{{citation needed}}
366:
The tanning process begins with obtaining an animal skin. When an animal skin is to be tanned, the animal is killed and skinned before the body heat leaves the tissues. This can be done by the tanner, or by obtaining a skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader.
370:
Before tanning, the skins are often dehaired, then have fat, meat and connective tissue removed. They are then washed and soaked in water with various compounds, and prepared to receive a tanning agent. They are then soaked, stretched, dried, and sometimes smoked.
725:
of the collagen subunits. The chemistry of is more complex in the tanning bath rather than in water due to the presence of a variety of ligands. Some ligands include the sulfate anion, the collagen's carboxyl groups, amine groups from the side chains of the
777:
desired level of penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, the pH of the material is raised again to facilitate the process. This step is known as basification. In the raw state, chrome-tanned skins are greyish-blue, so are referred to as
918:
alum and salts solution, between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). The process increases the hide's pliability, stretchability, softness, and quality. Then, the hide is air dried (crusted) for several weeks, which allows it to stabilize.
331:
into the skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating was a fermentative process that relied on enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were those of dogs or pigeons.
993:
The UN Leather
Working Group (LWG) "provides an environmental audit protocol, designed to assess the facilities of leather manufacturers," for "traceability, energy conservation, responsible management of waste products."
738:, used to suppress formation of polychromium(III) chains. Masking agents allow the tanner to further increase the pH to increase collagen's reactivity without inhibiting the penetration of the chromium(III) complexes.
322:
mixture, or simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in a salt solution. After the hair was loosened, the tanners scraped it off with a knife. Once the hair was removed, the tanners would
922:
The use of alum alone for tanning rawhides is not recommended, as it shrinks the surface area of the skin, making it thicker and hard to the touch. If alum is applied to the fur, it makes the fur dull and harsh.
613:
The pH of the collagen is then reduced so the enzymes may act on it in a process known as deliming. Depending on the end use of the leather, hides may be treated with enzymes to soften them, a process called
1009:
Smoke tanning is listed among the conventional methods like chrome tanning and vegetable tanning. Impregnation of the hide's cells with formaldehyde (from smoke) offers some microbial and water resistance.
764:
Tanning increases the spacing between protein chains in collagen from 10 to 17 Å. The difference is consistent with cross-linking by polychromium species, of the sort arising from olation and oxolation.
1527:
Lofrano, G., Meric, S., Balci, G., & Orhon, D. (2013). Chemical and biological treatment technologies for leather tannery chemicals and wastewaters: A review. Science of Total
Environment, 461-462,
882:
is a term used for leathers produced using alternative tanning methods that produce an off-white colored leather. Like wet blue, wet white is also a semifinished stage. Wet white can be produced using
133:
derived from the bark of certain trees, in the production of leather. An alternative method, developed in the 1800s, is chrome tanning, where chromium salts are used instead of natural tannins.
781:. Chrome tanning is faster than vegetable tanning (taking less than a day for this part of the process) and produces a stretchable leather which is excellent for use in handbags and garments.
303:
dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient tanners would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. Then they would pound and scour the skin to remove any remaining
1591:
1570:
717:, although the latter arises in inadequate waste treatment. Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give the hexaaquachromium(III) cation, , which at higher pH undergoes processes called
990:
plays a large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries.
1244:
970:(the nation's most common source of protein). Up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of hexavalent chromium, adding to the national health problem load.
753:, usually in the repeat -gly-pro-hypro-gly-. These residues give rise to collagen's helical structure. Collagen's high content of hydroxyproline allows cross-linking by
384:
osmotic pressure increased, to the point that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are heavily salted, then pressed into packs for about 30 days. In
416:
In soaking, the hides are soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and increase the moisture so that the hide or skin can be further treated.
388:-curing, the hides are agitated in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can also be accomplished by preserving the hides and skins at very low temperatures.
1108:
1006:
if not periodically replenished with fat or oil, especially if it gets wet. Many Native
Americans of the arid western regions wore clothing made by this process.
713:) has long been regarded as the most efficient and effective tanning agent. Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are significantly less toxic than
618:. In modern tanning, these enzymes are purified agents, and the process no longer requires bacterial fermentation (as from dung-water soaking) to produce them.
1040:
There are several solid and waste water treatment methodologies currently being researched, such as anaerobic digestion of solid wastes and wastewater sludge.
574:(keratin typically makes up 90% of the dry weight of hair). The hydrogen atoms supplied by the sharpening agent weaken the cystine molecular link whereby the
64:
581:
links are ultimately ruptured, weakening the keratin. To some extent, sharpening also contributes to unhairing, as it tends to break down the hair proteins.
1691:
1171:
396:
The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are collectively referred to as beamhouse operations. They include, in order, soaking,
894:
The conditions present in bogs, including highly acidic water, low temperature, and a lack of oxygen, combine to preserve but severely tan the skin of
1002:
Untanned hides can be dried and made pliable by rubbing and stretching the fibers with a hide stretcher, and fatting. However the hide will revert to
2456:
147:
Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to
911:
1613:
Blackman, Allen; Kildegaard, Arne (2010-09-18). "Clean technological change in developing-country industrial clusters: Mexican leather tanning".
1291:
350:
in a chromium (III) solution after 1840, it was discovered that this method could also be used with leather and thus was adopted by tanners.
1026:
in a vat of water and let them deteriorate for months. The mixture would then be placed over a fire to boil off the water to produce glue.
1599:
1236:
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in water when not disposed of responsibly. These processes also use large quantities of water and produce large amounts of pollutants.
51:
1779:
1264:
588:
of the collagen (a tissue-strengthening protein unrelated to keratin) in the hide is also shifted to around pH 4.7 due to liming.
2229:
1464:
1215:
343:, or tannin was applied to the skin as a tanning agent. As the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the agent.
599:
Any hairs remaining after liming are removed mechanically by scraping the skin with a dull knife, a process known as scudding.
1093:
Zeelieden, bedelaars en gevangenen op een eiland in de
Zuiderzee: Cultuurhistorie en archeologie van het Oostereiland in Hoorn
1789:
1503:
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1147:
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Depending on the finish desired, the leather may be waxed, rolled, lubricated, injected with oil, split, shaved, or dyed.
1211:
17:
966:, or chromium(VI). This hexavalent chromium runoff and scraps are then consumed by animals, in the case of Bangladesh,
914:, generally in conjunction with binders such as egg yolk, flour, or other salts. The hide is tawed by soaking in a warm
299:
The process of tanning was also used for boats and fishing vessels: ropes, nets, and sails were tanned using tree bark.
1726:
474:
1816:
1760:
1240:
977:, which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with the eyes and skin.
639:
is added. Small skins are left in this liquor for 2 days, while larger skins between 1 week and as much as 2 months.
500:
482:
642:
In vegetable tanning, the hides are made to soak in a bath solution containing vegetable tannins, such as found in
2170:
981:, which is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a
1163:
478:
2032:
1054:
2222:
2165:
2060:
2040:
523:(a basic agent) typically supplemented by "sharpening agents" (disulfide reducing agents) such as sodium
514:
431:
may also be added later in the process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth. After 1980, the use of
397:
1493:
1320:
959:
Boiling and sun drying can oxidize and convert the various chromium(III) compounds used in tanning into
2917:
380:
863:
were used in treating the flesh side of the leather, as a means of tawing, rather than of tanning. In
2186:
142:
1627:
1354:
Wilson, J.A. The
Chemistry of Leather Manufacture. The Chemical Catalog Company, Inc. New York 1923.
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463:
335:
Historically the actual tanning process used vegetable tanning. In some variations of the process,
31:
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56:
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183:
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The weakening of hair is dependent on the breakdown of the disulfide link of the amino acid
2629:
2351:
2129:
1775:
1554:
1366:
Covington, A. "Modern
Tanning Chemistry" Chemical Society Review 1997, volume 26, 111–126.
1495:
Camping and
Woodcraft; A Handbook for Vacation Campers and for Travelers in the Wilderness
1322:
Camping and
Woodcraft; A Handbook for Vacation Campers and for Travelers in the Wilderness
8:
2870:
2680:
2655:
2333:
1666:
1403:
Gustavson, K.H. "The
Chemistry of Tanning Processes" Academic Press Inc., New York, 1956.
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963:
856:
714:
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362:
Tanned rabbit pelt. The fur has been left on, apart from small patches exposing leather.
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2196:
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1438:(in Hebrew), vol. 2, Kiryat-Ono: Mekhon mishnat ha-Rambam, p. 312 (note 17),
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1543:"Toxic hazards of leather industry and technologies to combat threat: a review"
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578:
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2441:
2401:
2258:
1644:
1417:
1412:
Heidemann, E.; Leather. Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,2005.
1286:
1137:
1109:"From Gunpowder to Teeth Whitener: The Science Behind Historic Uses of Urine"
636:
419:
To prevent damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period,
148:
1443:
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facility for sharpening knives and other sharp tools, but later could carry
2604:
2419:
1889:
1513:
1498:. Vol. 2 (18 ed.). New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 324.
1434:
1340:
1325:. Vol. 2 (18 ed.). New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 322.
986:
960:
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721:
to give polychromium(III) compounds that are active in tanning, being the
2265:
2078:
1879:
1429:
1371:
1023:
735:
104:
1692:"KEEN has launched its 'most durable, consciously-constructed' boot yet"
1541:
Das, Mukul; Dwivedi, Premendra D.; Yadav, Ashish; Dixit, Sumita (2015).
591:
218:(oak). These terms are related to the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European *
2276:
2124:
1790:
Muspratt's mid-19th century technical description of the whole process.
982:
978:
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2017:
2012:
1914:
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400:, removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing, scudding and fleshing),
234:
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2371:
2341:
2045:
2007:
1955:
1909:
1743:
The Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association: Volume 24
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895:
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852:
834:
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Removes some of the interfibrillary soluble proteins such as mucins
401:
316:
275:
271:
259:
203:
100:
166:
2450:
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1825:
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Harlan, J.; Feairheller, S.; Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1977, 86A, 425.
967:
746:
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718:
663:
567:
563:
528:
524:
420:
290:
158:
112:
548:
Causes the fibers to swell up and split up to the desired extent
151:
and coloring. The place where hides are processed is known as a
42:
2576:
2239:
1950:
1894:
915:
830:
814:
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794:
655:
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632:
283:
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1745:. American Leather Chemists Association. 1929. pp. 35–36.
84:
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2547:
2538:
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2394:
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2109:
1987:
1960:
1945:
1924:
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Heidemann, E.; J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 1982, 66, 21.
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328:
312:
304:
293:
279:
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2564:
1982:
1972:
1164:"A history of new ideas in tanning - Leather International"
907:
679:
571:
340:
263:
127:
1794:
1755:
The Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition, Volume VI,
1029:
A tannery may be associated with a grindery, originally a
757:
within the helical structure. Ionized carboxyl groups (RCO
558:
in the hide to a proper condition for satisfactory tannage
2376:
2022:
2002:
1776:"Home Tanning of Leather and Small fur Skins" (pub. 1962)
308:
227:
186:, during the 1840s, when it was the largest in the world
973:
Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases.
635:
of hot water. When the water cools, one fluid ounce of
270:. Tanning was being carried out by the inhabitants of
439:-based biocides and their derivatives was forbidden.
1540:
662:
and in making small leather items, such as wallets,
220:
190:
The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin
1432:(1985), "Hil. Tefillin, u'Mezuzzah weSefer Torah",
1018:Leftover leather would historically be turned into
274:in Pakistan between 7000 and 3300 BCE. Around
1612:
1237:"3. Tanneries, Description of the Tanning Process"
1090:Schrickx, Christianus Petrus; Duijn, D.M. (2010).
934:
570:class of proteins that gives strength to hair and
551:Removes the natural grease and fats to some extent
346:Following the adoption in medicine of soaking gut
27:Process of treating animal skin to produce leather
1080:, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.
2909:
1592:"Toxic poultry feed threatens Bangladesh's poor"
1708:
1457:"Etherington & Roberts. Dictionary--tawing"
741:Collagen is characterized by a high content of
595:Traditional hand scudding in Marrakech, Morocco
1311:
1309:
1142:. New York: Riverhead Books. pp. 4, 263.
1096:. Gemeente Hoorn, Bureau Erfgoed, Archeologie.
30:"Tannery" redirects here. For other uses, see
2223:
1810:
1089:
855:, the combined vegetable oils of Niger seed (
213:
542:Removes the hair and other keratinous matter
207:
119:is the place where the skins are processed.
1721:. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. p. 16.
1306:
481:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
197:
191:
122:Historically, vegetable based tanning used
2230:
2216:
1817:
1803:
1615:Environmental Economics and Policy Studies
1484:
1482:
519:After soaking, the hides are treated with
311:. Hair was removed by soaking the skin in
1626:
1399:
1397:
1362:
1360:
1279:
926:
772:Possible chromium(III) tanning mechanisms
730:, and masking agents. Masking agents are
683:A modern electric tanning drum in Germany
501:Learn how and when to remove this message
1690:Martinko, Katherine (December 6, 2019).
1689:
938:
874:
767:
678:
590:
357:
239:meaning 'fir', related to modern German
182:Peeling hemlock bark for the tannery in
177:
165:
157:
83:
67:of all important aspects of the article.
1488:
1479:
1315:
1132:
1013:
391:
246:Ancient civilizations used leather for
14:
2910:
2237:
1714:
1394:
1357:
1066:
602:
63:Please consider expanding the lead to
2211:
1798:
1536:
1534:
1428:
1106:
566:, which is the characteristic of the
408:or puering, drenching, and pickling.
1208:"Etherington and Roberts Dictionary"
1126:
788:
479:adding citations to reliable sources
446:
327:" (soften) the material by pounding
230:tree'. (The same word is source for
36:
1780:UNT Government Documents Department
1212:American Institute for Conservation
1194:"What is Vegetable Tanned Leather?"
1174:from the original on 2 January 2017
250:, bags, harnesses and tack, boats,
24:
1531:
1294:from the original on 13 April 2016
1280:Covington, Tony (31 August 2002).
1273:
889:
427:, may be used. Fungicides such as
25:
2939:
1769:
1467:from the original on 29 June 2017
1265:"Hazardous Chemicals in Clothing"
1241:Food and Agriculture Organization
674:
654:trees, the outer green shells of
2105:Artificial leather / Leatherette
1196:. The Wallet Shoppe. 2018-03-07.
1037:' tools and materials for sale.
1022:. Tanners would place scraps of
451:
282:began using leather, affixed by
41:
2171:British Museum leather dressing
1749:
1735:
1683:
1659:
1606:
1584:
1573:from the original on 2016-03-24
1521:
1449:
1422:
1406:
1385:
1376:
1348:
1247:from the original on 2011-08-22
1218:from the original on 2011-02-25
1107:Kumar, Mohi (August 20, 2013).
1078:Oxford Companion to Archaeology
997:
935:Health and environmental impact
55:may be too short to adequately
1598:. 30 June 2014. Archived from
1258:
1229:
1200:
1186:
1156:
1100:
1083:
353:
65:provide an accessible overview
13:
1:
1567:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.017
1547:Journal of Cleaner Production
1060:
906:Tawing is a method that uses
801:and used in modern times are
99:, is the process of treating
1072:Possehl, Gregory L. (1996).
1055:Leather production processes
212:(tanbark), from old-Cornish
7:
2166:Leather Archives and Museum
1824:
1043:
621:
515:Liming (leather processing)
10:
2944:
943:Tanned fish skin of salmon
669:
606:
512:
411:
379:Preparing hides begins by
221:
140:
136:
29:
2882:
2866:Tizra heartwood and root
2823:
2791:
2742:
2717:
2667:
2616:
2440:
2431:
2399:Tanner's sumach leaves -
2330:
2246:
2187:History of hide materials
2179:
2143:
2097:
2069:
2031:
1933:
1832:
1718:Animals and human society
1637:10.1007/s10018-010-0164-7
901:
442:
374:
143:History of hide materials
2308:Myrtan or black marlock
1461:cool.conservation-us.org
1418:10.1002/14356007.a15_259
1282:"Letters: Pure dog dung"
1270:. Retrieved 2018-11-13.
650:, the leaves of certain
32:Tannery (disambiguation)
2891:Anadenanthera colubrina
2156:Igualada Leather Museum
793:Vegetable tanning uses
235:
2593:Myracrodruon urundeuva
2161:Walsall Leather Museum
1785:Leather tanning guide.
1715:Scanes, Colin (2018).
954:total dissolved solids
950:chemical oxygen demand
944:
927:Post-tanning finishing
773:
684:
596:
363:
315:, painting it with an
214:
208:
198:
192:
187:
175:
163:
89:
2151:German Leather Museum
1671:Leather Working Group
975:Methylisothiazolinone
942:
875:Alternative chemicals
771:
688:Chromium(III) sulfate
682:
627:chloride), usually 1
594:
361:
184:Prattsville, New York
181:
169:
161:
141:Further information:
87:
2630:Bergenia crassifolia
2352:Anogeissus latifolia
2334:hydrolysable tannins
1372:10.1039/CS9972600111
1210:. Foundation of the
1014:Associated processes
475:improve this section
392:Beamhouse operations
2871:Searsia pentaphylla
2681:Rumex hymenosepalus
2656:Coriaria myrtifolia
2405:or Chinese gall on
1559:2015JCPro..87...39D
1518:(reprinted in 1957)
1345:(reprinted in 1957)
964:hexavalent chromium
857:Guizotia abyssinica
715:hexavalent chromium
603:Deliming and bating
18:Tanner (occupation)
2883:Undetermined organ
2835:sp. bark and wood
2812:Quercus infectoria
2805:Quercus lusitanica
2756:Libidibia coriaria
2527:Conocarpus erectus
2387:Quercus macrolepis
2364:Terminalia chebula
2313:Eucalyptus redunca
2192:Leather subculture
1596:www.gulf-times.com
1168:www.leathermag.com
945:
848:Terminalia chebula
774:
685:
597:
364:
188:
176:
164:
90:
2918:Tanning (leather)
2905:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2731:Senegalia catechu
2693:Quercus coccifera
2301:Acacia mollissima
2250:condensed tannins
2205:
2204:
1763:entry: "grindery"
1505:978-1-149-75236-4
1332:978-1-149-75236-4
1149:978-1-59448-269-4
789:Vegetable tanning
586:isoelectric point
511:
510:
503:
433:pentachlorophenol
131:chemical compound
82:
81:
16:(Redirected from
2935:
2859:Notholithocarpus
2840:Prosopis humilis
2522:Button mangrove
2491:Senna auriculata
2468:Acacia decurrens
2462:Acacia pycnantha
2438:
2437:
2359:Myrobalan fruit
2232:
2225:
2218:
2209:
2208:
1819:
1812:
1805:
1796:
1795:
1764:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1702:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1677:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1630:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1579:
1578:
1538:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1517:
1486:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1426:
1420:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1392:
1389:
1383:
1380:
1374:
1364:
1355:
1352:
1346:
1344:
1313:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1277:
1271:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1087:
1081:
1070:
755:hydrogen bonding
732:carboxylic acids
712:
660:leather crafting
646:, the leaves of
506:
499:
495:
492:
486:
455:
447:
425:dithiocarbamates
238:
224:
223:
217:
211:
201:
196:, derivative of
195:
77:
74:
68:
45:
37:
21:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2897:
2878:
2819:
2787:
2780:Moullava digyna
2768:Acacia nilotica
2738:
2713:
2663:
2612:
2503:Acacia nilotica
2453:
2449:General :
2433:
2427:
2332:
2326:
2248:
2242:
2236:
2206:
2201:
2175:
2144:Leather museums
2139:
2093:
2089:Leather carving
2084:Cuir de Cordoue
2065:
2027:
1934:Leather sources
1929:
1828:
1823:
1772:
1767:
1754:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1713:
1709:
1700:
1698:
1688:
1684:
1675:
1673:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1628:10.1.1.534.6195
1611:
1607:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1576:
1574:
1539:
1532:
1526:
1522:
1506:
1487:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1427:
1423:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1377:
1365:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1333:
1314:
1307:
1297:
1295:
1278:
1274:
1263:
1259:
1250:
1248:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1221:
1219:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1177:
1175:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1134:Johnson, Steven
1131:
1127:
1117:
1115:
1113:smithsonian.com
1105:
1101:
1088:
1084:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1046:
1016:
1000:
937:
929:
912:aluminium salts
904:
892:
890:Natural tanning
877:
791:
760:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
677:
675:Chrome tanning
672:
624:
611:
605:
517:
507:
496:
490:
487:
472:
456:
445:
414:
394:
377:
356:
232:Old High German
206:), from French
145:
139:
78:
72:
69:
62:
50:This article's
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2941:
2931:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2847:Prosopis nigra
2843:
2827:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2808:
2797:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2751:Divi-divi pod
2748:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2723:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2673:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2644:Uncaria gambir
2635:
2634:
2633:
2622:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2608:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2586:
2585:
2584:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2562:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2520:
2519:
2518:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2472:
2459:(most notably
2454:
2446:
2444:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2408:Rhus chinensis
2392:
2391:
2390:
2380:
2374:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2345:
2338:
2336:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2290:Vitis vinifera
2282:
2281:
2280:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2254:
2252:
2244:
2243:
2235:
2234:
2227:
2220:
2212:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2101:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2075:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2037:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1948:
1943:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1920:Shell cordovan
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1822:
1821:
1814:
1807:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1778:hosted by the
1771:
1770:External links
1768:
1766:
1765:
1748:
1734:
1728:978-0128054383
1727:
1707:
1682:
1658:
1621:(3): 115–132.
1605:
1602:on 2014-09-07.
1583:
1530:
1520:
1504:
1478:
1448:
1421:
1405:
1393:
1384:
1375:
1356:
1347:
1331:
1305:
1272:
1268:GreenPeace.org
1257:
1228:
1214:. 2011-03-10.
1199:
1185:
1155:
1148:
1125:
1099:
1082:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1045:
1042:
1015:
1012:
999:
996:
936:
933:
928:
925:
903:
900:
891:
888:
876:
873:
845:spp., such as
790:
787:
758:
751:hydroxyproline
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
676:
673:
671:
668:
623:
620:
607:Main article:
604:
601:
579:disulfide bond
560:
559:
552:
549:
546:
543:
513:Main article:
509:
508:
459:
457:
450:
444:
441:
413:
410:
393:
390:
376:
373:
355:
352:
138:
135:
88:Tanned leather
80:
79:
59:the key points
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2940:
2929:
2928:Manufacturing
2926:
2924:
2923:Leathermaking
2921:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2873:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2814:
2813:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2741:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2716:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2701:
2700:Sea lavender
2699:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2683:
2682:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2636:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2615:
2607:
2606:
2602:
2601:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2432:Other sources
2430:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2403:
2402:Rhus coriaria
2398:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2388:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2335:
2329:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2259:Areca catechu
2256:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2245:
2241:
2233:
2228:
2226:
2221:
2219:
2214:
2213:
2210:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1762:
1761:0-19-861218-4
1758:
1752:
1744:
1738:
1730:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1711:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1672:
1668:
1662:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1609:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1537:
1535:
1524:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1485:
1483:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1452:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1415:
1409:
1400:
1398:
1388:
1379:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1361:
1351:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1312:
1310:
1293:
1289:
1288:
1287:New Scientist
1283:
1276:
1269:
1266:
1261:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1195:
1189:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1151:
1145:
1141:
1140:
1139:The Ghost Map
1135:
1129:
1114:
1110:
1103:
1095:
1094:
1086:
1079:
1075:
1069:
1065:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1011:
1007:
1005:
995:
991:
988:
984:
980:
976:
971:
969:
965:
962:
957:
955:
951:
941:
932:
924:
920:
917:
913:
909:
899:
897:
887:
885:
881:
872:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
849:
844:
840:
836:
833:(acacia; see
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
786:
782:
780:
770:
766:
762:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
729:
724:
723:cross-linking
720:
716:
689:
681:
667:
666:and clothes.
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
640:
638:
637:sulfuric acid
634:
631:of salt to 1
630:
619:
617:
610:
600:
593:
589:
587:
582:
580:
577:
573:
569:
565:
557:
553:
550:
547:
544:
541:
540:
539:
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
516:
505:
502:
494:
491:November 2020
484:
480:
476:
470:
469:
465:
460:This section
458:
454:
449:
448:
440:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
417:
409:
407:
403:
399:
389:
387:
382:
372:
368:
360:
351:
349:
344:
342:
338:
333:
330:
326:
321:
318:
314:
310:
306:
300:
297:
295:
292:
288:
285:
281:
277:
276:2500 BCE
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
244:
242:
237:
233:
229:
225:
216:
210:
205:
200:
194:
185:
180:
173:
168:
162:Tanning, 1880
160:
156:
154:
150:
149:decomposition
144:
134:
132:
129:
125:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
86:
76:
66:
60:
58:
53:
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
2889:
2869:
2857:
2845:
2838:
2830:
2810:
2803:
2778:
2766:
2754:
2729:
2703:
2691:
2679:
2654:
2642:
2628:
2605:Salix caprea
2603:
2591:
2581:
2569:
2552:
2537:
2525:
2515:
2501:
2489:
2479:
2466:
2460:
2420:Tara spinosa
2418:
2406:
2400:
2385:
2382:Valonia oak
2362:
2350:
2311:
2299:
2296:Mimosa bark
2289:
2275:
2266:arecatannins
2257:
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1695:
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1008:
1001:
998:Alternatives
992:
987:Formaldehyde
972:
961:carcinogenic
958:
946:
930:
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521:milk of lime
518:
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488:
473:Please help
461:
423:, typically
418:
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369:
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245:
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97:hide tanning
96:
92:
91:
70:
54:
52:lead section
2824:Whole plant
2272:Broad bean
2238:Sources of
2098:Substitutes
2079:Bookbinding
1880:Law leather
1490:Kephart, H.
1317:Kephart, H.
736:acetic acid
728:amino acids
554:Brings the
354:Preparation
111:to produce
2912:Categories
2688:Garouille
2331:Sources of
2277:Vicia faba
2247:Sources of
2125:Ultrasuede
1870:Corinthian
1701:2019-12-08
1696:TreeHugger
1676:2019-12-08
1577:2015-11-07
1251:2011-10-14
1222:2011-10-14
1061:References
1035:shoemakers
983:carcinogen
979:Anthracene
910:and other
896:bog bodies
843:Terminalia
839:myrobalans
799:bark mills
734:, such as
248:waterskins
241:Tannenbaum
2800:Gall oak
2775:Teri pod
2763:Sant pod
2676:Canaigre
2516:Betula sp
2415:Tara pod
2321:Quebracho
2130:Alcantara
2120:Presstoff
2115:Naugahyde
2033:Processes
1968:Crocodile
1941:Alligator
1915:Shearling
1667:"UN SDGs"
1645:1432-847X
1623:CiteSeerX
1553:: 39–49.
1430:Qafih, Y.
1298:6 January
1031:whetstone
884:aldehydes
880:Wet white
861:flaxseeds
823:quebracho
692:[Cr(H
462:does not
337:cedar oil
280:Sumerians
260:scabbards
226:meaning '
172:Nuremberg
73:June 2024
57:summarize
2832:Prosopis
2705:Limonium
2588:Urunday
2582:Picea sp
2570:Pinus sp
2560:Mangrove
2553:Larix sp
2534:Hemlock
2480:Alnus sp
2434:by organ
2372:Oak bark
2342:Chestnut
2071:Crafting
2046:Deliming
1993:Kangaroo
1956:Calfskin
1910:Shagreen
1860:Buckskin
1653:19339002
1571:Archived
1528:265-281.
1492:(1916).
1471:27 April
1465:Archived
1444:19158717
1319:(1916).
1292:Archived
1245:Archived
1216:Archived
1178:27 April
1172:Archived
1136:(2006).
1074:Mehrgarh
1050:Tanwater
1044:See also
968:chickens
853:Ethiopia
835:catechol
827:mangrove
803:chestnut
779:wet blue
664:handbags
644:gallnuts
622:Pickling
609:Deliming
576:covalent
556:collagen
529:cyanides
421:biocides
402:deliming
317:alkaline
272:Mehrgarh
204:oak bark
170:Tanner,
2894:(vilca)
2854:Tanoak
2651:Redoul
2638:Gambier
2600:Willow
2486:Avaram
2457:Acacias
2451:Tanbark
2240:tannins
2197:Rawhide
2180:Related
2135:Clarino
2056:Tanning
1998:Ostrich
1885:Morocco
1875:Kidskin
1865:Chamois
1840:Aniline
1826:Leather
1555:Bibcode
1514:2191524
1341:2191524
1004:rawhide
837:), and
819:hemlock
795:tannins
747:proline
743:glycine
719:olation
670:Process
656:walnuts
568:keratin
564:cystine
535:, etc.
525:sulfide
483:removed
468:sources
437:mercury
412:Soaking
348:sutures
291:chariot
268:sandals
256:quivers
193:tannāre
153:tannery
137:History
117:tannery
113:leather
109:animals
93:Tanning
2726:Cutch
2625:Badan
2618:Leaves
2577:Spruce
2498:Babul
2347:Dhawa
2061:Oiling
2051:Bating
2041:Liming
1951:Cattle
1905:Russia
1900:Patent
1895:Nubuck
1855:Bonded
1850:Boiled
1845:Bicast
1759:
1725:
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1643:
1625:
1512:
1502:
1442:
1339:
1329:
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916:potash
902:Tawing
859:) and
831:wattle
815:tanoak
811:redoul
749:, and
652:acacia
633:gallon
616:bating
538:This:
533:amines
443:Liming
406:bating
398:liming
381:curing
375:Curing
294:wheels
284:copper
278:, the
266:, and
252:armour
199:tannum
174:, 1609
128:acidic
124:tannin
2793:Galls
2744:Fruit
2719:Woods
2669:Roots
2548:Larch
2539:Tsuga
2511:Birch
2475:Alder
2442:Barks
2395:Sumac
2285:Grape
2262:seed
2110:Kirza
2018:Snake
2013:Sheep
1988:Horse
1961:Slunk
1946:Bison
1925:Suede
1833:Types
1649:S2CID
1024:hides
869:Egypt
865:Yemen
851:. In
841:from
648:sumac
629:quart
572:wools
429:TCMTB
386:brine
313:urine
305:flesh
289:, on
287:studs
264:boots
236:tanna
222:dʰonu
126:, an
105:hides
101:skins
95:, or
2565:Pine
2465:and
2379:wood
2344:wood
2323:wood
2008:Seal
1983:Goat
1973:Deer
1890:Napa
1757:ISBN
1723:ISBN
1641:ISSN
1510:OCLC
1500:ISBN
1473:2018
1440:OCLC
1337:OCLC
1327:ISBN
1300:2016
1180:2018
1144:ISBN
1120:2018
1020:glue
952:and
908:alum
867:and
584:The
466:any
464:cite
435:and
341:alum
329:dung
325:bate
320:lime
307:and
215:tann
115:. A
103:and
2377:Oak
2023:Yak
2003:Pig
1978:Eel
1633:doi
1563:doi
1414:doi
1368:doi
1076:in
807:oak
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