120:
1362:
1189:
2915:
2638:
One useful characteristic of switched-capacitor circuits is that they can be used to perform many circuit tasks at the same time, which is difficult with non-discrete time components (i.e. analog electronics). The multiplying digital to analog converter (MDAC) is an example as it can take an analog
576:
is open - they are never both closed at the same time), some of that charge is transferred out of the capacitor. Exactly how much charge gets transferred can't be determined without knowing what load is attached to the output. However, by definition, the charge remaining on capacitor
2929:
Switched-capacitor circuits are analysed by writing down charge conservation equations, as in this article, and solving them with a computer algebra tool. For hand analysis and for getting more insight into the circuits, it is also possible to do a
1027:
2471:
1285:
SC simulated resistors also have the benefit that their equivalent resistance can be adjusted by changing the switching frequency (i.e., it is a programmable resistance) with a resolution limited by the resolution of the switching period. Thus
803:
1352:
consisting of resistors and capacitors can have their resistors replaced with equivalent switched-capacitor simulated resistors, allowing the filter to be manufactured using only switches and capacitors without relying on real resistors.
935:
2665:
2322:
2003:
1457:
2920:
The MDAC is a common component in modern pipeline analog to digital converters as well as other precision analog electronics and was first created in the form above by
Stephen Lewis and others at Bell Laboratories.
1868:
1008:
2539:
2207:
688:
1714:
1240:
as discrete pulses, not continuously. This transfer approximates the equivalent continuous transfer of charge of a resistor when the switching frequency is sufficiently higher (≥100x) than the
321:
523:
1579:
3031:
B. Hosticka, R. Brodersen, P. Gray, "MOS Sampled Data
Recursive Filters Using Switched Capacitor Integrators", IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, Vol SC-12, No.6, December 1977.
2620:
1184:{\displaystyle R_{\text{equivalent}}={V_{\text{in-out}} \over I_{\text{in-out}}}={(V_{\text{in}}-V_{\text{out}}) \over C_{S}(V_{\text{in}}-V_{\text{out}})f}={1 \over {C_{S}f}}.\ }
1266:
Because the resistance inside electric switches is typically much smaller than the resistances in circuits relying on regular resistors, SC circuits can have substantially lower
243:
2115:
629:
553:
2333:
707:
426:
2631:
2036:
1747:
1612:
2063:
1504:
1416:
602:
470:
152:
846:
2657:
2086:
826:
388:
368:
348:
194:
2910:{\displaystyle V_{Out}={\frac {V_{i}\cdot (C_{1}+C_{2})-(d-1)\cdot V_{r}\cdot C_{2}+V_{os}\cdot (C_{1}+C_{2}+C_{p})}{C_{1}+{\frac {(C_{1}+C_{2}+C_{p})}{A}}}}}
248:
The following equivalent resistance calculation will show how during each switching cycle, this switched-capacitor circuit transfers an amount of charge from
2215:
1021:
can be expressed with the same form as Ohm's law, to show that this switched-capacitor circuit simulates a resistor with an equivalent resistance of:
1879:
3099:
3049:
H. Schmid and A. Huber, "Analysis of switched-capacitor circuits using driving-point signal-flow graphs", Analog Integr Circ Sig
Process (2018).
1424:
2477:
1755:
954:
3973:
2999:
2548:, which will cause errors when parasitic capacitances can't be controlled. "Parasitic insensitive" circuits try to overcome this.
4142:
3614:
2486:
3040:
Stephen H. Lewis et al., "A 10-bit, 20Msample/s Analog to
Digital Converter", IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, March 1992
2120:
1376:
One of the earliest of these circuits is the parasitic-sensitive integrator developed by the Czech engineer
Bedrich Hosticka.
1294:
adjustment can be done by controlling the oscillation of the switches (e.g. using an configurable clock output signal from a
3531:
2953:
637:
4147:
3312:
3092:
2659:
to it, and multiply this by some factor based on the capacitor ratios. The output of the MDAC is given by the following:
1620:
64:, where accurately specified resistors and capacitors are not economical to construct, but accurate clocks and accurate
1307:
266:
260:
478:
3295:
3191:
3072:
3016:
3008:
1614:, is suddenly charged with that much charge (by the op amp, which seeks a virtual short circuit between its inputs):
72:
1512:
3435:
3162:
84:
2544:
This switched-capacitor circuit is called "parasitic-sensitive" because its behavior is significantly affected by
3483:
3282:
92:
3085:
1316:
because it is easier to fabricate reliably with a wide range of values and can take up much less silicon area.
2983:
3514:
3266:
2963:
2575:
2561:
The delaying parasitic insensitive integrator has a wide use in discrete time electronic circuits such as
4157:
3318:
3255:
2998:
Allstot, David J. (2016). "Switched
Capacitor Filters". In Maloberti, Franco; Davies, Anthony C. (eds.).
2038:- it increases (or decreases) its voltage each cycle according to the charge that is being "pumped" from
100:
96:
3978:
3525:
3001:
A Short
History of Circuits and Systems: From Green, Mobile, Pervasive Networking to Big Data Computing
2958:
56:, which depend only on the ratios between capacitances and the switching frequency, and not on precise
1208:
are connected in parallel and not directly coupled. Other types of SC simulated resistor circuits are
209:
3732:
3446:
3289:
3174:
2466:{\displaystyle V_{\text{out}}(t)=-V_{fb}(t)=-{\frac {1}{{\frac {1}{fC_{s}}}C_{fb}}}\int V_{s}(t)dt\,}
1275:
1267:
798:{\displaystyle q_{\text{in-out}}=q_{\text{in}}-q_{\text{out}}=C_{S}(V_{\text{in}}-V_{\text{out}}).\ }
2091:
607:
3741:
3599:
3451:
3307:
531:
2934:
analysis, with a method that is very similar for switched-capacitor and continuous-time circuits.
3752:
3472:
3271:
1324:
3921:
3488:
3353:
3329:
2566:
1251:
The SC circuit modeled here using ideal switches with zero resistance does not suffer from the
29:
2480:
where the resistance is replaced by a SC simulated resistor with an equivalent resistance of:
1327:. During the appropriate clock phase, the capacitor samples the analog voltage through switch
3990:
3942:
3763:
3579:
3494:
3425:
3261:
2562:
2545:
396:
104:
2011:
1722:
1587:
930:{\displaystyle I_{\text{in-out}}=q_{\text{in-out}}f=C_{S}(V_{\text{in}}-V_{\text{out}})f.\ }
4064:
3808:
3703:
3477:
3370:
3224:
3185:
3116:
3108:
2041:
1482:
1387:
1320:
580:
556:
448:
130:
8:
4137:
3784:
3692:
3584:
3420:
3397:
4089:
3949:
3657:
3440:
3324:
3302:
2642:
2071:
1313:
1256:
811:
373:
353:
333:
179:
61:
25:
48:
are used to control the switches, so that not all switches are closed simultaneously.
4084:
4005:
3896:
3848:
3677:
3604:
3566:
3068:
3012:
2931:
1370:
1349:
108:
88:
49:
41:
4152:
3800:
3747:
3574:
3213:
1260:
829:
119:
3609:
4077:
4010:
3863:
3594:
3504:
3348:
2317:{\displaystyle {\frac {dV_{fb}(t)}{dt}}=f{\frac {C_{s}}{C_{fb}}}\cdot V_{s}(t)\,}
1361:
1295:
1279:
33:
3235:
4052:
3833:
3823:
3589:
3392:
1998:{\displaystyle V_{fb}(t)={\frac {C_{s}}{C_{fb}}}\cdot V_{s}(t-T)+V_{fb}(t-T)\,}
4131:
4114:
3937:
3853:
3672:
3499:
3467:
1476:
closes (they are never both closed at the same time), we have the following:
1252:
76:
3050:
1369:
Switched-capacitor simulated resistors can replace the input resistor in an
3995:
3983:
3871:
3838:
3667:
3652:
3219:
1452:{\displaystyle {\text{charge}}={\text{capacitance}}\times {\text{voltage}}}
1241:
200:
45:
203:
can express the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance as:
114:
4037:
3779:
3728:
3634:
3619:
3402:
3364:
2948:
3077:
1334:
and in the second phase presents this held sampled value through switch
4109:
4099:
4032:
3906:
3876:
3843:
3818:
3813:
3790:
3662:
3642:
3520:
3382:
3359:
3245:
3147:
3142:
3137:
1312:
SC simulated resistors are used as a replacement for real resistors in
1259:. However real switches have some small resistance in their channel or
127:
The simplest switched-capacitor (SC) circuit is made of one capacitor
4072:
3916:
3911:
3901:
3828:
3708:
3542:
3537:
3462:
3387:
257:
37:
1863:{\displaystyle V_{fb}(t)={\frac {Q_{s}(t-T)}{C_{fb}}}+V_{fb}(t-T)\,}
1255:
energy loss of a regular resistor, and so ideally could be called a
4094:
4042:
4022:
4000:
3886:
3881:
3769:
3758:
3687:
3457:
2943:
1271:
57:
3954:
3891:
3713:
3698:
3552:
3509:
3157:
1003:{\displaystyle V_{\text{in-out}}=V_{\text{in}}-V_{\text{out}}.\ }
4027:
3718:
3682:
3647:
3207:
3179:
3152:
3127:
2068:
However, there is a more elegant way to formulate this fact if
1274:
of the switching frequency may be manifested as high frequency
1245:
91:(CMOS) process. Common applications of MOS SC circuits include
80:
2625:
4104:
4015:
3774:
3547:
3340:
3202:
3197:
4047:
3430:
3376:
3277:
3230:
3168:
2569:. This circuit implements the following z-domain function:
2534:{\displaystyle R_{\text{equivalent}}={1 \over {C_{s}f}}.\ }
2924:
1365:
A simple switched-capacitor parasitic-sensitive integrator
2202:{\displaystyle dV_{fb}\leftarrow V_{fb}(t)-V_{fb}(t-dt)}
2630:
2551:
115:
Parallel resistor simulation using a switched-capacitor
2988:, Swarthmore College course notes, accessed 2009-05-02
2668:
2645:
2578:
2489:
2336:
2327:
Therefore, the op-amp output voltage takes the form:
2218:
2123:
2094:
2074:
2044:
2014:
1882:
1758:
1725:
1623:
1590:
1515:
1485:
1427:
1390:
1356:
1030:
957:
849:
814:
710:
683:{\displaystyle q_{\text{out}}=C_{S}V_{\text{out}}.\ }
640:
610:
583:
534:
481:
451:
399:
376:
356:
336:
269:
212:
182:
133:
325:
168:
which alternatively connect the capacitor to either
60:. This makes them much more suitable for use within
2909:
2651:
2614:
2533:
2465:
2316:
2201:
2109:
2080:
2057:
2030:
2008:This last equation represents what is going on in
1997:
1862:
1741:
1709:{\displaystyle Q_{fb}(t)=Q_{s}(t-T)+Q_{fb}(t-T)\,}
1708:
1606:
1573:
1498:
1451:
1410:
1373:to provide accurate voltage gain and integration.
1183:
1002:
929:
820:
797:
682:
623:
604:can be expressed in terms of the unknown variable
596:
547:
517:
464:
420:
382:
362:
342:
315:
237:
188:
146:
2634:A 1.5 bit multiplying digital to analog converter
316:{\displaystyle R_{\text{equivalent}}=1/(C_{S}f).}
4129:
1227:
832:(rate of transfer of charge per unit time) from
518:{\displaystyle q_{\text{in}}=C_{S}V_{\text{in}}}
44:are opened and closed. Usually, non-overlapping
2556:
1013:Finally, the current–voltage relationship from
1574:{\displaystyle Q_{s}(t)=C_{s}\cdot V_{s}(t)\,}
3093:
2209:and rewrite the last equation divided by dt:
445:is open, the charge stored in the capacitor
256:such that it behaves according to a similar
71:SC circuits are typically implemented using
2626:The multiplying digital to analog converter
52:implemented with these elements are termed
3100:
3086:
3107:
3052:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10470-018-1131-7
2462:
2313:
1994:
1859:
1705:
1570:
1341:to an electronic circuit for processing.
1222:parasitic-insensitive resistor simulation
83:(MOSFET) switches, and they are commonly
3065:Demystifying Switched-Capacitor Circuits
2629:
1360:
808:This charge is transferred at a rate of
118:
2997:
2925:Analysis of switched-capacitor circuits
2476:This is the same formula as the op amp
4130:
2991:
1278:that may need to be attenuated with a
3081:
2615:{\displaystyle H(z)={\frac {1}{z-1}}}
1418:the switching period. In capacitors,
3532:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
2552:The parasitic insensitive integrator
3313:Programmable unijunction transistor
1218:series-parallel resistor simulation
13:
3214:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
1357:The parasitic-sensitive integrator
1308:Operational amplifier applications
693:Thus, the charge transferred from
14:
4169:
3192:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
3009:IEEE Circuits and Systems Society
1319:This same circuit can be used in
326:Equivalent resistance calculation
3436:Heterostructure barrier varactor
3163:Chemical field-effect transistor
2954:Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem
2088:is very short. Let us introduce
1263:, so power is still dissipated.
238:{\displaystyle R={V \over I}.\ }
93:mixed-signal integrated circuits
68:of capacitances are economical.
3484:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
1301:
701:during one switching cycle is:
4143:Electronic filter applications
3043:
3034:
3025:
2977:
2895:
2856:
2835:
2796:
2748:
2736:
2730:
2704:
2588:
2582:
2453:
2447:
2381:
2375:
2353:
2347:
2310:
2304:
2244:
2238:
2196:
2181:
2162:
2156:
2140:
2110:{\displaystyle dt\leftarrow T}
2101:
1991:
1979:
1960:
1948:
1902:
1896:
1856:
1844:
1809:
1797:
1778:
1772:
1702:
1690:
1671:
1659:
1643:
1637:
1567:
1561:
1532:
1526:
1141:
1115:
1100:
1074:
915:
889:
786:
760:
624:{\displaystyle V_{\text{out}}}
307:
291:
1:
2970:
2565:, anti-alias structures, and
1584:2) Because the feedback cap,
1228:Difference with real resistor
548:{\displaystyle V_{\text{in}}}
107:(PCM) codec-filters, and PCM
3515:Silicon controlled rectifier
3377:Organic light-emitting diode
3267:Diffused junction transistor
2964:Thyristor-switched capacitor
2557:Use in discrete-time systems
1210:bilinear resistor simulation
1198:parallel resistor simulation
940:The voltage difference from
261:current–voltage relationship
176:at a switching frequency of
7:
3319:Static induction transistor
3256:Bipolar junction transistor
3208:MOS field-effect transistor
3180:Fin field-effect transistor
2985:Switched Capacitor Circuits
2937:
2639:input, add a digital value
2567:delta-sigma data converters
1379:
1232:Charge is transferred from
123:Switched-capacitor resistor
101:analog-to-digital converter
97:digital-to-analog converter
81:MOS field-effect transistor
10:
4174:
4148:Electronic filter topology
3526:Static induction thyristor
2959:Switched-mode power supply
1344:
1305:
1214:series resistor simulation
330:By definition, the charge
54:switched-capacitor filters
4063:
3963:
3930:
3862:
3799:
3727:
3695:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
3633:
3565:
3447:Hybrid integrated circuit
3411:
3339:
3290:Light-emitting transistor
3244:
3126:
3115:
1196:This circuit is called a
73:metal–oxide–semiconductor
3742:Backward-wave oscillator
3452:Light emitting capacitor
3308:Point-contact transistor
3278:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
3753:Crossed-field amplifier
3272:Field-effect transistor
1325:sample and hold circuit
421:{\displaystyle q=CV.\ }
390:between its plates is:
75:(MOS) technology, with
3922:Voltage-regulator tube
3489:MOS integrated circuit
3354:Constant-current diode
3330:Unijunction transistor
2911:
2653:
2635:
2616:
2546:parasitic capacitances
2535:
2467:
2318:
2203:
2111:
2082:
2059:
2032:
2031:{\displaystyle C_{fb}}
1999:
1864:
1743:
1742:{\displaystyle C_{fb}}
1710:
1608:
1607:{\displaystyle C_{fb}}
1575:
1500:
1453:
1412:
1366:
1185:
1004:
931:
822:
799:
684:
625:
598:
549:
519:
466:
422:
384:
364:
344:
317:
239:
190:
148:
124:
3991:Electrolytic detector
3764:Inductive output tube
3580:Low-dropout regulator
3495:Organic semiconductor
3426:Printed circuit board
3262:Darlington transistor
3109:Electronic components
2912:
2654:
2633:
2617:
2536:
2468:
2319:
2204:
2112:
2083:
2065:(due to the op-amp).
2060:
2058:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
2033:
2000:
1865:
1744:
1711:
1609:
1576:
1501:
1499:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
1454:
1413:
1411:{\displaystyle T=1/f}
1364:
1321:discrete time systems
1268:Johnson–Nyquist noise
1186:
1005:
932:
823:
800:
685:
626:
599:
597:{\displaystyle C_{S}}
550:
520:
467:
465:{\displaystyle C_{S}}
423:
385:
365:
345:
318:
240:
191:
149:
147:{\displaystyle C_{S}}
122:
105:pulse-code modulation
3809:Beam deflection tube
3478:Metal-oxide varistor
3371:Light-emitting diode
3225:Thin-film transistor
3186:Floating-gate MOSFET
3011:. pp. 105–110.
2666:
2643:
2576:
2487:
2478:inverting integrator
2334:
2216:
2121:
2092:
2072:
2042:
2012:
1880:
1756:
1723:
1621:
1588:
1513:
1483:
1425:
1388:
1323:(such as ADCs) as a
1028:
955:
847:
812:
708:
638:
608:
581:
557:ideal voltage source
532:
479:
449:
397:
374:
354:
334:
267:
210:
180:
131:
3785:Traveling-wave tube
3585:Switching regulator
3421:Printed electronics
3398:Step recovery diode
3175:Depletion-load NMOS
1719:Now dividing 2) by
1314:integrated circuits
948:can be written as:
62:integrated circuits
42:electronic switches
4158:Voltage regulation
4090:Crystal oscillator
3950:Variable capacitor
3625:Switched capacitor
3567:Voltage regulators
3441:Integrated circuit
3325:Tetrode transistor
3303:Pentode transistor
3296:Organic LET (OLET)
3283:Organic FET (OFET)
2907:
2649:
2636:
2612:
2531:
2463:
2314:
2199:
2107:
2078:
2055:
2028:
1995:
1873:And inserting 1):
1860:
1739:
1706:
1604:
1571:
1506:has just charged:
1496:
1449:
1408:
1367:
1350:Electronic filters
1257:loss free resistor
1181:
1000:
927:
818:
795:
680:
621:
594:
545:
515:
462:
418:
380:
360:
340:
313:
235:
186:
144:
125:
28:that implements a
26:electronic circuit
18:switched capacitor
4125:
4124:
4085:Ceramic resonator
3897:Mercury-arc valve
3849:Video camera tube
3801:Cathode-ray tubes
3561:
3560:
3169:Complementary MOS
2932:Signal-flow graph
2905:
2902:
2652:{\displaystyle d}
2610:
2530:
2523:
2497:
2432:
2416:
2344:
2289:
2256:
2081:{\displaystyle T}
1933:
1826:
1447:
1439:
1431:
1371:op amp integrator
1180:
1173:
1148:
1138:
1125:
1097:
1084:
1066:
1063:
1053:
1038:
999:
991:
978:
965:
926:
912:
899:
870:
857:
828:. So the average
821:{\displaystyle f}
794:
783:
770:
744:
731:
718:
679:
671:
648:
618:
542:
512:
489:
417:
383:{\displaystyle V}
363:{\displaystyle C}
350:on any capacitor
343:{\displaystyle q}
277:
234:
227:
189:{\displaystyle f}
154:and two switches
109:digital telephony
89:complementary MOS
4165:
3979:electrical power
3864:Gas-filled tubes
3748:Cavity magnetron
3575:Linear regulator
3124:
3123:
3102:
3095:
3088:
3079:
3078:
3056:
3047:
3041:
3038:
3032:
3029:
3023:
3022:
3006:
2995:
2989:
2981:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2903:
2898:
2894:
2893:
2881:
2880:
2868:
2867:
2854:
2849:
2848:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2821:
2820:
2808:
2807:
2792:
2791:
2776:
2775:
2763:
2762:
2729:
2728:
2716:
2715:
2700:
2699:
2689:
2684:
2683:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2595:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2517:
2504:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2464:
2446:
2445:
2433:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2397:
2391:
2374:
2373:
2346:
2345:
2342:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2303:
2302:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2275:
2274:
2265:
2257:
2255:
2247:
2237:
2236:
2220:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2180:
2179:
2155:
2154:
2139:
2138:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2064:
2062:
2061:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1978:
1977:
1947:
1946:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1919:
1918:
1909:
1895:
1894:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1843:
1842:
1827:
1825:
1824:
1812:
1796:
1795:
1785:
1771:
1770:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1715:
1713:
1712:
1707:
1689:
1688:
1658:
1657:
1636:
1635:
1613:
1611:
1610:
1605:
1603:
1602:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1560:
1559:
1547:
1546:
1525:
1524:
1505:
1503:
1502:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1458:
1456:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1429:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1190:
1188:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1127:
1126:
1123:
1114:
1113:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1086:
1085:
1082:
1072:
1067:
1065:
1064:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1051:
1045:
1040:
1039:
1036:
1009:
1007:
1006:
1001:
997:
993:
992:
989:
980:
979:
976:
967:
966:
963:
936:
934:
933:
928:
924:
914:
913:
910:
901:
900:
897:
888:
887:
872:
871:
868:
859:
858:
855:
830:electric current
827:
825:
824:
819:
804:
802:
801:
796:
792:
785:
784:
781:
772:
771:
768:
759:
758:
746:
745:
742:
733:
732:
729:
720:
719:
716:
689:
687:
686:
681:
677:
673:
672:
669:
663:
662:
650:
649:
646:
630:
628:
627:
622:
620:
619:
616:
603:
601:
600:
595:
593:
592:
554:
552:
551:
546:
544:
543:
540:
524:
522:
521:
516:
514:
513:
510:
504:
503:
491:
490:
487:
471:
469:
468:
463:
461:
460:
438:is closed while
431:Therefore, when
427:
425:
424:
419:
415:
389:
387:
386:
381:
369:
367:
366:
361:
349:
347:
346:
341:
322:
320:
319:
314:
303:
302:
290:
279:
278:
275:
244:
242:
241:
236:
232:
228:
220:
195:
193:
192:
187:
153:
151:
150:
145:
143:
142:
36:into and out of
4173:
4172:
4168:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4162:
4128:
4127:
4126:
4121:
4059:
3974:audio and video
3959:
3926:
3858:
3795:
3723:
3704:Photomultiplier
3629:
3557:
3505:Quantum circuit
3413:
3407:
3349:Avalanche diode
3335:
3247:
3240:
3129:
3118:
3111:
3106:
3063:Mingliang Liu,
3060:
3059:
3048:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3004:
2996:
2992:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2940:
2927:
2889:
2885:
2876:
2872:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2853:
2844:
2840:
2839:
2829:
2825:
2816:
2812:
2803:
2799:
2784:
2780:
2771:
2767:
2758:
2754:
2724:
2720:
2711:
2707:
2695:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2673:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2628:
2599:
2594:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2559:
2554:
2513:
2509:
2508:
2503:
2494:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2441:
2437:
2422:
2418:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2395:
2390:
2366:
2362:
2341:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2331:
2298:
2294:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2266:
2264:
2248:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2172:
2168:
2147:
2143:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2119:
2118:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2049:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2019:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
1970:
1966:
1942:
1938:
1924:
1920:
1914:
1910:
1908:
1887:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1835:
1831:
1817:
1813:
1791:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1763:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1730:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1720:
1681:
1677:
1653:
1649:
1628:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1595:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1555:
1551:
1542:
1538:
1520:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1490:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1474:
1467:
1444:
1436:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1400:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1382:
1359:
1347:
1339:
1332:
1310:
1304:
1296:microcontroller
1280:low-pass filter
1230:
1163:
1159:
1158:
1153:
1135:
1131:
1122:
1118:
1109:
1105:
1104:
1094:
1090:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1071:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1035:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1025:
988:
984:
975:
971:
962:
958:
956:
953:
952:
909:
905:
896:
892:
883:
879:
867:
863:
854:
850:
848:
845:
844:
813:
810:
809:
780:
776:
767:
763:
754:
750:
741:
737:
728:
724:
715:
711:
709:
706:
705:
668:
664:
658:
654:
645:
641:
639:
636:
635:
615:
611:
609:
606:
605:
588:
584:
582:
579:
578:
574:
567:
539:
535:
533:
530:
529:
509:
505:
499:
495:
486:
482:
480:
477:
476:
456:
452:
450:
447:
446:
443:
436:
398:
395:
394:
375:
372:
371:
370:with a voltage
355:
352:
351:
335:
332:
331:
328:
298:
294:
286:
274:
270:
268:
265:
264:
219:
211:
208:
207:
181:
178:
177:
166:
159:
138:
134:
132:
129:
128:
117:
66:relative ratios
12:
11:
5:
4171:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4119:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4081:
4080:
4069:
4067:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4056:
4055:
4053:Wollaston wire
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4013:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3946:
3945:
3934:
3932:
3928:
3927:
3925:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3868:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3834:Selectron tube
3831:
3826:
3824:Magic eye tube
3821:
3816:
3811:
3805:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3794:
3793:
3788:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3761:
3756:
3750:
3745:
3738:
3736:
3725:
3724:
3722:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3639:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3571:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3529:
3523:
3518:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3486:
3481:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3449:
3444:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3417:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3393:Schottky diode
3390:
3385:
3380:
3374:
3368:
3362:
3357:
3351:
3345:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3333:
3327:
3322:
3316:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3252:
3250:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3222:
3217:
3211:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3189:
3183:
3177:
3172:
3166:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3134:
3132:
3121:
3113:
3112:
3105:
3104:
3097:
3090:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3058:
3057:
3042:
3033:
3024:
3017:
2990:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2967:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2939:
2936:
2926:
2923:
2918:
2917:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2847:
2843:
2837:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2687:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2672:
2648:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2598:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2563:biquad filters
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2542:
2541:
2527:
2521:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2493:
2474:
2473:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2428:
2425:
2421:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2340:
2325:
2324:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2235:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2077:
2052:
2048:
2025:
2022:
2018:
2006:
2005:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1890:
1886:
1871:
1870:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1841:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1823:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1769:
1766:
1762:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1717:
1716:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1582:
1581:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1493:
1489:
1472:
1465:
1460:
1459:
1443:
1435:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1381:
1378:
1358:
1355:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1330:
1303:
1300:
1229:
1226:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1177:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1134:
1130:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1093:
1089:
1080:
1076:
1070:
1059:
1049:
1043:
1034:
1011:
1010:
996:
987:
983:
974:
970:
961:
938:
937:
923:
920:
917:
908:
904:
895:
891:
886:
882:
878:
875:
866:
862:
853:
817:
806:
805:
791:
788:
779:
775:
766:
762:
757:
753:
749:
740:
736:
727:
723:
714:
691:
690:
676:
667:
661:
657:
653:
644:
614:
591:
587:
572:
565:
538:
526:
525:
508:
502:
498:
494:
485:
459:
455:
441:
434:
429:
428:
414:
411:
408:
405:
402:
379:
359:
339:
327:
324:
312:
309:
306:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
282:
273:
246:
245:
231:
226:
223:
218:
215:
185:
164:
157:
141:
137:
116:
113:
77:MOS capacitors
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4170:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4133:
4116:
4115:mercury relay
4113:
4111:
4108:
4107:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4066:
4062:
4054:
4051:
4050:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3971:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3962:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3938:Potentiometer
3936:
3935:
3933:
3929:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3861:
3855:
3854:Williams tube
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3802:
3798:
3792:
3789:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3673:Fleming valve
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3500:Photodetector
3498:
3496:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3468:Memtransistor
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3410:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3344:
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3309:
3306:
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3297:
3294:
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3257:
3254:
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3249:
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3229:
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3209:
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3199:
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3141:
3139:
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3135:
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3131:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:Semiconductor
3114:
3110:
3103:
3098:
3096:
3091:
3089:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3074:
3073:0-7506-7907-7
3070:
3066:
3062:
3061:
3054:
3053:
3046:
3037:
3028:
3020:
3018:9788793609860
3014:
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2994:
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2800:
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2696:
2692:
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2632:
2606:
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2600:
2596:
2591:
2585:
2579:
2572:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2549:
2547:
2525:
2519:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2491:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2479:
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2450:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2426:
2423:
2419:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2387:
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2378:
2370:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2356:
2350:
2338:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2307:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2258:
2252:
2249:
2241:
2233:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2176:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2135:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2104:
2098:
2095:
2075:
2066:
2050:
2046:
2023:
2020:
2016:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1951:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1911:
1905:
1899:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1839:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1806:
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1800:
1792:
1788:
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1775:
1767:
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1752:
1751:
1750:
1734:
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1727:
1699:
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1678:
1674:
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1654:
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1625:
1617:
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1592:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1508:
1507:
1491:
1487:
1477:
1475:
1468:
1441:
1433:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1363:
1354:
1351:
1342:
1340:
1333:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1309:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1261:p–n junctions
1258:
1254:
1253:ohmic heating
1249:
1247:
1244:of the input
1243:
1239:
1235:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1175:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1144:
1132:
1128:
1119:
1110:
1106:
1091:
1087:
1078:
1068:
1057:
1047:
1041:
1032:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1016:
994:
985:
981:
972:
968:
959:
951:
950:
949:
947:
943:
921:
918:
906:
902:
893:
884:
880:
876:
873:
864:
860:
851:
843:
842:
841:
839:
835:
831:
815:
789:
777:
773:
764:
755:
751:
747:
738:
734:
725:
721:
712:
704:
703:
702:
700:
696:
674:
665:
659:
655:
651:
642:
634:
633:
632:
612:
589:
585:
575:
568:
560:
558:
536:
506:
500:
496:
492:
483:
475:
474:
473:
457:
453:
444:
437:
412:
409:
406:
403:
400:
393:
392:
391:
377:
357:
337:
323:
310:
304:
299:
295:
287:
283:
280:
271:
262:
259:
255:
251:
229:
224:
221:
216:
213:
206:
205:
204:
202:
197:
183:
175:
171:
167:
160:
139:
135:
121:
112:
110:
106:
103:(ADC) chips,
102:
99:(DAC) chips,
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
69:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
46:clock signals
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
23:
19:
3872:Cold cathode
3839:Storage tube
3729:Vacuum tubes
3678:Neutron tube
3653:Beam tetrode
3635:Vacuum tubes
3624:
3220:Power MOSFET
3064:
3051:
3045:
3036:
3027:
3000:
2993:
2984:
2979:
2928:
2919:
2637:
2560:
2543:
2475:
2326:
2067:
2007:
1872:
1718:
1583:
1478:
1470:
1463:
1461:
1383:
1375:
1368:
1348:
1335:
1328:
1318:
1311:
1302:Applications
1291:
1287:
1284:
1265:
1250:
1237:
1233:
1231:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1195:
1018:
1014:
1012:
945:
941:
939:
837:
833:
807:
698:
694:
692:
570:
563:
561:
527:
439:
432:
430:
329:
253:
249:
247:
199:Recall that
198:
173:
169:
162:
155:
126:
70:
65:
53:
21:
17:
15:
4038:Transformer
3780:Sutton tube
3620:Charge pump
3473:Memory cell
3403:Zener diode
3365:Laser diode
3248:transistors
3130:transistors
2949:Charge pump
1479:1) Because
1462:Then, when
1438:capacitance
1270:. However,
569:is closed (
4138:Capacitors
4132:Categories
4110:reed relay
4100:Parametron
4033:Thermistor
4011:resettable
3970:Connector
3931:Adjustable
3907:Nixie tube
3877:Crossatron
3844:Trochotron
3819:Iconoscope
3814:Charactron
3791:X-ray tube
3663:Compactron
3643:Acorn tube
3600:Buck–boost
3521:Solaristor
3383:Photodiode
3360:Gunn diode
3356:(CLD, CRD)
3138:Transistor
2971:References
2496:equivalent
1469:opens and
1384:Denote by
1306:See also:
1037:equivalent
276:equivalent
87:using the
85:fabricated
38:capacitors
32:by moving
4073:Capacitor
3917:Trigatron
3912:Thyratron
3902:Neon lamp
3829:Monoscope
3709:Phototube
3693:Pentagrid
3658:Barretter
3543:Trancitor
3538:Thyristor
3463:Memristor
3388:PIN diode
3165:(ChemFET)
2794:⋅
2765:⋅
2752:⋅
2743:−
2734:−
2702:⋅
2604:−
2435:∫
2388:−
2360:−
2292:⋅
2188:−
2166:−
2141:←
2102:←
1986:−
1955:−
1936:⋅
1851:−
1804:−
1697:−
1666:−
1549:⋅
1442:×
1272:harmonics
1242:bandlimit
1129:−
1088:−
982:−
903:−
774:−
735:−
528:assuming
472:will be:
201:Ohm's law
58:resistors
4095:Inductor
4065:Reactive
4043:Varistor
4023:Resistor
4001:Antifuse
3887:Ignitron
3882:Dekatron
3770:Klystron
3759:Gyrotron
3688:Nuvistor
3605:Split-pi
3491:(MOS IC)
3458:Memistor
3216:(MuGFET)
3210:(MOSFET)
3182:(FinFET)
2944:Aliasing
2938:See also
1380:Analysis
1200:because
30:function
24:) is an
4153:MOSFETs
3996:Ferrite
3964:Passive
3955:Varicap
3943:digital
3892:Krytron
3714:Tetrode
3699:Pentode
3553:Varicap
3534:(3D IC)
3510:RF CMOS
3414:devices
3188:(FGMOS)
3119:devices
1446:voltage
1345:Filters
1292:runtime
50:Filters
34:charges
4028:Switch
3719:Triode
3683:Nonode
3648:Audion
3528:(SITh)
3412:Other
3379:(OLED)
3341:Diodes
3292:(LET)
3274:(FET)
3246:Other
3194:(IGBT)
3171:(CMOS)
3158:BioFET
3153:BiCMOS
3071:
3015:
2529:
1430:charge
1288:online
1246:signal
1220:, and
1179:
1062:in-out
1052:in-out
998:
964:in-out
925:
869:in-out
856:in-out
793:
717:in-out
678:
555:is an
416:
258:linear
233:
4105:Relay
4078:types
4016:eFUSE
3787:(TWT)
3775:Maser
3766:(IOT)
3755:(CFA)
3744:(BWO)
3668:Diode
3615:SEPIC
3595:Boost
3548:TRIAC
3517:(SCR)
3480:(MOV)
3454:(LEC)
3373:(LED)
3332:(UJT)
3321:(SIT)
3315:(PUT)
3258:(BJT)
3227:(TFT)
3203:LDMOS
3198:ISFET
3005:(PDF)
2966:(TSC)
1276:noise
562:When
263:with
40:when
4048:Wire
4006:Fuse
3590:Buck
3443:(IC)
3431:DIAC
3367:(LD)
3236:UMOS
3231:VMOS
3148:PMOS
3143:NMOS
3128:MOS
3069:ISBN
3013:ISBN
2117:and
1204:and
840:is:
161:and
79:and
3610:Ćuk
2343:out
1298:).
1290:or
1238:out
1236:to
1206:out
1137:out
1096:out
1019:out
1017:to
990:out
946:out
944:to
911:out
838:out
836:to
782:out
743:out
699:out
697:to
670:out
647:out
617:out
254:out
252:to
174:out
172:or
4134::
3984:RF
3733:RF
3067:,
3007:.
1749::
1282:.
1248:.
1234:in
1224:.
1216:,
1212:,
1202:in
1124:in
1083:in
1015:in
977:in
942:in
898:in
834:in
769:in
730:in
695:in
631::
559:.
541:in
511:in
488:in
250:in
196:.
170:in
111:.
95:,
22:SC
16:A
3735:)
3731:(
3101:e
3094:t
3087:v
3055:.
3021:.
2900:A
2896:)
2891:p
2887:C
2883:+
2878:2
2874:C
2870:+
2865:1
2861:C
2857:(
2851:+
2846:1
2842:C
2836:)
2831:p
2827:C
2823:+
2818:2
2814:C
2810:+
2805:1
2801:C
2797:(
2789:s
2786:o
2782:V
2778:+
2773:2
2769:C
2760:r
2756:V
2749:)
2746:1
2740:d
2737:(
2731:)
2726:2
2722:C
2718:+
2713:1
2709:C
2705:(
2697:i
2693:V
2686:=
2681:t
2678:u
2675:O
2671:V
2647:d
2607:1
2601:z
2597:1
2592:=
2589:)
2586:z
2583:(
2580:H
2526:.
2520:f
2515:s
2511:C
2506:1
2501:=
2492:R
2460:t
2457:d
2454:)
2451:t
2448:(
2443:s
2439:V
2427:b
2424:f
2420:C
2411:s
2407:C
2403:f
2399:1
2393:1
2385:=
2382:)
2379:t
2376:(
2371:b
2368:f
2364:V
2357:=
2354:)
2351:t
2348:(
2339:V
2311:)
2308:t
2305:(
2300:s
2296:V
2285:b
2282:f
2278:C
2272:s
2268:C
2262:f
2259:=
2253:t
2250:d
2245:)
2242:t
2239:(
2234:b
2231:f
2227:V
2223:d
2197:)
2194:t
2191:d
2185:t
2182:(
2177:b
2174:f
2170:V
2163:)
2160:t
2157:(
2152:b
2149:f
2145:V
2136:b
2133:f
2129:V
2125:d
2105:T
2099:t
2096:d
2076:T
2051:s
2047:C
2024:b
2021:f
2017:C
1992:)
1989:T
1983:t
1980:(
1975:b
1972:f
1968:V
1964:+
1961:)
1958:T
1952:t
1949:(
1944:s
1940:V
1929:b
1926:f
1922:C
1916:s
1912:C
1906:=
1903:)
1900:t
1897:(
1892:b
1889:f
1885:V
1857:)
1854:T
1848:t
1845:(
1840:b
1837:f
1833:V
1829:+
1822:b
1819:f
1815:C
1810:)
1807:T
1801:t
1798:(
1793:s
1789:Q
1782:=
1779:)
1776:t
1773:(
1768:b
1765:f
1761:V
1735:b
1732:f
1728:C
1703:)
1700:T
1694:t
1691:(
1686:b
1683:f
1679:Q
1675:+
1672:)
1669:T
1663:t
1660:(
1655:s
1651:Q
1647:=
1644:)
1641:t
1638:(
1633:b
1630:f
1626:Q
1600:b
1597:f
1593:C
1568:)
1565:t
1562:(
1557:s
1553:V
1544:s
1540:C
1536:=
1533:)
1530:t
1527:(
1522:s
1518:Q
1492:s
1488:C
1473:2
1471:S
1466:1
1464:S
1434:=
1406:f
1402:/
1398:1
1395:=
1392:T
1338:2
1336:S
1331:1
1329:S
1176:.
1170:f
1165:S
1161:C
1156:1
1151:=
1145:f
1142:)
1133:V
1120:V
1116:(
1111:S
1107:C
1101:)
1092:V
1079:V
1075:(
1069:=
1058:I
1048:V
1042:=
1033:R
995:.
986:V
973:V
969:=
960:V
922:.
919:f
916:)
907:V
894:V
890:(
885:S
881:C
877:=
874:f
865:q
861:=
852:I
816:f
790:.
787:)
778:V
765:V
761:(
756:S
752:C
748:=
739:q
726:q
722:=
713:q
675:.
666:V
660:S
656:C
652:=
643:q
613:V
590:S
586:C
573:1
571:S
566:2
564:S
537:V
507:V
501:S
497:C
493:=
484:q
458:S
454:C
442:2
440:S
435:1
433:S
413:.
410:V
407:C
404:=
401:q
378:V
358:C
338:q
311:.
308:)
305:f
300:S
296:C
292:(
288:/
284:1
281:=
272:R
230:.
225:I
222:V
217:=
214:R
184:f
165:2
163:S
158:1
156:S
140:S
136:C
20:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
