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combine with free electrons, and cancel each other out. The positively charged ("donor") dopant atoms in the n-type are part of the crystal, and cannot move. Thus, in the n-type, a region near the junction has a fixed amount of positive charge. The negatively charged ("acceptor") dopant atoms in the p-type are part of the crystal, and cannot move. Thus, in the p-type, a region near the junction becomes negatively charged. The result is a region near the junction that acts to repel the mobile charges away from the junction through the electric field that these charged regions create. The regions near the p–n interface lose their neutrality and most of their mobile carriers, forming the space charge region or
540:. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15 cm (160 μC/cm) doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. Electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that can flow through the diode.
626:' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons are pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.
30:
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547:(electrons in n-type material or holes in p-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and
650:. A standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage at the cathode cannot be more than about 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode (though there is a slight rise with current), because the diode breaks down, and therefore conducts, if the voltage gets any higher. This effect limits the voltage over the diode.
383:
not from p to n, and the reverse is true for positive charge carriers (holes). When the p–n junction is forward-biased, charge carriers flow freely due to the reduction in energy barriers seen by electrons and holes. When the p–n junction is reverse-biased, however, the junction barrier (and therefore resistance) becomes greater and charge flow is minimal.
588:
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characterizes the current across a p–n junction as a function of external voltage and ambient conditions (temperature, choice of semiconductor, etc.). To see how it can be derived, we must examine the various reasons for current. The convention is that the forward (+) direction be pointed against the
563:
Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the p-type material, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any
382:
The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the p–n junction imply that it can be used as a diode. A p–n junction diode allows charge carriers to flow in one direction, but not in the opposite direction; negative charge carriers (electrons) can easily flow through the junction from n to p but
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diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step function. In fact, since the y-axis of figure A is log-scale, the region is almost completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between
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created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier
452:
A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Electron and hole concentration are reported with blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are charge-neutral. Light-red zone is positively charged. Light-blue zone is negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the
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At the junction, some of the free electrons in the n-type wander into the p-type due to random thermal migration ("diffusion"). As they diffuse into the p-type they combine with holes, and cancel each other out. In a similar way some of the positive holes in the p-type diffuse into the n-type and
571:
Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons flowing through the n-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the p-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the
551:
into the p-type material. However, they do not continue to flow through the p-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the p-type material before recombining is called the
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The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the
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A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density, the electric field, and the voltage are reported. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother, like the
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bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother with slope varying with field strength.)
638:
processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.
568:). The flow of holes from the p-type region into the n-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed).
140:
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vicinity of the junction. The electrons and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required.
506:, Q(x) graph). The space charge region has the same magnitude of charge on both sides of the p–n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side in this example (the n side in figures A and B).
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102:(LEDs) are essentially p-n junctions where the semiconductor materials are chosen, and the component's geometry designed, to maximise the desired effect (light absorption or emission). A
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1769:, where we have broken up the voltage difference into the equilibrium plus external components. The equilibrium potential results from diffusion forces, and thus we can calculate
1571:{\displaystyle \Delta V=\int _{D}\int {\frac {q}{\varepsilon }}\left\,\mathrm {d} x\,\mathrm {d} x={\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{C_{A}+C_{D}}}{\frac {q}{2\varepsilon }}(d_{p}+d_{n})^{2}}
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347:, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating flow of charge carriers across this depleted layer, p–n junctions are commonly used as
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2048:{\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}={\frac {kT}{q}}\ln \left({\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{P_{0}N_{0}}}\right)={\frac {kT}{q}}\ln \left({\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{n_{i}^{2}}}\right)}
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near the boundary, as the free electrons fill the available holes, which in turn allows electric current to pass through the junction only in one direction.
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is a similar case to a p–n junction, where instead of an n-type semiconductor, a metal directly serves the role of the "negative" charge provider.
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In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative terminal. The panels show
88:(BJT) is a semiconductor in the form n–p–n or p–n–p. Combinations of such semiconductor devices on a single chip allow for the creation of
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For a general case, the dopants have a concentration profile that varies with depth x, but for a simple case of an abrupt junction,
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models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p–n junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.
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diodes, where the width of the depletion zone (controlled with the reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance of the diode.
84:. More complex circuit components can be created by further combinations of p-type and n-type semiconductors; for example, the
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619:. Therefore, very little current flows until the diode breaks down. The connections are illustrated in the adjacent diagram.
970:{\displaystyle -{\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}V}{\mathrm {d} x^{2}}}={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon }}={\frac {q}{\varepsilon }}\left}
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The p–n junction possesses a useful property for modern semiconductor electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively
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because the total charge on the p and the n side of the depletion region sums to zero. Therefore, letting
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Shockley, William (1949). "The Theory of p-n
Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors".
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with blue and red lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing phenomena that establish equilibrium.
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In a p–n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in which a
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be the equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes respectively. Thus, by
Poisson's equation:
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Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the '
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1692:{\displaystyle d={\sqrt {{\frac {2\varepsilon }{q}}{\frac {C_{A}+C_{D}}{C_{A}C_{D}}}\Delta V}}}
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339:. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become
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can be assumed to be constant on the n side of the junction and zero on the p side. Let
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can be assumed to be constant on the p side of the junction and zero on the n side, and
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terminal corresponds to reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the
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Electrons and Holes in
Semiconductors: With Applications to Transistor Electronics,
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Crystal Fire: The
Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age
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Bell
Telephone Laboratories series, Van Nostrand. ISBN 0882753827, 780882753829.
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atoms (Si) enlarged about 45,000,000x (Image size approximately 955 pm × 955 pm)
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represent the entire depletion region and the potential difference across it,
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and selenium rectifiers. The modern theory of p-n junctions was elucidated by
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The invention of the p–n junction is usually attributed to
American physicist
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PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width.
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Diffusion current: current due to local imbalances in carrier concentration
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223: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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the space charge region and the neutral region is quite sharp (see
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is the application of a voltage relative to a p–n junction region:
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forms across the junction. This potential difference is called
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be the concentration of negatively-charged acceptor atoms and
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the width of the depletion region on the n-side. Then, since
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be the concentrations of positively-charged donor atoms. Let
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2344:"Investigation of a Barrier Layer by the Thermoprobe Method"
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in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction.
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variation would cause charge buildup over time (this is
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is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (
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be the width of the depletion region on the p-side and
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diode's built-in potential gradient at equilibrium.
69:. Connecting the two materials causes creation of a
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The PN Junction. How Diodes Work? (English version)
1600:be the total width of the depletion region, we get
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may be too technical for most readers to understand
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2175:{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{D}\propto -q\nabla n}
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1762:{\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}+\Delta V_{\text{ext}}}
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2446:Luque, Antonio; Hegedus, Steven (29 March 2011).
1803:and assuming the semiconductor is nondegenerate (
462:concentration profile at equilibrium is shown in
378:is in the direction of little or no current flow.
61:. The "n" (negative) side contains freely-moving
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2449:Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering
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76:p–n junctions represent the simplest case of a
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2318:. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 88–97.
1228:within the depletion region, it must be that
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2059:is the temperature of the semiconductor and
646:regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a low
665:
186:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2338:
1861:{\displaystyle {P}_{0}{N}_{0}={n}_{i}^{2}}
653:Another application of reverse biasing is
386:
1454:
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1071:is the magnitude of the electron charge.
312:Learn how and when to remove this message
294:Learn how and when to remove this message
278:, without removing the technical details.
239:Learn how and when to remove this message
126:reported discovery of p–n junctions in Cu
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370:is in the direction of easy current flow
351:: circuit elements that allow a flow of
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2398:Semiconductor Device Physics and Design
603:terminal of the voltage supply and the
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2507:Educational video on the P-N junction.
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591:A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias
556:, and it is typically on the order of
1283:{\displaystyle d_{p}C_{A}=d_{n}C_{D}}
276:make it understandable to non-experts
141:Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors
642:This effect is used to advantage in
615:is comparatively higher than at the
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221:adding citations to reliable sources
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16:Semiconductor–semiconductor junction
37:. The circuit symbol is also shown.
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2245:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
167:This article has multiple issues.
122:in 1939. Two years later (1941),
45:is a combination of two types of
25:Diode § Semiconductor diodes
2421:Hook, J. R.; H. E. Hall (2001).
2208:{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{R}}
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2108:{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{F}}
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2071:Current across depletion region
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208:needs additional citations for
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2240:Capacitance–voltage profiling
2078:Shockley ideal diode equation
1221:{\displaystyle P_{0}=N_{0}=0}
516:p–n diode § Forward bias
147:
1792:{\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}}
1040:{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
423:{\displaystyle V_{\rm {bi}}}
7:
2400:. Springer. pp. P155.
2285:Transistor–transistor logic
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86:bipolar junction transistor
10:
2543:
2513:– PowerGuru, August, 2012.
2382:Shockley, William (1950).
2357:(special edition): 53–56.
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513:
109:
18:
2452:. John Wiley & Sons.
2425:. John Wiley & Sons.
2235:Alloy-junction transistor
2527:Semiconductor structures
1716:{\displaystyle \Delta V}
1328:{\displaystyle \Delta V}
813:{\displaystyle P_{0}(x)}
777:{\displaystyle N_{0}(x)}
741:{\displaystyle C_{D}(x)}
705:{\displaystyle C_{A}(x)}
676:For a p–n junction, let
666:Size of depletion region
2260:Field-effect transistor
577:Shockley diode equation
566:Kirchhoff's current law
387:Equilibrium (zero bias)
47:semiconductor materials
2396:Mishra, Umesh (2008).
2275:Semiconductor detector
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1016:{\displaystyle \rho }
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2250:Delocalized electron
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393:potential difference
217:improve this article
138:in his classic work
2423:Solid State Physics
2138:, via the equation
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1857:
661:Governing equations
636:avalanche breakdown
530:energy band diagram
483:space charge region
90:integrated circuits
2221:Generation current
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2065:Boltzmann constant
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2459:978-0-470-97612-8
2432:978-0-471-92805-8
2407:978-1-4020-6480-7
2340:Lashkaryov, V. E.
2325:978-0-393-31851-7
2310:Hoddeson, Lillian
2186:Reverse current (
2131:{\displaystyle n}
2086:Forward current (
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1801:Einstein relation
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992:{\displaystyle V}
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2265:n–p–n transistor
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764:
763:
747:
745:
744:
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728:
727:
711:
709:
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703:
692:
691:
554:diffusion length
499:majority carrier
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136:William Shockley
124:Vadim Lashkaryov
71:depletion region
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2471:Further reading
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2255:Diode modelling
2230:
2199:
2194:
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2028:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2003:
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1996:
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1944:
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1933:
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595:Connecting the
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518:
512:
436:depletion layer
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403:
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389:
345:charge carriers
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272:help improve it
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150:
129:
112:
33:A p–n junction
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2540:
2530:
2529:
2515:
2514:
2511:"P-N Junction"
2508:
2500:
2499:External links
2497:
2496:
2495:
2485:(3): 435–489.
2472:
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2372:on 2015-09-28.
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1111:
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1025:charge density
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607:region to the
599:region to the
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534:electric field
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459:electric field
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67:electron holes
57:, in a single
15:
9:
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3:
2:
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2218:Field current
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1002:
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792:
768:
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277:
273:
267:
264:This section
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212:
211:
206:This section
204:
200:
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194:
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163:
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143:
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74:
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68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
36:
31:
26:
22:
2482:
2478:
2448:
2441:
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2416:
2397:
2391:
2383:
2378:
2367:the original
2354:
2351:Ukr. J. Phys
2350:
2334:
2314:
2300:
2076:
2074:
2060:
2056:
1870:Fermi energy
1804:
1700:
1579:
1291:
1230:
1073:
1049:permittivity
978:
822:
675:
672:Band bending
652:
641:
628:
621:
608:
604:
600:
596:
594:
583:Reverse bias
574:
570:
562:
553:
548:
542:
537:
533:
529:
527:
510:Forward bias
494:
480:
473:
456:
449:
432:
396:
390:
381:
375:Reverse bias
373:
367:Forward bias
365:
358:
357:
334:
308:
290:
281:
265:
235:
226:
215:Please help
210:verification
207:
183:
176:
170:
169:Please help
166:
139:
113:
94:
75:
43:p–n junction
42:
40:
644:Zener diode
558:micrometers
353:electricity
116:Russell Ohl
96:Solar cells
2292:References
670:See also:
514:See also:
337:conductive
172:improve it
148:Properties
132:photocells
19:See also:
2363:2071-0194
2342:(2008) .
2167:∇
2161:−
2158:∝
1994:
1914:
1880:Δ
1777:Δ
1747:Δ
1731:Δ
1708:Δ
1682:Δ
1622:ε
1527:ε
1425:−
1393:−
1370:ε
1362:∫
1353:∫
1343:Δ
1320:Δ
1035:ε
1011:ρ
947:−
915:−
892:ε
879:ε
876:ρ
830:−
495:uncovered
491:acceptors
477:voltage.)
474:Figure B.
450:Figure A.
178:talk page
63:electrons
21:p–n diode
2521:Category
2312:(1988).
2228:See also
655:Varactor
609:positive
601:negative
504:figure B
464:figure A
440:figure A
341:depleted
284:May 2022
229:May 2022
144:(1950).
1023:is the
999:is the
634:or the
613:cathode
329:Silicon
270:Please
110:History
59:crystal
2456:
2429:
2404:
2361:
2322:
2055:where
979:where
605:n-type
597:p-type
549:inject
536:, and
487:donors
349:diodes
55:n-type
51:p-type
2370:(PDF)
2347:(PDF)
632:Zener
624:holes
617:anode
543:Only
438:(see
82:diode
35:diode
2454:ISBN
2427:ISBN
2402:ISBN
2359:ISSN
2320:ISBN
2075:The
1805:i.e.
1312:and
1051:and
784:and
575:The
481:The
457:The
359:Bias
98:and
53:and
23:and
2487:doi
2063:is
1872:):
1755:ext
1047:is
497:by
489:or
442:).
343:of
274:to
219:by
118:of
2523::
2483:28
2481:.
2355:53
2353:.
2349:.
2308:;
2215:)
2115:)
2067:.
1991:ln
1911:ln
1027:,
1003:,
560:.
532:,
430:.
181:.
92:.
49:,
41:A
2493:.
2489::
2462:.
2435:.
2410:.
2328:.
2201:R
2196:J
2170:n
2164:q
2153:D
2148:J
2126:n
2101:F
2096:J
2061:k
2057:T
2042:)
2035:2
2030:i
2026:n
2019:D
2015:C
2009:A
2005:C
1998:(
1986:q
1982:T
1979:k
1973:=
1969:)
1961:0
1957:N
1951:0
1947:P
1939:D
1935:C
1929:A
1925:C
1918:(
1906:q
1902:T
1899:k
1893:=
1888:0
1884:V
1854:2
1849:i
1844:n
1839:=
1834:0
1829:N
1822:0
1817:P
1785:0
1781:V
1751:V
1744:+
1739:0
1735:V
1711:V
1685:V
1674:D
1670:C
1664:A
1660:C
1652:D
1648:C
1644:+
1639:A
1635:C
1626:q
1619:2
1611:=
1608:d
1588:d
1564:2
1560:)
1554:n
1550:d
1546:+
1541:p
1537:d
1533:(
1524:2
1520:q
1510:D
1506:C
1502:+
1497:A
1493:C
1485:D
1481:C
1475:A
1471:C
1464:=
1461:x
1457:d
1452:x
1448:d
1442:]
1438:)
1433:A
1429:C
1420:D
1416:C
1412:(
1409:+
1406:)
1401:0
1397:N
1388:0
1384:P
1380:(
1376:[
1367:q
1357:D
1349:=
1346:V
1323:V
1300:D
1276:D
1272:C
1266:n
1262:d
1258:=
1253:A
1249:C
1243:p
1239:d
1216:0
1213:=
1208:0
1204:N
1200:=
1195:0
1191:P
1168:n
1164:d
1141:p
1137:d
1114:D
1110:C
1087:A
1083:C
1059:q
987:V
964:]
960:)
955:A
951:C
942:D
938:C
934:(
931:+
928:)
923:0
919:N
910:0
906:P
902:(
898:[
889:q
884:=
871:=
863:2
859:x
854:d
848:V
843:2
838:d
808:)
805:x
802:(
797:0
793:P
772:)
769:x
766:(
761:0
757:N
736:)
733:x
730:(
725:D
721:C
700:)
697:x
694:(
689:A
685:C
415:i
412:b
407:V
315:)
309:(
297:)
291:(
286:)
282:(
268:.
242:)
236:(
231:)
227:(
213:.
188:)
184:(
128:2
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